THE CHEMICAL EARTH

1. The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures

- Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are encountered
Single replacement
A+BC AC+B
Double replacement
AB+CD AD+ CB
Synthesis
A+B AB
Decomposition
AB A+B
Combustion
Element + Oxygen Element Oxide
Hydrocarbon + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water

Reactive Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen (Metal must be more reactive than H)
Reactive Metal + Water Hydroxide + Hydrogen
Acid + Base Salt + Water
Acid + Carbonate Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
Salt + Salt Two new salts
Metal Oxide + Water Metal Hydroxide
Nonmetal Oxide + Water Acid
Carbonate Metal Oxide + Carbon Dioxide
- Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of particle theory
Elements are pure substances that are made only of the same type of atoms. An element cannot be decomposed by
normal physical and chemical means.
Compounds are pure substances that consist of 2 or more elements chemically joined in a fixed ratio by mass. A
compound can be decomposed by chemical means but not physical means.
Mixtures are impure substances that are made of two of more pure substances physically combined in a variable
proportion by mass. The components of a mixture can be separated by physical means.

- Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements
and compounds
The biosphere, which is the part of the earth which supports life, contains oxygen which is essential for life, and
other elements such as Silicon, Aluminium, Iron and Calcium.
The lithosphere, which is the crust and upper mantle, contains many elements that are mined today, such as Silicon,
Aluminium, Iron and Calcium. It contains ores, which are metal compounds.
The hydrosphere contains the compound H
2
O, and elements such as Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, Nitrogen and
Calcium.
The atmosphere is the gaseous part of the earth. It is contains many examples of mixtures and compounds, such as
air which is a mixture, and Ozone which is a compound. Elements found here include Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon,
Hydrogen and Carbon.
- Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures of:
Solids of different sizes
Sieving Using the different particle sizes of the solids
Froth Flotation Using a specific chemical to make the wanted material hydrophobic
Solids and liquids
Filtration Using the solubility of solids in the liquid
Sedimentation and decanting Physically removing the liquid from solid settled at the bottom
Dissolved solids in liquids
Evaporation Using the different boiling points of the two substances
Crystallisation
Liquids
Simple Distillation Using the different boiling points of two miscible liquids mixed together
Fractional Distillation Using the different boiling points of two or more miscible liquids mixed together
Separating Funnel Allows immiscible liquids to be separated physically
Gases
Fractional Condensation Using the different boiling points of the gases
- Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth materials, identifying the
differences in properties which enable these separations
See above.
- Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and other scientists
Gravimetric analysis gives scientists a percentage constitution of a particular component as part of a whole. It
supplies useful data in situations where the scientist needs to know the detailed make-up of a substance, such as
the % of the active ingredient in medication, or to measure how much of a certain mineral there is in a particular
body of water.

- Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the laboratory
Ionic compounds
TWO ELEMENTS (BINARY) - The name of the cation is first written, then the anion is shortened and the suffix ide is
added onto the end. If an element has multiple valencies then the valency is indicated in roman numerals in brackets.
MORE THAN TWO ELEMENTS The name of the monatomic ion is written first, and then the name of the polyatomic
radical is added afterwards.
Covalent compounds
TWO ELEMENTS (BINARY) The first element to be named is the one closer to the left of the periodic table, and if
they are in the same group then the lower element is named first. It is named normally. The second element is
shortened and the suffix ide is added to the end. An exception to this rule is oxygen, which is always named AFTER
Cl, Br or I. Then, the number of atoms of each element is indicated through a prefix before each name in order,
they are: mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa
- Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered
The IUPAC naming system for carbon compounds is as follows:
First, the stem is named as a prefix. The stem tells us the length of the carbon chain, or basically how many carbon
atoms there are in the compound. In order, they are: meth, eth, prop, but, pent, hex, hept, oct, non, dec.
Next, the suffix is added. The suffix tells us which homologous series the compound belongs to. It is ane for alkanes,
ene for alkenes and yne for alkynes.
2. Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some elements are found
uncombined
- Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing as an uncombined
element
If an element is reactive, then it is not likely to be found as an uncombined element, but instead it combines to make
itself stable.
If an element is relatively unreactive, it is more probable that it is stable enough to exist as an element by itself. The
most unreactive elements are the noble gases which do not react at all, and exist as monatomic molecules. Metals
that are found existing as an uncombined element are called native metals.

- Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical properties
METALS SEMI METALS NON METALS
Lustrous (Shiny) Low Lustre Dull
Good electrical conductivity Semi-conductors of electricity Do not conduct electricity
Good conductors of heat Good conductors of heat Do not conduct heat
Malleable Moderately Malleable Brittle
Ductile Moderately Ductile Not Ductile
Conductors at room temperature Poor conductors at room temperature Do not conduct


- Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties
Because metals are excellent conductors of electricity, they are used in electrical applications. Also, their electrical
application is also because of their ductility, so they are able to be drawn out into wires to be used for electrical
purposes. Also, because some metals are lightweight and strong, and because metals are malleable, they are used in
the building industry as roofing etc.
Because non-metals are so hard, they have a variety of applications such as in cutting tools. Silicon is a
semiconductor and is used in transistor circuits. Some non-metals such as graphite conduct electricity and are used
as electrodes.
3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at
the atomic level
- Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and interacting
The particle theory states that All matter is made up of tiny particles which are continuously moving.
- Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms
In atoms, each electron shell has a higher energy level than the one before. These shells can only accommodate a
maximum number of electrons, which can be found by the 2n
2
rule.
- Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number
Each elements atom has a unique atomic number, which is equal to the number of protons on the nucleus of the
atom. The mass number is the number of protons plus the number of neutrons, in atomic mass units.
- Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons
Ions are formed when electrons in the outer shell are either lost or gained to obtain a stable electron configuration.
In ionic bonds, an atom that has excess electrons will give them to an atom who is lacking electrons so that they both
obtain stable electron configuration. When electrons are gained, the atom now becomes a negatively charged ion
called an anion. When electrons are lost, the atom becomes a positively charged ion called a cation.
- Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals
The groups in the periodic table can be used to predict the valency of the element and thus the ion it forms. Group
one elements will form 1+ ions, group two elements will form 2+ ions, group three elements will form 3+ ions, group
four elements will form either 4+ or 4- ions, group 5 elements will form 3- ions, group 6 elements will form 2- ions,
group 7 elements will form 1- ions and group 8 elements will not form ions because they have stable electron
configuration.
- Apply Lewis electron dot structures to: the formation of ions and the electron sharing in some simple molecules
Ions formation can be shown through dot diagrams by drawing arrows to indicate the atom losing or gaining
electrons. In covalent compounds Lewis electron dot structures can be used to indicate electron sharing by showing
bonding pairs between the two atoms through the dots.
- Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite charge
Ionic compounds are formed when an atom that forms positive ions and an atom that form negative ions both
achieve stable electron configuration via electron transfer. The positively charged cation and a negatively charged
anion are attracted to each other through electrostatic forces, and are held in an indefinite ionic lattice structure.
- Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other
Molecules are the smallest particles of an element or molecular compound which can move independently of each
other. Some molecules are monatomic, such as the noble gases.
- Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more than one atom
The elements in group 8 are monatomic molecules. They can exist by themselves without bonding with other
elements. Most other molecules are made of more than one atom, because they do not have stable electron
configuration.
- Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons
Covalent bonds are formed when two atoms share electrons, usually two non-metals. Each atom donates electrons
to share, so that both atoms obtain stable electron configuration.
4. Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring sources
- Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement of particles
A physical change is one where there are no new substances formed. A physical change could be the changing of
state, where the particles change between being fixed in place in a solid to being loosely held together in liquids to
filling the container as a gas.
A chemical change is one where there are new substances formed after the change. In terms of rearrangement of
particles, during a chemical change the particles themselves break down and/or form new particles.
- Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an example of the difference
between physical and chemical change
Boiling water does not produce a new substance; it just changes the state of water to water vapour. Electrolysis
produces two new substances - hydrogen and oxygen gases.
Boiling water breaks the weak intermolecular forces between molecules, where as electrolysis breaks the strong
intramolecular forces inside the molecules. Boiling water thus does not need a large amount of energy to occur, but
electrolysis does, because the intramolecular forces that it breaks are strong.
Boiling water is easily reversible, whereas electrolysis is very hard to reverse.
- Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or absorbed during the
decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes occurring in everyday life
During many decomposition reactions heat, light or electricity are needed, and during many synthesis reactions heat,
light or electricity are released.
When heat is released in a chemical reaction the reaction is called exothermic, while if heat is absorbed during a
reaction it is said to be endothermic. An example of heat being absorbed during a reaction is the decomposition of
carbonate.
Light is absorbed in the decomposition of Silver bromide. Silver Bromide crystals are photosensitive, and decompose
via photolysis.
Electrical energy is used in the electrolysis of some compounds, such as the decomposition of water.

- Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of the strength of
the attraction, or bond, between them
The amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound can be used to indicate the strength of the bond
between them. Weak intermolecular forces only need a small amount of energy to break, but strong intramolecular
bonds need a large amount of energy to overcome.
5. The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and
structure
- Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds and mixtures
Elements are pure substances made up of one type of atom. An element cannot be decomposed by normal physical
and chemical means. It is homogenous throughout, and has a definite boiling and melting point.
Compounds are pure substances that consist of two or more elements chemically joined in a fixed ratio by mass. A
compound can be decomposed by chemical means. It is homogenous throughout, and has a definite boiling and
melting point.
Mixtures are impure substances that consist of two or more pure substances physically combined in a variable
proportion by mass. The components of a mixture can be separated by physical means. It is heterogeneous, and
does not have uniform composition. They do not have definite boiling and melting points.
- Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network
Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points, thus they are solid at room temperature. They are hard and
brittle. In solid state, they do not conduct electricity, but in molten and aqueous state they conduct.
Covalent molecular compounds have low melting and boiling points. Some are gas, some are liquid and some are
solids at room temperature. They are soft when in solid state. They do not conduct electricity in any state.
Covalent network compounds have very high melting and boiling points, thus they are solids at room temperature.
They are very hard and insoluble. They do not conduct electricity, therefore they are insulators.
- Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds
Metals consist of a 3D lattice of positive metal ions, surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons. The electrostatic
force between the positive lattice ions and the negative sea of electrons form metallic bonds.
Ionic bonds are the bonds formed between a positive cation and a negative anion, held together by electrostatic
force. They are formed in an indefinite lattice of ions, alternating cation and anion.
Covalent bonds are the bonds formed when atoms share electrons. Each atom donates or shares some electrons so
that both atoms obtain stable electron configuration.
- Describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons
Metals consist of a 3D lattice of positive metal ions, surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons, which act as a
glue for the ions to stay together.
- Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions
Ionic bonds are the bonds formed between a positive cation and a negative anion, held together by electrostatic
force. They are formed in an indefinite lattice of ions, alternating cation and anion.

- Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula
When an ionic compound forms it forms in an indefinite lattice array of ions. Empirical formulas define the relative
number of atoms in the compound, in ratio. Since we cannot determine the actual amount of atoms in an indefinite
lattice because they do not form molecules we use an empirical formula to express the compound in its simplest
ratio form.
- Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices
Covalent molecular - H
2
O, CO
2
, O
2
.
Covalent lattice C (Diamond, Graphite), SiO
2
(Silica)
- Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent
molecular and covalent network structures
Ionic compounds are in the structure of an indefinite lattice array, alternating cation and anion. In solid state, these
ions are in fixed position and thus are not able to act as free-moving charged carriers, thus they cannot conduct
electricity. However, in molten and aqueous state, these ions become free and so act as free-moving charged
carriers, thus ionic compounds can conduct electricity in molten and aqueous state. The electrostatic forces that
hold the anions and cations together are strong, thus ionic compounds are hard.
Covalent molecular compounds are made of multiple molecules held together by a weak intermolecular force.
Covalent molecular compounds do not have free-moving charged carriers in any state, and so they do not conduct
electricity and act as insulators. The weak intermolecular forces make the solid form of covalent molecular
compounds easy to distort or break, thus they are soft and weak.
Covalent network structures are held in a tetrahedral fashion. The covalent bonds extend through the whole
structure, forming a strong 3D lattice known as a covalent network lattice. They do not conduct electricity in any
state because they lack free-moving charged carriers. Covalent network compounds are extremely hard, due to the
strong intramolecular bonds between atoms throughout the whole lattice in a three dimensional manner.