1

2
OBJECTIVES
Explain the significance of maintaining a
constant internal environment
Explain control of body temperature in
animal
Discuss some of the adaptations of plants
to environment
3
HOMEOSTASIS
(homeo=sameness;-stasis=standing still)
The condition in which the bodys internal
environment remains relatively constant,
within physiological limits
Homeostasis is a dynamic conditionin
response to changing condition, the bodys
equilibrium point can change over a narrow
range that is compatible with maintaining life
4
Important aspect of homeostasis is to maintaining the volume
and composition of body fluids
Intracellular fluids
the fluid within cells
Extracellular fluids
the fluid outside body cells
Interstitial fluid
the extracellular fluids that fills the narrow spaces between cells
of tissues
Plasma
extracellular fluids within blood vessels
5
Process to maintaining the dynamic equilibriumin the body include
the :
Excretion
Osmotic balance
Important factors to maintain dynamic equilibrium:
Substances dissolved in water:
Oxygen and carbon dioxide
Nutrients (proteins, fatty acids, glucose level)
Ions
pH
Temperature
Osmotic pressure
6
The waste products:
Carbon dioxide
Bile pigments (biliverdin and bilirubin)
Water fromthe cell respiration
Urea
7
Physiological control
Body can regulate its internal environment through the feedback
systems
Feedback system
a cycle of events in which the status of body condition is continually
monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, re-evaluated and so on.
Each monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood pressure,
blood glucose level is termed a controlled condition
Any disruption that changes a controlled condition is called a stimulus
8
3 basic components make up a feedback system
1. Receptor
body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends
input in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals to a control center.
2. Control centre
set the range of values within which a controlled condition should be
maintained, evaluates the input it receives from receptors and generates
output commands when they are needed.
Output from the control center can occur in several forms:
nerve impulses,
hormones , or
other chemical signals
9
3. Effector
body structure that receives output from the control
centre and produces a response or effect that changes
the controlled condition.
As a control system operates, the effector
response feed back and influences the magnitude
of the stimulus by either depressing it (negative
feedback) or enhancing it (positive feedback)
10
Negative feedback
Homeostatic mechanism that stops or reduces the
intensity of the original stimulus and consequently
causes a change in a variable that is opposite in direction
to the initial change (The output is used to reduce input)
Positive feedback
a feedback mechanism in which the response enhances
the original stimulus (The output is used to enhance the
input)
Example : The secretion of oxytocin during
childbirth
11
Homeostatic regulation
i. Every changes in the physical or chemical factors
of the internal environment detected by receptor
ii. Receptor send information about the changes to a
control system
iii. Action signals are transmitted through nerve
impulses or hormone to the target organ
Trigger the correction mechanism to return the physical
or chemical factors to normal condition
12
iv. Any increase in the value of a physical or
chemical factor in the internal environment will
trigger a correction mechanism to reduce that
value
Conversely, a reduction in the value of the
physical or chemical factor will trigger a
mechanism to increase the amount of that factor.
13
If the control centre or correction
mechanism is disrupted, the change
occurring in the factor cannot be reversed
The value of the factor continuing to rise or fall
This is called positive feedback
14
Schematic representation of homeostatic process
Normal condition
Receptor Control centre Effector Correction
mechanism
Normal
condition
restored
Receptor Control centre Effector Correction
mechanism
Factor value increase accelerated
Factor value decrease accelerated
increase
decrease
Positive feedback
Positive feedback
Transmission
of nerve
impulse or
secretion of
hormone
Negative feedback
Negative feedback
decrease
increase
Transmission
of nerve or
secretion of
hormone
15
Negative feedback in
control of blood
glucose level
16
Control of blood sugar level
Regulated by the activities of several organs,
particularly the pancreas and liver
Any changes in blood sugar level
Detected by pancreas
Endocrine gland
Secrete insulin and glucagon
Beta cells of the islets
of Langerhans
Alpha cells of the islets of
Langerhans
17
Schematic representation of blood sugar level regulation
Normal sugar level
Beta cell of the
islets of
Langerhans to
secrete insulin
Liver stimulated to convert
i. Glucose to CO2 + H2O
ii. Glucose to glycogen
iii. Glucose to fat
Blood sugar
level falls
Normal sugar level
Alpha cells of
the islets of
Langerhans
stimulated to
secrete
glucagon
Liver stimulated to convert
i. Glycogen to glucose
ii. Reduce glucose
oxidation
Blood sugar
level rises
Blood sugar
level rises
Blood sugar
level falls
Negative feedback
Negative feedback
decrease
increase
18
Negative feedback in
control of body
temperature
19
An organism exchanges heat with its environment by
four physical processes
1. Conduction
The direct transfer of thermal motion (heat) between molecules of the
environment and a body surface
2. Convection
The transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid past a body surface
3. Radiation
The emission of electromagnetic waves produced by all objects warmer than the
absolute zero
4. Evaporation
The loss of heat from a liquids surface that is losing some molecule as gas
20
Body temperature regulation in humans and other mammals
Thermoreceptor
in skin
Body temperature
Hypothalamus, the
thermoregulatory centre in
brain
Blood
capilaries
Erector
muscles
Sweat
gland
Skeletal
muscles
Adrenal
gland
Thyroid
gland
Vasodilation or
vasocontraction
Erection or
no erection
Sweating or
no sweating
Shivering or
no shivering
Adrenaline
level increases
or decreases
Thyroxine
level increases
or decreases
Efferent nerve
Afferent nerve Afferent nerve
Temperature regulation through physical action Temperature regulation
through metabolic action
21
Schematic representation of body temperature regulation in mammals
Normal body
temperature
Thermoregulatory
centre
(hypothalamus) in
brain
Correction mechanism
Vasodilation
Sweating
Non-erection of hair
Drop in metabolic rate
Normal body
temperature
Afferent
nerve
Thermoregulatory
centre
(hypothalamus) in
brain
Correction mechanism
Vasocontriction
No sweating
Hair erection
Increase in metabolic
rate
Temperature
rises
Temperature
falls
Efferent
nerve
Temperature
falls
Temperature
rises
Efferent
nerve
Afferent
nerve
22
23
LIVER
24
Liver structure
Largest visceral organ in
the body
Metabolic centre in the
body
Processed and stored food
Received blood
Hepatic artery
Oxygenated blood from the
dorsal aorta
Hepatic portal vein
Nutrient rich blood from
small intestine
Sent blood to heart
Hepatic vein
25
Liver cell hepatocyte
Liver is made up of
many cylindrical lobes
Interlobular blood
vessel
Branches of the hepatic
artery and hepatic
artery and hepatic
portal vein
Connect to periphery
of each lobes
26
Canalikuli
Bile duct branches into
a network of fine
vessels
Pass between cells of
lobes
Sinusoid
Capillaries which form
from hepatic arteriole
and hepatic portal
venule
Flow to central vein
27
Kupffer cell
Specialized ameboid
cell
Attach to the inner wall
of sinusoid
Phagocytosing old red
blood cells and
patogens
Bile duct
Carry bile to gall
bladder
28
Functions of liver
1. Carbohydrate metabolism
Regulates blood sugar level
Glycogenesis
Convert excess sugar to glycogen
Glycogenolysis
Broken down the glycogen
Cori cycle
Convert lactate into glucose
29
2. Lipid metabolism
Breaks down fat
Transport of lipid
Produces globulin to transport fat
Stored in the form of adipose tissues
30
3. Protein metabolism
Regulates protein and amino acid
Deamination
Produced non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous parts
Non-nitrogenous part - convert into glucose in liver and stored as glycogen or broken down to release heat
Nitrogenous part enter ornithine cycle
Ornithine cycle
To convert ammonia (toxic) into urea (less toxic)
31
32
4. Processing drugs and hormones
the liver can detoxify substances such as alcohol or excrete drugs
such as penicillin, erythromycin and sulfonamides into bile
5. Excretion of bilirubin
bilirubin derived from the heme of aged red blood cells, is
absorbed by the liver from the blood and secreted into bile
6. Synthesis of bile salts
bile salts are used in the small intestine for the emulsification and
absorption of lipids, cholesterol, phospholipids and lipoproteins
7. Storage
in addition to glycogen, the liver is a prime storage site for certain
vitamins (A, cobalamin, D, E and K) and minerals (iron and
copper) which are released from the liver when needed elsewhere
in the body
33
8. Phagocytosis
Kupffers cells phagocytize aged red blood cells
and white blood cells and some bacteria
9. Activation of vitamin D
the skin, liver and kidneys participate in
synthesizing the active form of vitamin D
34
Role of the liver in (the
control) blood glucose
level, fatty acids and
protein
35
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Regulation of blood sugar level
36
Carbohydrate Blood glucose Glucose-6-phosphate
(Tissue and liver)
Glucose-1-phosphate
Glycogen
(Liver)
Glycogen
(Muscle)
Pyruvate
aerobic anaerobic
Lactate + energy CO2 + H2O + energy
Amino acid Glycerol, fatty acid
digestion insulin
glycogenesis
glycogenolysis
Gluconeogenesis
Carbohydrate Metabolism
37
Cori Cycle shows glycogen and lactate
movement between the liver and muscle
38
Fats (lipid) metabolism
Fats in the liver can be modified for
respiration and can be stored in the body
cells
Hepatocytes synthesize the cholesterol
when the level is decreased. It also can
excreted cholesterol into bile when the level
of the cholesterol is increased
39
Protein Metabolism
Protein being recycled are first broken down into amino
acids.
Hepatocytes convert amino acids to fatty acid, ketone
bodies, glucose or oxidize them to carbon dioxide and
water
There are two ways of protein metabolism
Deamination
a conversion consists of removing the amino group from the amino
acids and converting it to ammonia
Transamination
the transfer of an amino group from an amino acid to pyruvic acid or to
an acid in the Krebs cycle-can synthesized nonessential amino acids
Ornithine Cycle shows the formation of urea
40
Metabolism of excess amino acid
Excess amino acid
Keto acid + NH3
Glucose
Glycogen Fats
Krebs
cycle
Ornithine
cycle
deamination
H2O + CO2
urea
CO2
Production of organic base
Nucleotide synthesis
Nucleic acid synthesis
41
Ornithine cycle (urea cycle)
citruline
arginosuccinate
arginine
ornithine
H2O
urea
Carbamoyl phosphate
Pi
aspartate
NH3
ATP
AMP + PPi
fumarate
Deamination of amino acid
NH3 + CO2 + H2O
2 ATP
2 ADP + Pi
42
43
Thats all for today
44
Kidney
45
Objectives
Kidney structure and nephron
Urine formation involving ultrafiltration and
reabsorption
Urine concentration by counter current
multiplier mechanism
Water regulation by ADH
Osmoregulation of mineral ions by aldosterone
pH regulation of the tissue fluid
46
Introduction
y Kidney
main function in homeostasis
urine formatian ; eliminate the nitrogen by
products of protein metabolism and maintain
water balance
47
Urinary system
Kidney
pair of bean-shaped organ (about 10 cm long in human), located in
the region of the lower back
Ureter
urine exits the kidney through this duct
48
Urinary bladder
ureter of both kidneys carries the urine to a urinary bladder
Urethra
during urination, urine leaves the body through this and sphincter muscles near
the junction of the uretra and the bladder control urination
49
Structure of kidney
and
nephron
50
Structure of kidney
renal pelvis
within the kidney , the mouth
of the ureter flares open to
form a funnel-like
structure.and has cup-shaped
extensions that receive urine
from the renal tissue
This tissue is divided into :-
renal cortex
outer region
renal medulla
inner region
nephron
microscopic excretory tubules
Each kidney composed of
roughly 1 million nephrons
51
Structure of nephron
Bowmans capsule
a hollow, cup shaped ( diameter b
200Qm) in the cortex of the kidney.
Glomerulus
the cupped wall region and blood
vessel
blood filtering unit
Proximal convoluted tubule
close to the capsule , highly coiled and
diameter b60Qm
Located in the cortex of the kidney.
Loop of Henle
hair-pin shaped and have descending
limb & ascending limb
Located in the medulla of the kidney.
52
Distal convoluted tubule
located in the cortex of the
kidney.
Collecting duct
end of kidney and located in
the medulla of the kidney
Several nephrons feed into
the same collecting duct
The collecting ducts all
eventually drain into the
pelvis of the kidney, from
where the urine flows into
the ureter.
53
Nephron and blood
circulation
54
Nephron and blood circulation
Renal artery
blood enters the kidney by
the renal artery which
branches into afferent
arteriole.
Afferent arteriole
brings blood towards each
Bowmans capsule,
dividing to form a network
of capillaries called
glomerulus in the hollow of
the capsule.
Efferent arteriole
blood leaves the Bowmans
capsule (capillaries) in an
efferent arteriole, which is
narrower than the afferent
arteriole
55
The efferent arteriole
divided to form second set
of capillaries which
surround the proximal and
distal convoluted tubules
and the loops of Henle in
the medulla
The capillaries of the vasa
recta (peritubular
capillaries) run parallel to
the loops of Henle and the
collecting duct in the
medulla.
Blood leaves the kidney
through the renal vein
Renal artery afferent arteriole glomerulus efferent arteriolevasa recta renal vein
56
Urine Formation
57
Urine Formation
1) Ultrafiltration in
Bowmans capsule
Ultrafiltration of the blood
it filters out molecules which
are much smaller than red
blood cell and plasma
proteins
occurs as blood pressure
forces water ,urea, salts, and
other small solutes from the
blood in the glomerulus into
the lumen of Bowmans
capsule.
58
Factors contribute to ultrafiltration process:-
i. The hydrostatic blood pressure in the glomerulus is higher than in
other capillaries.
due to the high resistance to outflow presented by the efferent arteriole, which is
smaller in diameter than the afferent arteriole
ii. Large amount of glomerulus filtrate
large surface area for filtration provided by the highly coiled glomerulus capillaries
59
iii. High permeability of the glomerulus
The wall of Bowmans capsule in contact with capillaries consists of
specialized epithelial cell called podocytes. These cells have numerous
cytoplasmic extension called foot processes that cover most of the
capillaries.
Foot processes of adjacent podocytes are separated by narrow gaps called
filtration slits.
60
The perforated walls of the
capillaries and the podocytes form
a filtration membrane that permits
fluid and small solutes dissolved in
the plasma, such as glucose, amino
acids, sodium, potassium,chloride,
bicarbonate, other salts, and urea,
topass through and become part of
the filtrate.
This filtrate membrane holds back
blood cells, platelets, and most of
the plasma protein.
61
2) Reabsorption (proximal
convoluted tubule, loop of
Henle, distal convoluted
tubule)
As the glomerular filtrates flow
through the nephron, various
substances move out of it. Then
they cross the cells that make up
the nephrons wall into the blood in
the capillaries running alongside
the nephron.
Most reabsorption takes places as
the fluid flows through the
proximal convoluted tubule.
62
Capillaries reabsorb useful
molecules such as glucose,
amino acids, vitamins, most of
the water, sodium and
chloride ions.
The kidney tubules are being
adapted to increase the
reabsorption efficiency by the
following factors.
a. The proximal and distal
tubule are long and winding.
Therefore both the surface
area , and the time available
for reabsorption are increased.
a. The tubules have walls which
are only one cell thick.
Diffusion is efficient only
over very small distances.
63
c. The cells of the proximal and distal convulated tubules have a brush border of
microvilli which increase the surface area in contact with the fluid, and therefore
increase the rate at which substances can be absorbed from it.
d. The bases of the proximal tubule cells are irregular in shape where they are adjacent
to a blood capillary and there are numerous intercellular spaces. The cells are
ideally adapted for the diffusion of absorbed substances into the capillary network
that surround the tubule.
They also contain numerous mitochondria which are the sites of aerobic respiration. The energy is required for active uptake when substances are moved across cells such as sodium ions and glucose.
64
65
66
67
68
Urine concentration by counter
current multiplier mechanism
69
Definition:
countercurrent
fluids past each other in
opposite directions.
fluid flow down
(descending limb) and up
(ascending limb) of the
loop.
multiplier
fluid flow down the
descending limb, high
concentration of NaCl and
most hypertonic round the
hairpin
fluid flow up the ascending
limb, less concentrated of
NaCl; hypotonic
70
The function of the loop
of Henle
to conserve water.
the longer the loop of Henle
, the more concentrated the
urine that can be produced.
loop of Henle create a water
potential gradient between
the renal filtrate and the
peritubular (medullary)
fluid which bathes the loop;
create a very high
concentration of salts in the
tissue fluid in the medulla
of the kidney.
Urine concentration located in loop of Henle.
71
Urine concentration by counter current multiplier mechanism
This mechanismbased of:-
i. The descending limb
thin walls.
high permeable to water and
permeable to most
ions/solutes.
its function is to allow
substances to diffuse
easily through its wall and
water would follow
by osmosis.
72
ii. The ascending limb
the thin ascending limb
o this is the lower half of the
ascending limb and has
o thin wall like the descending
limb.
o impermeable to water but
permeable to ions
the thick ascending limb
o this is the upper half of the
ascending limb and has thick
walls.
o impermeable to water but
permeable to ions.
o actively reabsorb sodium and
chloride from the tubule to
blood
73
Urine concentration by counter current multiplier mechanism
There is a gradient of
NaCl across the medulla
The filtrate which enters
the loop of Henle is
isotonic with the
peritubular fluid
Only the thin part of the
descending limb is freely
permeable to water.
74
The sodium and chloride ions
are actively pumped out of the
thick ascending limbs , into
the tissue fluid outside.
As the two limb are so close to
one another, this produce a
high concentration of sodium
and chloride ions around the
descending limb.
75
When the fluid flows down the
descending limb, it is surrounded by
tissue fluid with a high
concentration of ions and therefore a
low water potential.
This causes water in the descending
limb drawn out by osmosis.
The water moves straight into the
capillaries (vasa recta) surrounding
the loop of Henle.
At the same time, sodium and
chloride ions diffuse into the fluid in
the tubule, down their concentration
gradient.
76
The effect is cumulative and
therefore the filtrate at the bottom of
the descending limb and as it begins
to turn the hairpin, it has lost a lot of
water and gained a lot of sodium
and chloride ions ( more
concentrated than at either end).
As the fluid flows up the ascending
limb, it continues to lose sodium
and chloride ions, and therefore
become less concentrated.
The filtrate entering the distal tubule
is hypotonic to the peritubular fluid.
77
Function of complex of blood capillaries runs
alongside the loop of Henle:
supply oxygen and nutrients so that cells in the walls of
the loop can produce the large amount of ATP for
active transport.
take away much of the salt and water from the tissue
fluid in the medulla, helping to maintain the gradients
built up by the loop.
78
How does this mechanism help to
conserve water?
The final part of each nephron, the collecting duct,
also passes through the medulla of the kidney.
As the fluid flow through the collecting ducts,
water can be drawn out of them, by osmosis, into
the concentrated tissue fluid in the medulla.
The more concentrated the tissue fluid, the more
water can be drawn out, and the more
concentrated the urine can be.
79
Water regulation by ADH
80
Water regulation by ADH
Concepts
The kidney play central role in the regulation of
the water content of the body or osmoregulation.
The water content of the blood is monitored by
osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus and these
cells produce antidiuretic hormone, ADH.
81
Summarize
Source Target tissue Actions Factors that
Stimulate
Release
Produced in
hypothalamus;
released by
posterior
pituitary gland
Distal
convoluted
tubule and
collecting ducts
Increases
permeability of
the collecting
ducts to water,
increasing
reabsorption and
decreasing water
excretion
Low fluid intake
decreases blood
volume and
increases
osmotic pressure
of blood;
receptors in
hypothalamus
stimulate
posterior
pituitary
82
Water regulation by ADH
Low intake of water
Water content of the blood is lower
than normal, the body begins to
dehydrate, causing the blood volume
to decrease.
The concentration of salts dissolved
in the blood becomes greater
Osmotic pressure increase.
Osmoreceptor in hypothalamus are
sensitive to this osmotic change and
stimulate the posterior lobe of the
pituitary to release more ADH
ADH makes the collecting duct wall
more permeable to water
83
Osmotic uptake of water is
allowed (greater water
reabsorption)
Small volumes of
concentrated urine are
produced
This water retention helps
to stop the solute
concentration of the blood
from becoming too high
84
High intake of water
Water content of the blood is higher than normal, the body fluids begin to
dilute, causing the blood volume to increase.
Concentration of salts dissolved in the blood becomes less
Osmotic pressure decrease.
Osmoreceptor in hypothalamus are sensitive to this osmotic change and
stimulate the posterior lobe of the pituitary to release less ADH
ADH makes the collecting duct wall less permeable to water
Less osmotic uptake of water is allowed (less water reabsorption)
Large volumes of diluted urine are produced
This water loss reduces the solute concentration of the blood
85
Osmoregulation of mineral ions
by aldosterone
86
Osmoregulation of mineral ions by aldosterone
The maintenance of the
plasma sodium level is
controlled by aldosterone.
Secreted by the cortex
region of the adrenal
gland.
Aldosterone stimulates the
distal tubule to increase
sodium reabsorption and
thereby maintains the
balance of salt and water in
the body fluids.
87
Osmoregulation of mineral ions by aldosterone
When blood sodium level decrease
A decrease in blood sodium leads
to a decrease in blood volume
because less water enters the blood
by osmosis.
Reduces blood pressure.
This decrease in pressure and
volume stimulates a group of
secretory cells, the juxtaglomerular
complex, situated between the
distal convoluted tubule and the
afferent arteriole, to release an
enzyme called renin.
88
Renin passes into the blood where
it acts on its substrate, a protein
called angiotensinogen,
converting it to angiotensin.
The arrival of angiotensin at the
adrenal glands causes aldosterone
to be secreted into the blood.
Therefore, increase the rate of
reabsorption of sodium ions from
the distal convoluted tubules.
Thus, fewer sodium ions are lost
in the urine, and more are retained
in the blood.
Thus causes more water to enter
the blood by osmosis, raising its
volume and hence its pressure.
89
pH regulation
of
the tissue fluid
90
pH regulation of the tissue fluid
pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen
ions.
The more hydrogen ions,
lower the pH
blood become more acidic
Nephron regulates the pH of the blood, maintaining
it at pH 7.4.
One factor which tends to increase acidity is
production of carbon dioxide during cell respiration.
91
Carbon dioxide reacts with water to produce carbonic
acid:
CO
2
+ H
2
O H
2
CO
3
Carbonic acid dissociates to produce hydrogen ions
and hydrogencarbonate ions:
H
2
CO
3
H
+
+ HCO
3
-
92
pH regulation of the tissue fluid
The kidney help to regulate pH by altering the rate at which they excrete
hydrogen ions.
Hydrogen ions are continually secreted into the fluid as it passes along the
nephron.
The rate at which they are secreted depends on the pH of the blood.
An equivalent number of hydrogen ions must therefore be excreted in urine to
maintain acid-base balance.
In addition, the kidneys assist the lungs by eliminating CO
2
that enters the renal
tubules during filtration or that diffuses into the tubular fluid as it travels toward
the renal pelvis.
Hydrogen ions are secreted into the tubular fluid along the proximal convoluted tubule,
the distal convoluted tubule, and the collecting duct.
93
If the blood fluid pH is low (acidosis - developed
when the normal plasma buffer mechanisms are
stressed),
more hydrogen ions are secreted into the tubules or the
collecting duct from the blood.
more hydrogen ions are lost from the body in the urine.
Addition of that is removal of CO
2
, activity of buffers
in the tubular fluid and reabsorption of NaHCO
3
A fall in pH also stimulates the kidney cells to produce
the base ion ammonium (NH
4
+
) which combines with
acids brought to the kidney and then excreted as
ammonium salts.
94
If blood pH is high (alkalosis),
then fewer hydrogen ions are secreted into the
nephron;
they remain in the body rather than passed out in the
urine.
The collecting system transports HCO
3
-
into tubular
fluid while releasing HCl into peritubular fluid.
The concentration of HCO
3
-
in plasma decreases,
promoting the dissociation of H
2
CO
3
and the release
of hydrogen ions.
The additional H
+
generated at the kidneys help return
the pH to normal levels.
95
Water
concentration in
plant
96
Objectives
i. The role of stomata in water loss through
transpiration
ii. Significance of transpiration
iii. Plant adaptation to the habitats
Xerophytes
Hydrophytes
Mesophytes
Halophytes
Berpenyakit
Tidak berpenyakit
Pengumuman Jabatan Pertanian
Bagaimana hendak mengenali penyakit Lembu Gila.
98
The role of stomata in
water loss through
transpiration
99
The role of stomata in water loss through
transpiration
Significance of transpiration
Loss of water from plantssurface is called transpiration
Water normally leaves the plant as water vapour.
The change from the liquid state to the vapour state
requires the addition of energy which is provided by the
sun, and it is this energy that maintains the flow of water
throughout the entire plant.
100
Transpiration occurs from the stomata by evaporation of
water from cells and diffusion of the water vapour through
stomata, the pores found in the epidermis of leaves and
green stems.
About 90% of the water is lost through transpiration.
Water in the plant is in direct contact with water in soil and
with water vapour in the air around the plant.
Water movement from higher water potential to the lower
water potential is called potential gradient.
The gradient is maintained by solar energy and evaporation
of water from the surface of the plant (transpiration)
101
Water is essential for plant metabolism, but is continuously being
lost to the atmosphere through the stomata.
Photosynthesis requires a supply of CO
2
entering the stomata
from the atmosphere.
Therefore, plants need to minimize the loss of water to the
atmosphere and the need to allow the diffusion of CO
2
.
Closing the stomata can control water loss.
However, the opening of stomata at times helps CO
2
to enter and
dissolves in the water on the walls of the intercellular spaces
below the stomata, before entering the plants cells.
A plant must responds both to the need to conserve water and the
requirement of CO
2
102
Plant adaptation to the habitats
Xerophytes
Hydrophytes
Mesophytes
Halophytes
The rate of transpiration depends on whether
conditions like humidity and the time of the day.
103
Xerophytes
Plants which grow in dry habitats and subjected to
drought.
Example : cactus
Adaptations to reduce water loss
It has a very long, shallow, spread-out root system.
It has a swollen , succulent stems or leaves.
It has specialized leaves that may be hairy, rolled or
reduced to spikes or reduced leaf size.
It has a round shape, giving it a low surface area to
volume ratio.
104
Adaptations to reduce water loss
It has a very long, shallow, spread-out root system.
It has a swollen , succulent stems or leaves.
It has specialized leaves that may be hairy, rolled or reduced to spikes or reduced leaf size.
It has a round shape, giving it a low surface area to volume ratio.
The stomata are sunken into pits and surrounded by hairs.
It has hairs over its surface which trap moisture.
It has thick layers of epidermis and heavily waxed on the cuticle of the leaves.
It has crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) mechanism of photosynthesis; their stomata
stay closed during the heat of the day and open during the cooler, more humid night.
Some spesies survive in the seed or spore stage and germinate, grow, flower and seed in a
short time following rainfall.
105
Hydrophytes
plant that lives either in very wet soil or
completely or partially submerged in
water
Examples : pondweed
( Elodea sp), waterlily (Nymphaea sp).
106
Adaptation to survive in very wet condition;
It has absence or reduction of a root systems
It has specialized leaves (ribbonlike leaves) that may be either floating
or finely divided, with little or no cuticle
It has a few xylem tissues
It has many air holes/air chambers in the stem (for O
2
and CO
2
storage which supply oxygen to the roots and enable them to float)
Epidermis :
to absorb nutrients from the water, not for protection (absorping
nutrients and water through their leaves)
contained chlorophyll
No stoma if there is, it will be at the upper part of a leaf
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Mesophytes
Plants growing under conditions in which
there is normally an adequate water supply
The majority of angiosperm plant spesies
are mesophytes, and they faced with the
problem of water loss by evaporation from
all aerial parts
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Adaptation to reduce water loss
Presence of cuticle
Protected stomata whose diameters can be
regulated
Variable leaf shape
Abscission (leaf fall)
Ecological distribution based upon tolerance to
dehydration
It has stoma closed when it is very hot (daytime
afternoon)
109
Halophytes
Plants which live in an environment where there is plenty of water,
but they have difficulty obtaining it because it is salty
Conditions like this are found in estuaries and salt marshes
Plants adapted to live in salty conditions
Salinity changes according to environment
Examples : Spartina sp(cord grass) and mangroves
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Adaptations to water conservation :
It has root cells with very low water potentials (high transpiration ability ; therefore
cell water potential are lower than habitat water potential).
It has hydatode at the side of the leaves or special salt glands at the margins to excrete
excessive salt by active transport onto the leaf surface.
It has roots submerged in salt water/ knee root above the surface of the salty muds
(mangrove)
It has an extensive systems of rhizomes for propagation.
It has adventititous root for anchorage and uptake of water as well as ions.
It has root systems that are able to tolerate high salinities. Many spesies have
extensive roots which are able to store water when it is freely available.
It is capable of storing water in its succulent tissues.
It has respiratory roots/pneumatophores which are dotted with lenticels, (small vent-
like openings) that take in air and channel it to the parts of the root that are buried
beneath the mud (mangrove).
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That all for this
chapter