University of Ballarat

School of Science and Engineering

ENMIN 5130 Underground Production
Systems

Dr Michael Tuck

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The question is what is an underground production system? The answer to this can be
given in a number of ways. One definition would be methods of extracting ore from
an underground mine considering only the production system. Others would expand
the definition to include accessing the mineral deposit including mine development.
Others would argue that the previous definitions are too limiting and mineral
transportation should be included. Others may also argue that a wide range of
supporting services, such as ventilation, power supply, drainage, man transport,
occupational health and safety and many other parameters need to be included. For
the purposes of this course underground production systems include the following:

1. Systems of mining ore (hard rock and coal)
2. Selecting a mining method for a deposit
3. An appreciation of development and other mining engineering aspects
4. Underground haulage and hoisting

Whilst the above list may seem to be limiting, it should be remembered that other
aspects of underground mining will be covered in other units within the course.

The course is designed to enable the student on completion of the course to
understand underground mining methods, to select a mining method for a particular
mineral deposit, to detail the development requirements, suitable methods of haulage,
to appreciate the OH&S aspects of each system and to appreciate the financial
considerations. The course has a strong design and economics bias as these are
required in the real world but the technical aspects are of equal importance. The aim is
to cover both new and existing mine scenarios.

The course will be taught by formal lectures in which the technical aspects will be
delivered by notes. To put these notes into context in the real mining world extensive
use will be made of academic papers and journal articles, which describe production
systems. The aim of the tutorial problems is to enable the student to undertake
practical design type problems of the type that are met in industry.

The first part of the course will concentrate on the history of mining in Australia and
to an extent in the rest of the world in order to contexturalise the course. The
importance of mining both nationally and to the world economy will also be covered.

The second element within the course involves an analysis of production systems,
including a selection matrix based upon the factors involved. The effects of dilution
are also to be discussed, as is what is meant by the term recovery.

The third element of the course concentrates on systems for mining in both hard rock
and coal mining situations. This is expanded to include loading and haulage, mine
development, resourcing and ends with a discussion of when to select shaft or decline.
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1 Evolution of Mining

Man has been mining ever since he identified the need for implements to
supplement the work he could perform with his hands.
The Stone Age (up to 100,000 years ago) saw man create crude weapons that gave
him prowess as a hunter, primitive implements that enabled the beginnings of
agriculture, flints that struck fire when needed and tools for imprinting images
upon the walls of caves.
Mining in Australia probably started with the arrival of Aborigines some 40,000
years ago when they fossicked for stones suitable for tools and weapons. They
also dug for ochre, which they used for decorative purposes.
Clay was another early product of mining. There is evidence that clay was used
for pottery and other objects in China during the eighth millennium before Christ
and in Thailand during the seventh millennium BC.
Copper was the first metal used on earth, probably as early as 6,000-8,000 BC.
This saw the dawning of the "copper-bronze age" and the prelude to the Bronze
Age.
Although metals such as copper, gold and silver had for ages been gathered in
their native form and hammered to make decorative objects, the science of
metallurgy was born when man learned to smelt copper (estimated around 3,500
BC). Later, Man discovered that adding tin to copper resulted in a harder alloy.
When the Hittites (a powerful empire in Asia Minor and Syria) identified ways
and advantages of working iron, the Iron Age (1,300 to 1,100 BC) began. Their
armaments of iron made them supreme in Western Asia until others also mastered
their secret.
Demand for bronze and iron spurred commerce and conquest. Wealthy and
vibrant societies developed, such as Babylon, Assyria and Troy. Crossroads of
trade like Crete and Cyprus grew in importance. Cyprus, the geographical centre
of the Mediterranean, produced half the copper for the Roman Empire.
Artisans working with metals flourished. The march of civilisation followed the
quest for metals through glorious Greece, powerful Carthage and imperial Rome.
The Roman invasion of England (55 BC) was prompted by visions of gold and
silver. However, lead and tin were the major metals exported during the Roman
occupation. During the Middle Ages (from the late 5th century AD to around
1350) it was these metals, which were bartered for spices by traders to the East,
and opened up communications, which foreshadowed Britain's colonial expansion.
Adventurers into South America followed in the wake of Columbus to exploit the
New World for riches that surpassed the fabled treasures of Tutankhamen (14th
century BC ruler of Egypt) and King Solomon's Mines (about 1,000 BC).
The push to develop mineral resources, further spurred on by the Industrial
Revolution of the 19th century, saw Cornwall in England become one of the great
mining centres of the world, along with Kiruna in Sweden and the Ruhr in
Germany. The mineral search extended to other parts of the world, and included
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the redevelopment of gold-copper-sulphur at Rio Tinto in Spain (first worked by
the Romans) and other significant discoveries of minerals in North and South
America; for example, lead and zinc in the Mississippi valley region, copper in
Chile and silver in Mexico.
Today, we live in the Age of Technology. Preoccupation with the wonders of
science tends to obscure the role of minerals, but they are just as necessary for the
spaceships of the future as for the steam engines of the past.
Therefore, minerals will continue to be an essential component of modern living.

2 Australian Mining History

Mining in Australia probably started with the arrival of Aborigines some 40,000
years ago when they fossicked for stones suitable for tools and weapons, and dug
for ochre, which they used for decorative use.
"Modern" Australian mining followed the arrival of European settlers on the
eastern seaboard in 1788, with the quarrying and shaping of Hawkesbury
sandstone for early buildings at Sydney Cove. Escaped convicts in the Newcastle
area made the first discovery of coal in 1791. Over the next few years coal was
reported at many other centres to the north and south of Sydney.
The coal industry began in 1798 when ship owners gathered surface coal at
Newcastle and brought it to Sydney for sale. Export of Newcastle coal began in
1799 with a shipment to India.
Traces of metallic minerals, particularly gold, were found in the early part of the
19th century, mainly by shepherds and convicts. However, there was no concerted
effort towards mining because an archaic English law demanded that all gold and
silver remained the property of the Crown. In fact, Britain did not encourage
people in the young colony to explore for minerals. The colony was first and
foremost a penal settlement, and most of its inhabitants in the early years were
preoccupied with learning how to feed themselves.
Lead was the first metal mined in Australia from the Glen Osmond hills on the
outskirts of Adelaide in 1841. This was followed by the commencement of copper
mining at Kapunda in the same general area in 1842. Copper was also discovered
at Burra Burra (SA) in 1845.
When many Australians migrated to the United States in 1849 following reports of
rich gold discoveries in California, the New South Wales Government realised
that if the wave of migration was to be reversed, it needed to provide incentives
for Australians to find gold in their own country. Accordingly, rewards were
offered for the discovery of "payable" gold.
In April 1851 the first reported J ohn Lister and William Tom made discovery of
payable gold at the junction of Lewis Ponds and Summer Hill Creeks, Ophir.
Edward Hargraves, an associate of Lister and Tom, took their gold to the Colonial
Secretary and then claimed the reward, which included 5,000 pounds to
Hargraves; and 500 pounds each to Lister, Tom and the Rev. W.B. Clarke.
However, recently discovered evidence in letters addressed to William Tipple
Smith from the Government acknowledged the existence of gold at Ophir in 1848.
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3 A Chronology of Australian Mining
Other significant dates since then relating to the history of minerals in Australia
include:
1848 - Discovery of lead in the bed of the Murchison River, W.A.
1851 - Discovery of gold at Clunes, Castlemaine and Ballarat which began the
Victorian goldrushes
1852 - Payable gold discovered at the Nook, near Fingal, and at Nine Mile
Springs (Tasmania). Gold also discovered at Gulgong (NSW) and at Beechworth,
Daylesford and Ovens River (Vic)
1853 - Riots on Ballarat Goldfields (Vic). Storming of the Eureka Stockade on 3rd
December.
1857 - Brown coal discovered at Lal Lal in Victoria. Gold discovered at Adelong
(NSW).
1858 - Australia's population reaches one million. Gold discovered at Avoca (Vic)
and Canoona (Qld)
1859 - Copper recognised in the Cobar area of New South Wales.
1860 - Copper discoveries at Wallaroo and Moonta (SA). Gold discovered at
Young( Lambing Flat in NSW).
1862 - Gold discovered at Forbes (NSW). Also a copper-rich lode found at
Clermont (Qld).
1863 - Gold discovered at Walhalla (Vic) and Warwick (Qld).
1864 - Coal discovered in Greta-Cessnock-Maitland field (NSW); principal
Australian source of gas coal. Blair Athol coal field (Qld) found; seam is 90ft
thick.
1866 - Gold discovered at Rockhampton (Qld).
1867 - Gold discovered at Gympie (Qld).
1868 - Gold discovered at Ravenswood (Qld).
1869 - Record gold nugget "Welcome Stranger" (2,284 oz) found near Dunolly
(Vic).
1870 - Gold discovered at Birdwood (SA) and copper at Cobar (NSW).
1871 - Discovery of tin at Mt. Bischoff (Tas) and Inverell (NSW).
1872 - Payable gold discovered in Pine Creek area (NT). Other significant gold
discoveries made at Stawell (Vic), Charters Towers and Ravenswood (Qld) and
Lefroy(Tas). Tin found near Inverell (NSW) and rich deposits of tin found near
Warwick (Qld).
1873 - Gold discovered at Palmer River (Qld).
1874 - Brown Coal deposits found in the Latrobe Valley (Vic).
1875 - Tin found at Mt. Heemskirk (Tas).
1876 - Gold found at Hodgkinson (Qld).
1877 - Australia's population reaches two million. Gold discovered at
Beaconsfield (Tas).
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1879 - Copper and Tin discovered in Herberton mineral field (Qld).
1881 - Gold discovered at Nebo (Qld).
1882 - Lead, zinc, copper orebody at Captain's Flat (NSW) first worked. Gold
nugget found between Roebourne and Cossack (WA). Gold found at Charters
Towers and Mount Morgan (Qld).
1883 - Lead, silver, zinc discovered at Broken Hill (NSW). Collie coalfield found
in WA (commercial mining began in 1898).
1885 - Opening of Broken Hill Proprietry silver mines. Gold found at Hall's Creek
in the Kimberley District of WA. Silver-lead discovered at Mt Zeehan (Tas).
1886 - Gold and copper discovered at Mt Lyell (Tas). Also gold found at Croydon
(Qld) and Teetulpa (SA).
1887 - Gold discovered at Southern Cross (WA).
1888 - Tin found at Greenbushes (WA). Black coal found at Leigh Creek (SA).
Lead ore produced on west coast of Tasmania. Gold found at Pilbara Creek (WA).
1889 - Australia's population reaches three million. First mining of brown coal in
Victoria. Gold discovered at Ashburton River (WA).
1890 - Tin discovered at Renison Bell (Tas).
1891 - First discovery of gold at Nannine in the Murchison district (WA).
1892 - Gold discovered at Coolgardie (WA), also in areas now known as the
Dundas and Mt Margaret goldfields. First bore sunk in Coorong area (SA) in
search for oil.
1893 - Gold discovered at Kalgoorlie. Gold also found at Wyalong (NSW) and
silver at Mt Lyell (Tas)
1893-94 - Copper, lead and zinc discovered at Rosebery (Tas).
1896 - Gold discovered at Arltunga (NT).
1897 - Gold discovered at Peak Hill, north of Meekatharra (WA).
1899 - A total of 17 separate goldfields and another four mining districts
established throughout WA.
1900 - Iron ore from Middleback Ranges (SA) mined by BHP to provide flux for
lead smelting at Port Pirie. Natural gas encountered in water bore at Roma (Qld).
Gold discovered at Philips River (Ravensthorpe, WA), The Granites and at
Tanami (NT).
1904 - Scheelite deposit found on King Island (Tas).
1905 - Australia's population reaches four million.
1906 - natural gas reticulated in Roma (Qld). Uranium discovered at Radium Hill
(SA).
1915 - Opening of BHP's steelworks at Newcastle.
1918 - Australia's population reaches five million.
1923 - Lead, zinc orebody discovered at Mt Isa (Qld)
1924 - Oil and gas produced from well at Lake Bunga in eastern Gippsland, near
Lakes Entrance (Vic).
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1925 - Australia's population reaches six million.
1926 - Aberfoyle tin and wolfram deposits located in Tasmania.
1927 - Copper found at Mount Isa (Qld).
1931 - Mount Isa Mines Ltd. began mining operations.
1932 - Gold discovered at Tennant Creek (NT).
1934 - First commercial development of mineral sands deposits at Bryon Bay
(NSW).
1937 - First large-scale mining of black coal by open cut methods in Australia at
Blair Athol (Qld).
1939 - Australia's population reaches seven million.
1943 - Large-scale production of zircon-rutile concentrate from Queensland.
Large-scale production of asbestos at Wittenoom Gorge (WA).
1944 - Extensive open cut mining at Leigh Creek coal started.
1948 - Wundowie (WA) charcoal iron and steel industry began production.
1949 - Asutralia's population reaches eight million. Uranium discovered at Rum
Jungle (NT).
1950 - Bauxite discovered at Gove (NT).
1951 - First shipment of iron ore from Yampi Sound (WA)to Port Kembla
steelworks in NSW.
1952 - Important high-grade uranium deposits delineated at Rum Jungle (NT) and
at Radium Hill (SA).
1953 - Flow of oil discovered in WAPET's Rough Range No. 1 well at Exmouth
Gulf (WA) provided stimulus for continuing search in ensuing years.
1954 - Rum Jungle uranium plant opened. Uranium discovered at Mary Kathleen
(Qld).
1955 - Australia's population reaches nine million. Discovery of "HYC" silver-
lead-zinc deposit at McArthur River (NT). First alumina and aluminium produced
at Bell Bay (Tas). Consolidated Zinc geologist discovered Weipa (Qld) bauxite
deposits.
1956 - Full scale mineral sand mining began at Capel (WA).
1959 - Australia's population reaches ten million. In December the
Commonwealth Government announced relaxation of the embargo on iron ore
exports that had been in force since 1938. Major finds of iron ore in the Pilbara
(WA) were announced over the next few years. First coal exports from the Bowen
Basin (Qld). Mt. Whaleback (WA) iron ore deposit pegged; production began
1969.
1961 - Flow of oil in Moonie No. 1 about 80km from Tara (Qld). Australia's first
commercial oilfield by Union-Kern-AOG group on a field around this well.
1962 - First production of Bauxite from Weipa (Qld) deposits. Iron ore deposit
identified at Mt Tom Price (WA). Manganese discovered on Groote Eylandt (NT).
1963 - Mining of Darling Range (WA) bauxite commenced.
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1964-65 - Many significant oil and gas strikes made throughout the country
including the discovery of gas and oil in Bass Strait (Vic).
1965 - Discovery of Mitchell Plateau (WA) bauxite deposits.
1966 - Discovery of nickel at Kambalda (WA) and phostphate at Duchess (Qld).
Iron ore mining began at Mt Tom Price and Mt Goldsworthy (WA), which meant
first iron ore exports from WA.
1967 - Discovery of Mt Weld (WA) and carbonatite containing rare earths and
phosphate. Discovery of Woodcutters (NT) lead-zinc prospect. Start to mining of
Savage River (Tas) iron ore deposit.
1969 - Discovery of nickel at Mt Windarra (WA) and start of Poseidon boom.
Discovery of Woodlawn (NSW) base metal deposit.
1970 - Australia's population reaches 12.7 million. Discovery of Eneabba (WA)
mineral sand deposits.
1970-71 - Commencement of systematic exploration of Lennard Shelf (WA)
leading to discovery of high-grade lead-zinc ore at Pilbara in 1978 and Cadjebut
in 1984.
1970-73 - Ranger, Nabarlek and Jabiluka (NT) uranium deposits found.
1971 - Discovery of Agnew (WA) nickel deposit, Telfer (WA) gold deposit, the
start to iron ore production at Robe River (WA) and the discovery of the Yeelirrie
(WA) uranium deposit.
1971-72 - Discovery of North-West Shelf (WA) natural gas fields.
1972 - Discovery of Golden Grove (WA) copper-zinc deposit.
1973 - Discovery of Elura (NSW) zinc-lead deposit.
1974 - Discovery of Que River (Tas) zinc-lead deposit.
1975 - Discovery of Roxby Downs (SA) copper-uranium deposit.
1976 - Discovery of Teutonic Bore (WA) copper-zinc deposit.
1978 - Copper discovered at Benambra (Vic).
1979 - Natural gas discovered at Port Campbell (Vic). Discovery of diamonds in
Kimberley region of WA. Discovery of Granny Smith (WA) gold deposit.
Discovery of Scuddles (WA)copper-zinc orebody which went to production in
1990.
1980 - Australia's population reaches 14.7 million. Gold discovered at
Boddington (WA) and Wedderburn (Vic).
1983 - Hellyer (Tas) base metal deposit discovered.
1985 - Discovery of Kintyre (WA) uranium deposit. Discovery of Kunwarra (Qld)
mgnesite deposit.
1985-89 - Many old gold mines in WA revived as open-cut operations.
1986 - Discovery of gold at Kidston (Qld).
1986 - Mt Leyshon (Qld) gold deposit re-opened.
1987 - First prodcution from Cadjebut (WA) lead-zinc deposit.
1989 - Discovery of gold at Plutonic Bore (WA).
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1990 - Australia's population reaches 17.2 million.


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4 Ballarat Goldfields

History of the Ballarat Goldfields
The discovery of gold at Ballarat in 1851 was one of the first in Australia. In the
early years, Ballarats alluvial deposits proved exceptionally rich, producing at
least 7 million ounces of gold.
From the hillside at Golden Point in Ballarat East the alluvial gold was followed
into shallow Tertiary paleo-channels which coalesced into major stream systems
buried beneath more recent alluvials. These were known as "deep leads".
Downstream, in the western part of Ballarat, the "deep leads" were covered by
Tertiary basalt. Most of the shallow alluvial deposits were exhausted in the first 10
years of operations while "deep lead" mining continued until about 1880.
Auriferous quartz reefs were discovered while working the alluvial deposits. The
first company to successfully mine and treat quartz was the Llanberris Company
formed in 1857. Subsequent development of the field extended both north and
south on the first chance and Western Anticlines.
The goldfields of Ballarat suffered an overall decline during the 1870's,
particularly with the closure of many of the deep lead mines. Nevertheless, the
Ballarat East mines persevered with generally profitable results mining low-grade
ore. During the 1880's, rich yields from the Ballarat West quartz mines attracted
capital away from the Ballarat East mines. Towards the end of this decade,
activity increased, leading up to the most productive period for Ballarat East
between 1891 and 1910. During this period, annual combined tonnage or ore
treated from these mines averaged 112,000 tonnes with an average recovered
grade of 9.6 g/t. The lower limit of payable ore at this time was typically 5.25 g/t
to 6.0 g/t, indicating a higher cost of mining than in earlier years.
After 1910, the Ballarat East goldfield became less profitable. Little sinking or
development was carried out. The average tonnage mined between 1911 and 1916
was 62,000 tonnes with an average grade of 7.8 g/t., indicating a reliance on
remnant ore blocks.
A combination of factors led to the closure of the mines including rising costs for
deep mining, increasing labour costs and manpower and fuel shortages during
World War 1. Progressive closure of mines added significant burdens on old
machinery pumping and baling water from adjacent operations and was a factor in
the final closure of the mines in 1917.
Since the initial discovery in 1851, gold produced from the goldfields of Ballarat
has been at least 281 tonnes (9 million ounces). Recorded gold production from
hardrock mining from the Ballarat East goldfields is 37 tonnes (1.2 million
ounces) with an average recovered grade of 9.0 g/t. The mines worked to an
average depth of approximately 350m.
Over the 60 year mining history of the field, progress was hindered by the
irregular, small, interlocking nature of mining titles, failure of the companies to
reinvest their profits into exploration and mine development, the use of "tribute"
miners and, towards the end of the mining life of the field, the independence of
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adjacent mines for control of water inflow. Nevertheless, production from the field
exceeded 37 tonnes of gold.
Throughout the life of the mines, Ballarat East ore was simple to treat. Quartz was
crushed in stamping batteries and generally passed over a mercury trough and
copper plates on which the gold was recovered by amalgamation with mercury.
Much of the gold was too course to pass through the screens and was recovered in
the battery box. Tailings from the process were usually passed over blanket
strakes or Wilfley tables to obtain a gravity concentrate which consisted mostly of
pyrite. The concentrate was then treated by both further grinding and
amalgamation or sold to a roasting plant. Typically 1.5% of the feed was
recovered as a concentrate. Tailings were reported to carry approximately 0.75 g/t,
indicating a recovery of approximately 92%. Of the recovered gold, typically 93%
was recovered from the battery and amalgamation and 7% was recovered from the
concentrates.

The previous three sections are purely a potted history of mining. The interested
reader is directed to the numerous books that have been published in the area.
These are usually mineral province or mine specific but some general texts do
exist.

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A more detailed map of the mines and mineral deposits of Australia can be obtained
from the Minerals Council of Australia via the following hyperlink:

http://www.minerals.org.au/media/order.htm

General References:

Hartman, L. H. ed. SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition. Colorado :
Society of Mining Engineers, 1992.

Hustrulid, W. A. ed. Underground Mining Methods Handbook. New York : Society
of Mining Engineers, 1982.

Martin, C. H. ed. Australian Coal Mining Practice. Monograph 12, Melbourne :
Aus.I.M.M., 1986.

Peng, S. S. Longwall Mining. New York : Wiley, 1984.

Thomas, L. J . An Introduction to Mining. Sydney : Methuen, 1978.

Gertsch R.E and Bullock R.L Techniques in Underground Mining, Colorado: SME
Inc, 1998.
5 Mining Terminology

Mining like any other profession has a language of its own with many mining specific
words which can be very specific in their meaning. This is compounded by the fact
that coal mining and metalliferous mining developed quite separately from each other
for a long period of time. The majority of the words and terms used in mining have
their roots either in the Cornish Tin mining industry or from British coal mining. The
following two sections provide a listing of common metalliferous and coal mining
terms.

5.1 MINING TERMINOLOGY


There are thousands of terms used in the mining industry which are exclusive to that
industry, and therefore, strange to non-mining people. A more complete listing than
those given in the following sections can be found at

http://www.edumine.com

Only a brief list is used as an introduction to terminology. The list below contains
some terms, which may be familiar to non-mining people, but most will be new:


Adit A horizontal or near horizontal entrance to a mine.
Alloy A compound of two or more metals, usually produced by
fusion, eg., brass, bronze.
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Alluvial Deposited by a stream.
Amalgam An alloy of mercury with another metal
Amalgamation A process whereby gold and silver are extracted from an ore by
dissolving them in mercury.
ANFO Explosive mixture of Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil.
Anticline An arch or fold in the layers of rock shaped like the crest of a
wave, as opposed to a syncline, which is similar to the trough
of a wave.
Assay To determine the amount of metal or mineral contained in an
ore or sample.
Backs The roof of underground workings.
Base Metal A metal inferior in value to gold and silver, generally applied
to the commercial metals, such as copper, lead, zinc etc.
Bedrock Solid rock forming the earth's crust, frequently covered by soil,
overburden or water.
Beneficiate To concentrate or enrich; generally applied to the preparation
of iron ore for smelting, eg., by magnetic concentration.
Bit The cutting end of a boring tool. In rock drilling it is often
made with ultra-hard material, such as tungsten carbide or
diamonds.
Blast Hole A hole drilled for the purpose of blasting rather than for
exploration or geological information.
Block Caving A cheap method of mining, in which large blocks of ore are
undercut, the ore breaking and caving under its own weight.
Box Hole A short raise or opening above a drive for the purpose of
drawing ore from a stope, or to permit access.
Bulk Sample A large sample, often involving many tonnes selected so as to
be representative of the material being sampled.
Bullion Metal in bars, ingots or other uncoined form.
By-Product A secondary or additional mineral extracted during the
production process of the primary mineral.
Cage The conveyance used to transport personnel and equipment in a
shaft.
Capped Fuse A length of safety fuse to which a detonator has been attached.
Chalcopyrite A sulphide mineral of copper and iron, being a common ore of
copper.
Chute An inclined opening constructed of timber or steel with a door,
through which ore is drawn from a stope into a mine car.
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Cinnabar A vermilion coloured ore of mercury.
Claim A small portion of mining land held under state law for the
purpose of small scale mining.
Collar
i) The entrance to a shaft or tunnel.
ii) The first few centimetres of a drill hole.
Complex Ore An ore containing a number of minerals of economic value,
usually implying difficult metallurgy to extract them.
Compressor A machine for compressing air to a pressure sufficient to drive
mining machinery such as drills.
Concentrate A product containing a valuable metal and from which most of
the waste has been removed.
Concentrator Plant for producing an upgraded or concentrated material from
the ore. The concentrate usually goes from here to a smelter to
finally recover the metal.
Contact The line or plane along which two different rocks come
together, eg., the contact between ore and waste rock.
Core A cylinder of rock, which is recovered by, diamond drilling.
Country Rock
(Host Rock)
The surrounding rock in which an ore body or mineral deposit
is contained.
Crosscut A horizontal tunnel driven across the strike of the country rock
or mineral deposit.
Crusher A machine for crushing rock, usually prior to concentration.
Crushed rock often goes to the mill for further grinding to
liberate the small mineral particles
Cut and Fill A method of stoping in which ore is removed in slices or lifts
and the excavation filled with waste rock or sand, which helps
to support the walls and provides a working floor for mining of
subsequent lifts.
Cyanidation A method of extracting gold or silver by dissolving in a weak
solution of sodium cyanide.
Decline An inclined tunnel from a higher level to a lower level, usually
from the surface.
Detonator A device used for initiating an explosive.
Development Shaft sinking, tunnelling etc. in preparation for mining of an
ore body.
Diamond A very hard mineral composed of pure carbon. In mining,
diamonds are set into bits for drilling holes in rock for recovery
of core.
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Dip Inclination of an ore body or strata measured from the
horizontal.
Dilution Waste or low grade rock which is unavoidably removed with
the ore in the mining process.
Drifter A rock drill used for drilling holes for blasting.
Drive A horizontal tunnel driven parallel to the strike of the country
rock or mineral deposit.
Erosion The breaking down and subsequent removal of either rock or
earthy surface by the forces of nature.
Exploration Work involved in searching for minerals.
Face The rock surface currently being worked.
Fault A break in the earth's crust, caused by forces that have moved
the rock on one side of the fault relative to the other.
Ferrous Containing iron.
Fine Gold Almost pure gold usually expressed in parts per thousand. So
925 fine gold means 92.5% pure gold.
Fissure An extensive crack, break or fracture in rocks.
Flotation A concentrating process whereby some mineral particles are
attached to bubbles and float to the top of a flotation tank or
cell.
Footwall Ore limit on the lower side of a dipping ore body.
Fuse A device for igniting a detonator.
Galena A sulphide mineral of lead. It is a common lead ore.
Gangue The valueless part of an ore body, usually rejected in the
treatment process.
Geology The science concerned with the study of rocks, which compose
the earth.
Gossan The rust coloured oxidised capping or staining of a mineral
deposit.
Grab Sample A sample taken at random to be assayed. It is not representative
of the deposit, it just gives an indication or check.
Grizzly A grating usually constructed of heavy steel bars placed over
the top of an ore pass to prevent large pieces of rock being
tipped.
Grouting The process of sealing off a water flow in rocks by pumping a
thin slurry of cement or other grouting material into the ground
through bore holes.
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Guides The timber (sometimes steel or wire ropes) placed vertically in
shafts to guide the cages or other conveyances.
Hangingwall Ore limit on the upper side of a dipping ore body.
Haulage An underground tunnel used for hauling ore, usually by
locomotive, conveyor or diesel trucks.
Heading An advancing horizontal drive.
Haematite An iron oxide mineral, one of the most common ores of iron.
High Grade Rich ore.
Hoist The machine for raising and lowering cages or conveyances in
a shaft.
Ilmenite An ore of titanium.
Industrial
Mineral
Usually non-metallic minerals or rocks used in industry and
manufacturing, eg, sand, gravel, salt, talc etc.
Lagging Planks or small timbers placed above the main timbers in a
drive or stope to secure the rock and tighten the main timbers
to the roof or sides.
Level A main horizon at which an ore body is developed.
Limonite A brown hydrous iron oxide.
Lode Vein or fissure in rock, filled with mineralised material.
Magma The molten material deep in the earth from which rocks are
formed.
Magnetite Magnetic iron ore, being a black iron oxide.
Metallurgy The various methods of preparing metals for use by separating
them from ores. Also the studies of the properties and uses of
metals.
Mineral A naturally occurring homogeneous substance having definite
physical properties and chemical composition, and formed
under favourable conditions has a definite crystal form.
Misfire Part of a charge that has failed to detonate. Could be a
complete charge.
Muck Ore or rock that has been broken by blasting.
Native Metal A metal, which has occurred in nature in the pure form, not
combined with other substances.
Open Cut
(Open Pit)
Surface working, open to daylight.
Ore Mineral aggregate containing useful minerals, which can be
extracted at a profit.
19
Ore Pass
(Waste Pass)
A raise used for passing ore or waste from one level to another
by gravity.
Ore Reserves A mine's total tonnage of ore available for mining.
Outcrop An exposure of rock or mineral deposit on the surface.
Overburden Worthless unconsolidated surface material, such as earth, sand,
clay and boulders, covering the rock surface.
Pig Iron The crude cast iron from a blast furnace.
Pillar A section of ore or rock left in place to support the surrounding
rock after mining has taken place.
Portal The surface entrance to a tunnel or adit.
Prospect A mining property, the value of which has not yet been proven.
Pyrite A hard, heavy, shiny yellow mineral being a sulphide of iron. It
is a common sulphide often called 'fool's gold'.
Raise A vertical or steep opening from a lower level to a higher one.
Room and
Pillar
A method of mining flat lying deposits by mining part of the
deposit and leaving pillars to support the roof. Pillars may be
subsequently removed if safe to do so.
Sample A small portion of rock usually taken for the purpose of being
assayed.
Scaling
(Barring Down)
The act of removing loose slabs of rock from roof and sides
after blasting.
Shaft A vertical or steeply inclined opening for access to an ore
body. Usually from the surface.
Shrinkage
Stoping
A method of stoping which utilises the broken ore as a working
platform and to support the walls.
Skip A large bucket used for hoisting rock in a shaft.
Sphalerite A sulphide mineral of zinc.
Station An enlargement of the shaft at a main level to form a working
platform (plat) and for temporary storage of materials and
equipment.
Stockpile Broken ore or concentrate heaped on the surface pending
treatment or shipment
Stope An excavation in an ore body for the sole purpose of extracting
ore.
Stringer A narrow vein usually from the main vein or ore body cutting
into the host rock.
Sub-Level An intermediate level of a mine between the main levels.
20
Sulphide A compound of sulphur and other elements to form minerals.
Sump A chamber used to collect mine water.
Tailings Waste rock from an ore treatment plant, usually in the form of
sand.
Tunnel A horizontal underground passage.
Vein A regular mineralised zone, usually narrow and tabular in
form.
Volcanic Rocks Rocks formed on or near to the surface as from a volcano.
Wall Rock The rock forming the walls of a mineral deposit. Can be called
host rock or country rock.
Waste Barren or low grade rock of no economic value.
Winze A vertical or steep opening from a higher level to a lower level.
It is in fact, a small shaft.

5.2 GLOSSARY
Mining Terms
(Glossary developed from materials provided by: Kentucky Mining Institute.)
A
Abutment - In coal mining, (1) the weight of the rocks above a narrow roadway is
transferred to the solid coal along the sides, which act as abutments of the arch of
strata spanning the roadway; and (2) the weight of the rocks over a longwall face is
transferred to the front abutment, that is, the solid coal ahead of the face and the back
abutment, that is, the settled packs behind the face.
Acid deposition or acid rain Refers loosely to a mixture of wet and dry
"deposition" (deposited material) from the atmosphere containing higher than
"normal" amount of nitric and sulfuric acids. The precursors or chemical forerunners
of acid rain formation result from both natural sources, such as volcanoes and
decaying vegetation, and man-made sources, primarily emissions of sulfur and
nitrogen oxides resulting from fossil fuel combustion.
Acid mine water - Mine water that contains free sulfuric acid, mainly due to the
weathering of iron pyrites.
Active workings - Any place in a mine where miners are normally required to work
or travel and which are ventilated and inspected regularly.
Adit - A nearly horizontal passage from the surface by which a mine is entered and
dewatered. A blind horizontal opening into a mountain, with only one entrance.
Advance - Mining in the same direction, or order of sequence; first mining as
distinguished from retreat.
Air split - The division of a current of air into two or more parts.
Airway - Any passage through which air is carried. Also known as an air course.
Anemometer - Instrument for measuring air velocity.
Angle of dip - The angle at which strata or mineral deposits are inclined to the
horizontal plane.
Angle of draw - In coalmine subsidence, this angle is assumed to bisect the angle
between the vertical and the angle of repose of the material and is 20 for flat seams.
For dipping seams, the angle of break increases, being 35.8 from the vertical for a
21
40 dip. The main break occurs over the seam at an angle from the vertical equal to
half the dip.
Angle of repose - The maximum angle from horizontal at which a given material will
rest on a given surface without sliding or rolling.
Anticline - An upward fold or arch of rock strata.
Aquifer - A water-bearing bed of porous rock, often sandstone.
Arching - Fracture processes around a mine opening, leading to stabilisation by an
arching effect.
Area (of an airway) - Average width multiplied by average height of airway,
expressed in square feet.
Auger - A rotary drill that uses a screw device to penetrate, break, and then transport
the drilled material (coal).
Auxiliary operations - All activities supportive of but not contributing directly to
mining.
Auxiliary ventilation - Portion of main ventilating current directed to face of dead
end entry by means of an auxiliary fan and tubing.
Azimuth - A surveying term that references the angle measured clockwise from any
meridian (the established line of reference). The bearing is used to designate direction.
The bearing of a line is the acute horizontal angle between the meridian and the line.
B
Back - The roof or upper part in any underground mining cavity.
Backfill Mine waste or rock used to support the roof after coal removal.
Barren - Said of rock or vein material containing no minerals of value, and of strata
without coal, or containing coal in seams too thin to be workable.
Barricading - Enclosing part of a mine to prevent inflow of noxious gasses from a
mine fire or an explosion.
Barrier - Something that bars or keeps out. Barrier pillars are solid blocks of coal left
between two mines or sections of a mine to prevent accidents due to inrushes of
water, gas, or from explosions or a mine fire.
Beam - A bar or straight girder used to support a span of roof between two support
props or walls.
Beam building - The creation of a strong, inflexible beam by bolting or otherwise
fastening together several weaker layers. In coal mining this is the intended basis for
roof bolting.
Bearing A surveying term used to designate direction. The bearing of a line is the
acute horizontal angle between the meridian and the line. The meridian is an
established line of reference. Azimuths are angles measured clockwise from any
meridian.
Bearing plate - A plate used to distribute a given load. In roof bolting, the plate used
between the bolt head and the roof.
Bed - A stratum of coal or other sedimentary deposit.
Belt conveyor - A looped belt on which coal or other materials can be carried and
which is generally constructed of flame-resistant material or of reinforced rubber or
rubber-like substance.
Belt idler - A roller, usually of cylindrical shape, which is supported on a frame and
which, in turn, supports or guides a conveyor belt. Idlers are not powered but turn by
contact with the moving belt.
Belt take-up - A belt pulley, generally under a conveyor belt and inby the drive
pulley, kept under strong tension parallel to the belt line. Its purpose is to
automatically compensate for any slack in the belting created by start-up, etc.
22
Bench - One of to or more divisions of a coal seam separated by slate or formed by
the process of cutting the coal.
Beneficiation - The treatment of mined material, making it more concentrated or
richer.
Berm - A pile or mound of material capable of restraining a vehicle.
Binder - A streak of impurity in a coal seam.
Bit - The hardened and strengthened device at the end of a drill rod that transmits the
energy of breakage to the rock. The size of the bit determines the size of the hole. A
bit may be either detachable from or integral with its supporting drill rod.
Bituminous coal A middle rank coal (between subbituminous and anthracite)
formed by additional pressure and heat on lignite. Usually has a high Btu value and
may be referred to as "soft coal."
Black damp - A term generally applied to carbon dioxide. Strictly speaking, it is a
mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen. It is also applied to an atmosphere depleted of
oxygen, rather than having an excess of carbon dioxide.
Blasting agent - Any material consisting of a mixture of a fuel and an oxidiser.
Blasting cap - A detonator containing a charge of detonating compound, which is
ignited by electric current or the spark of a fuse. Used for detonating explosives.
Blasting circuit - Electric circuits used to fire electric detonators or to ignite an
igniter cord by means of an electric starter.
Bleeder or bleeder entries - Special air courses developed and maintained as part of
the mine ventilation system and designed to continuously move air-methane mixtures
emitted by the gob or at the active face away from the active workings and into mine-
return air courses. Alt: Exhaust ventilation lateral.
Bolt torque - The turning force in foot-pounds applied to a roof bolt to achieve an
installed tension.
Borehole - Any deep or long drill-hole, usually associated with a diamond drill.
Bottom - Floor or underlying surface of an underground excavation.
Boss - Any member of the managerial ranks who is directly in charge of miners (eg,
"shift-boss," "face-boss," "fire-boss," etc.).
Box-type magazine - A small, portable magazine used to store limited quantities of
explosives or detonators for short periods of time at locations in the mine which are
convenient to the blasting sites at which they will be used.
Brattice or brattice cloth - Fire-resistant fabric or plastic partition used in a mine
passage to confine the air and force it into the working place. Also termed "line
brattice," "line canvas," or "line curtain."
Break line - The line that roughly follows the rear edges of coal pillars that are being
mined. The line along which the roof of a coalmine is expected to break.
Breakthrough - A passage for ventilation that is cut through the pillars between
rooms.
Bridge carrier - A rubber-tire-mounted mobile conveyor, about 10 meters long, used
as an intermediate unit to create a system of articulated conveyors between a mining
machine and a room or entry conveyor.
Bridge conveyor - A short conveyor hung from the boom of mining or lading
machine or haulage system with the other end attached to a receiving bin that dollies
along a frame supported by the room or entry conveyor, tailpiece. Thus, as the
machine boom moves, the bridge conveyor keeps it in constant connection with the
tailpiece.
Brow - A low place in the roof of a mine, giving insufficient headroom.
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Brushing - Digging up the bottom or taking down the top to give more headroom in
roadways.
Btu British thermal unit. A measure of the energy required to raise the temperature
of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.
Bug dust - The fine particles of coal or other material resulting form the boring or
cutting of the coal face by drill or machine.
Bump (or burst) - A violent dislocation of the mine workings which is attributed to
severe stresses in the rock surrounding the workings.
Butt cleat - A short, poorly defined vertical cleavage plane in a coal seam, usually at
right angles to the long face cleat.
Butt entry - A coal mining term that has different meanings in different locations. It
can be synonymous with panel entry, submain entry, or in its older sense it refers to
an entry that is "butt" onto the coal cleavage (that is, at right angles to the face).




C
Cage - In a mineshaft, the device, similar to an elevator car, that is used for hoisting
personnel and materials.
Calorific value - The quantity of heat that can be liberated from one pound of coal or
oil measured in BTU's.
Cannel coal - A massive, non-caking block coal with a fine, even grain and a
conchoidal fracture which has a high percentage of hydrogen, burns with a long,
yellow flame, and is extremely easy to ignite.
Canopy - A protective covering of a cab on a mining machine.
Cap - A miner's safety helmet. Also, a highly sensitive, encapsulated explosive that is
used to detonate larger but less sensitive explosives.
Cap block - A flat piece of wood inserted between the top of the prop and the roof to
provide bearing support.
Car - A railway wagon, especially any of the wagons adapted to carrying coal, ore,
and waste underground.
Car-dump - The mechanism for unloading a loaded car.
Carbide bit - More correctly, cemented tungsten carbide. A cutting or drilling bit for
rock or coal, made by fusing an insert of moulded tungsten carbide to the cutting edge
of a steel bit shank.
Cast - A directed throw; in strip-mining, the overburden is cast from the coal to the
previously mined area.
Certified - Describes a person who has passed an examination to do a required job.
Chain conveyor - A conveyor on which the material is moved along solid pans
(troughs) by the action of scraper crossbars attached to powered chains.
Chain pillar - The pillar of coal left to protect the gangway or entry and the parallel
airways.
Check curtain - Sheet of brattice cloth hung across an airway to control the passage
of the air current.
Chock - Large hydraulic jacks used to support roof in longwall and shortwall mining
systems.
Clay vein - A body of clay-like material that fills a void in a coal bed.
Cleat - The vertical cleavage of coal seams. The main set of joints along which coal
breaks when mined.
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Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 A comprehensive set of amendments to the
federal law governing the nation's air quality. The Clean Air Act was originally
passed in 1970 to address significant air pollution problems in our cities. The 1990
amendments broadened and strengthened the original law to address specific
problems such as acid deposition, urban smog, hazardous air pollutants and
stratospheric ozone depletion.
Clean Coal Technologies A number of innovative, new technologies designed to
use coal in a more efficient and cost-effective manner while enhancing environmental
protection. Several promising technologies include: fluidised-bed combustion,
integrated gasification combined cycle, limestone injection multi-stage burner,
enhanced flue gas desulphurisation (or "scrubbing"), coal liquefaction and coal
gasification.
Coal - A solid, brittle, more or less distinctly stratified combustible carbonaceous
rock, formed by partial to complete decomposition of vegetation; varies in colour
from dark brown to black; not fusible without decomposition and very insoluble.
Coal dust - Particles of coal that can pass a No. 20 sieve.
Coal Gasification The conversion of coal into a gaseous fuel.
Coal mine - An area of land and all structures, facilities, machinery, tools, equipment,
shafts, slopes, tunnels, excavations, and other property, real or personal, placed upon,
under, or above the surface of such land by any person, used in extracting coal from
its natural deposits in the earth by any means or method, and the work of preparing
the coal so extracted, including coal preparation facilities. British term is "colliery".
Coal reserves - Measured tonnages of coal that have been calculated to occur in a
coal seam within a particular property.
Coal washing The process of separating undesirable materials from coal based on
differences in densities. Pyritic sulfur, or sulfur combined with iron, is heavier and
sinks in water; coal is lighter and floats.
Coke A hard, dry carbon substance produced by heating coal to a very high
temperature in the absence of air.
Collar - The term applied to the timbering or concrete around the mouth or top of a
shaft. The beginning point of a shaft or drill hole at the surface.
Colliery - British name for coal mine.
Column flotation A precombustion coal cleaning technology in which coal
particles attach to air bubbles rising in a vertical column. The coal is then removed at
the top of the column.
Comminution - The breaking, crushing, or grinding of coal, ore, or rock.
Competent rock - Rock which, because of its physical and geological characteristics,
is capable of sustaining openings without any structural support except pillars and
walls left during mining (stalls, light props, and roof bolts are not considered
structural support).
Contact - The place or surface where two different kinds of rocks meet. Applies to
sedimentary rocks, as the contact between a limestone and a sandstone, for example,
and to metamorphic rocks; and it is especially applicable between igneous intrusions
and their walls.
Continuous miner - A machine that constantly extracts coal while it loads it. This is
to be distinguished from a conventional, or cyclic, unit that must stop the extraction
process in order for loading to commence.
Contour - An imaginary line that connects all points on a surface having the same
elevation.
25
Conventional mining The first fully-mechanised underground mining method
involving the insertion of explosives in a coal seam, the blasting of the seam, and the
removal of the coal onto a conveyor or shuttle car by a loading machine.
Conveyor - An apparatus for moving material from one point to another in a
continuous fashion. This is accomplished with an endless (that is, looped) procession
of hooks, buckets, wide rubber belt, etc.
Core sample A cylinder sample generally 1-5" in diameter drilled out of an area to
determine the geologic and chemical analysis of the overburden and coal.
Cover - The overburden of any deposit.
Creep - The forcing of pillars into soft bottom by the weight of a strong roof. In
surface mining, a very slow movement of slopes downhill.
Crib - A roof support of prop timbers or ties, laid in alternate cross-layers, log-cabin
style. It may or may not be filled with debris. Also may be called a chock or cog.
Cribbing - The construction of cribs or timbers laid at right angles to each other,
sometimes filled with earth, as a roof support or as a support for machinery.
Crop coal - Coal at the outcrop of the seam. It is usually considered of inferior
quality due to partial oxidation, although this is not always the case.
Crossbar - The horizontal member of a roof timber set supported by props located
either on roadways or at the face.
Crosscut - A passageway driven between the entry and its parallel air course or air
courses for ventilation purposes. Also, a tunnel driven from one seam to another
through or across the intervening measures; sometimes called "crosscut tunnel", or
"breakthrough". In vein mining, an entry perpendicular to the vein.
Cross entry - An entry running at an angle with the main entry.
Crusher - A machine for crushing rock or other materials. Among the various types
of crushers are the ball mill, gyratory crusher, Handsel mill, hammer mill, jaw
crusher, rod mill, rolls, stamp mill, and tube mill.
Cutter; Cutting machine - A machine, usually used in coal, that will cut a 10- to 15-
cm slot. The slot allows room for expansion of the broken coal. Also applies to the
man who operates the machine and to workers engaged in the cutting of coal by prick
or drill.
Cycle mining - A system of mining in more than one working place at a time, that is,
a miner takes a lift from the face and moves to another face while permanent roof
support is established in the previous working face.
D
Demonstrated reserves A collective term for the sum of coal in both measured and
indicated resources and reserves.
Deposit - Mineral deposit or ore deposit is used to designate a natural occurrence of a
useful mineral, or an ore, in sufficient extent and degree of concentration to invite
exploitation.
Depth - The word alone generally denotes vertical depth below the surface. In the
case of incline shafts and boreholes it may mean the distance reached from the
beginning of the shaft or hole, the borehole depth, or the inclined depth.
Detectors - Specialised chemical or electronic instruments used to detect mine gases.
Detonator - A device containing a small detonating charge that is used for detonating
an explosive, including, but not limited to, blasting caps, exploders, electric
detonators, and delay electric blasting caps.
Development mining - Work undertaken to open up coal reserves as distinguished
from the work of actual coal extraction.
26
Diffusion - Blending of a gas and air, resulting in a homogeneous mixture. Blending
of two or more gases.
Diffuser fan - A fan mounted on a continuous miner to assist and direct air delivery
from the machine to the face.
Dilute - To lower the concentration of a mixture; in this case the concentration of any
hazardous gas in mine air by addition of fresh intake air.
Dilution - The contamination of ore with barren wall rock in stopping.
Dip - The inclination of a geologic structure (bed, vein, fault, etc.) from the
horizontal; dip is always measured downwards at right angles to the strike.
Dragline A large excavation machine used in surface mining to remove overburden
(layers of rock and soil) covering a coal seam. The dragline casts a wire rope-hung
bucket a considerable distance, collects the dug material by pulling the bucket toward
itself on the ground with a second wire rope (or chain), elevates the bucket, and
dumps the material on a spoil bank, in a hopper, or on a pile.
Drainage - The process of removing surplus ground or surface water either by
artificial means or by gravity flow.
Draw slate - A soft slate, shale, or rock from approximately 1 cm to 10 cm thick and
located immediately above certain coal seams, which falls quite easily when the coal
support is withdrawn.
Drift - A horizontal passage underground. A drift follows the vein, as distinguished
from a crosscut that intersects it, or a level or gallery, which may do either.
Drift mine An underground coalmine in which the entry or access is above water
level and generally on the slope of a hill, driven horizontally into a coal seam.
Drill - A machine utilising rotation, percussion (hammering), or a combination of
both to make holes. If the hole is much over 0.4m in diameter, the machine is called a
borer.
Drilling - The use of such a machine to create holes for exploration or for loading
with explosives.
Dummy - A bag filled with sand, clay, etc., used for stemming a charged hole.
Dump - To unload; specifically, a load of coal or waste; the mechanism for
unloading, eg. a car dump (sometimes called tipple); or, the pile created by such
unloading, eg. a waste dump (also called heap, pile, tip, spoil pike, etc.).
E
Electrical grounding - To connect with the ground to make the earth part of the
circuit.
Entry - An underground horizontal or near-horizontal passage used for haulage,
ventilation, or as a mainway; a coal heading; a working place where the coal is
extracted from the seam in the initial mining; same as "gate" and "roadway," both
British terms.
Evaluation - The work involved in gaining knowledge of the size, shape, position and
value of coal.
Exploration - The search for mineral deposits and the work done to prove or establish
the extent of a mineral deposit. Alt: Prospecting and subsequent evaluation.
Explosive - Any rapidly combustive or expanding substance. The energy released
during this rapid combustion or expansion can be used to break rock.
Extraction - The process of mining and removal of cal or ore from a mine.
F
Face The exposed area of a coal bed from which coal is being extracted.
Face cleat - The principal cleavage plane or joint at right angles to the stratification of
the coal seam.
27
Face conveyor - Any conveyor used parallel to a working face which delivers coal
into another conveyor or into a car.
Factor of safety - The ratio of the ultimate breaking strength of the material to the
force exerted against it. If a rope will break under a load of 6000 lbs., and it is
carrying a load of 2000 lbs., its factor of safety is 6000 divided by 2000 which equals
3.
Fall - A mass of roof rock or coal which has fallen in any part of a mine.
Fan, auxiliary - A small, portable fan used to supplement the ventilation of an
individual working place.
Fan, booster - A large fan installed in the main air current, and thus in tandem with
the main fan.
Fan signal - Automation device designed to give alarm if the main fan slows down or
stops.
Fault - A slip-surface between two portions of the earth's surface that have moved
relative to each other. A fault is a failure surface and is evidence of severe earth
stresses.
Fault zone - A fault, instead of being a single clean fracture, may be a zone hundreds
or thousands of feet wide. The fault zone consists of numerous interlacing small faults
or a confused zone of gouge, breccia, or mylonite.
Feeder - A machine that feeds coal onto a conveyor belt evenly.
Fill - Any material that is put back in place of the extracted ore to provide ground
support.
Fire damp - The combustible gas, methane, CH4. Also, the explosive methane-air
mixtures with between 5% and 15% methane. A combustible gas formed in mines by
decomposition of coal or other carbonaceous matter, and that consists chiefly of
methane.
Fissure - An extensive crack, break, or fracture in the rocks.
Fixed carbon The part of the carbon that remains behind when coal is heated in a
closed vessel until all of the volatile matter is driven off.
Flat-lying - Said of deposits and coal seams with a dip up to 5 degrees.
Flight - The metal strap or crossbar attached to the drag chain-and-flight conveyor.
Float dust - Fine coal-dust particles carried in suspension by air currents and
eventually deposited in return entries. Dust consisting of particles of coal that can pass
through a No. 200 sieve.
Floor - That part of any underground working upon which a person walks or upon
which haulage equipment travels; simply the bottom or underlying surface of an
underground excavation.
Flue Gas Desulphurisation Any of several forms of chemical/physical processes
that remove sulfur compounds formed during coal combustion. The devices,
commonly called "scrubbers," combine the sulfur in gaseous emissions with another
chemical medium to form inert "sludge" which must then be removed for disposal.
Fluidised Bed Combustion A process with a high degree of ability to remove
sulfur from coal during combustion. Crushed coal and limestone are suspended in the
bottom of a boiler by an upward stream of hot air. The coal is burned in this bubbling,
liquid-like (or "fluidised") mixture. Rather than released as emissions, sulfur from
combustion gases combines with the limestone to form a solid compound recovered
with the ash.
Fly ash The finely divided particles of ash suspended in gases resulting from the
combustion of fuel. Electrostatic precipitators are used to remove fly ash from the
gases prior to the release from a power plant's smokestack.
28
Formation Any assemblage of rocks which have some character in common,
whether of origin, age, or composition. Often, the word is loosely used to indicate
anything that has been formed or brought into its present shape.
Fossil fuel Any naturally occurring fuel of an organic nature, such as coal, crude oil
and natural gas.
Fracture - A general term to include any kind of discontinuity in a body of rock if
produced by mechanical failure, whether by shear stress or tensile stress. Fractures
include faults, shears, joints, and planes of fracture cleavage.
Friable - Easy to break, or crumbling naturally. Descriptive of certain rocks and
minerals.
Fuse - A cord-like substance used in the ignition of explosives. Black powder is
entrained in the cord and, when lit, burns along the cord at a set rate. A fuse can be
safely used to ignite a cap, which is the primer for an explosive.
G
Gallery - A horizontal or a nearly horizontal underground passage, either natural or
artificial.
Gasification Any of various processes by which coal is turned into low, medium, or
high Btu gases.
Gathering conveyor; gathering belt - Any conveyor which is used to gather coal
from other conveyors and deliver it either into mine cars or onto another conveyor.
The term is frequently used with belt conveyors placed in entries where a number of
room conveyors deliver coal onto the belt.
Geologist - One who studies the constitution, structure, and history of the earth's
crust, conducting research into the formation and dissolution of rock layers, analysing
fossil and mineral content of layers, and endeavouring to fix historical sequence of
development by relating characteristics to known geological influences (historical
geology).
Gob - The term applied to that part of the mine from which the coal has been
removed and the space more or less filled up with waste. Also, the loose waste in a
mine. Also called goaf.
Global climate change This term usually refers to the gradual warming of the earth
caused by the greenhouse effect. Many scientists believe this is the result of man-
made emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFC) and methane, although there is no agreement among the scientific community
on this controversial issue.
Grain - In petrology, that factor of the texture of a rock composed of distinct particles
or crystals which depends upon their absolute size.
Grizzly - Course screening or scalping device that prevents oversized bulk material
form entering a material transfer system; constructed of rails, bars, beams, etc.
Ground control - The regulation and final arresting of the closure of the walls of a
mined area. The term generally refers to measures taken to prevent roof falls or coal
bursts.
Ground pressure - The pressure to which a rock formation is subjected by the weight
of the superimposed rock and rock material or by diastrophic forces created by
movements in the rocks forming the earth's crust. Such pressures may be great enough
to cause rocks having a low compressional strength to deform and be squeezed into
and close a borehole or other underground opening not adequately strengthened by an
artificial support, such as casing or timber.
Gunite - A cement applied by spraying to the roof and sides of a mine passage.
H
29
Haulage - The horizontal transport of ore, coal, supplies, and waste. The vertical
transport of the same is called hoisting.
Haulageway - Any underground entry or passageway that is designed for transport of
mined material, personnel, or equipment, usually by the installation of track or belt
conveyor.
Headframe - The structure surmounting the shaft which supports the hoist rope
pulley, and often the hoist itself.
Heading - A vein above a drift. An interior level or airway driven in a mine. In
longwall workings, a narrow passage driven upward from a gangway in starting a
working in order to give a loose end.
Head section - A term used in both belt and chain conveyor work to designate that
portion of the conveyor used for discharging material.
Heaving - Applied to the rising of the bottom after removal of the coal; a sharp rise in
the floor is called a "hogsback".
Highwall The unexcavated face of exposed overburden and coal in a surface mine
or in a face or bank on the uphill side of a contour mine excavation.
Highwall miner A highwall mining system consists of a remotely controlled
continuous miner which extracts coal and conveys it via augers, belt or chain
conveyors to the outside. The cut is typically a rectangular, horizontal cut from a
highwall bench, reaching depths of several hundred feet or deeper.
Hogsback - A sharp rise in the floor of a seam.
Hoist - A drum on which hoisting rope is wound in the engine house, as the cage or
skip is raised in the hoisting shaft.
Hoisting - The vertical transport coal or material.
Horizon - In geology, any given definite position or interval in the stratigraphic
column or the scheme of stratigraphic classification; generally used in a relative
sense.
Horseback - A mass of material with a slippery surface in the roof; shaped like a
horse's back.
Hydraulic - Of or pertaining to fluids in motion. Hydraulic cement has a
composition, which permits it to set quickly under water. Hydraulic jacks lift through
the force transmitted to the movable part of the jack by a liquid. Hydraulic control
refers to the mechanical control of various parts of machines, such as coal cutters,
loaders, etc., through the operation or action of hydraulic cylinders.
Hydrocarbon A family of chemical compounds containing carbon and hydrogen
atoms in various combinations, found especially in fossil fuels.
I
Inbye - In the direction of the working face.
Incline - Any entry to a mine that is not vertical (shaft) or horizontal (adit). Often
incline is reserved for those entries that are too steep for a belt conveyor (+17 degrees
-18 degrees), in which case a hoist and guide rails are employed. A belt conveyor
incline is termed a slope. Alt: Secondary inclined opening, driven upward to connect
levels, sometimes on the dip of a deposit; also called "inclined shaft".
Incompetent - Applied to strata, a formation, a rock, or a rock structure not
combining sufficient firmness and flexibility to transmit a thrust and to lift a load by
bending.
Indicated coal resources Coal for which estimates of the rank, quality, and
quantity have been computed partly from sample analyses and measurements and
partly from reasonable geologic projections. The points of observation are to 1
30
miles apart. Indicated coal is projected to extend as an mile wide belt that lies more
than mile from the outcrop or points of observation or measurement.
Inferred coal resources Coal in unexplored extensions of the demonstrated
resources for which estimates of the quality and size are based on geologic evidence
and projection. Quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the
geologic character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples or
measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repletion of
which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits
of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is
specific geologic evidence of their presence. The points of observation are 1 to 6
miles apart.
In situ - In the natural or original position. Applied to a rock, soil, or fossil when
occurring in the situation in which it was originally formed or deposited.
Intake - The passage through which fresh air is drawn or forced into a mine or to a
section of a mine.
Intermediate section - A term used in belt and chain conveyor network to designate a
section of the conveyor frame occupying a position between the head and foot
sections.
Immediate roof - The roof strata immediately above the coalbed, requiring support
during the excavation of coal.
Isopach - A line, on a map, drawn through points of equal thickness of a designated
unit. Synonym for isopachous line; isopachyte.
J
Jackleg - A percussion drill used for drifting or stopping that is mounted on a
telescopic leg which has an extension of about 2.5 m. The leg and machine are hinged
so that the drill need not be in the same direction as the leg.
Jackrock A caltrop or other object manufactured with one or more rounded or
sharpened points, which when placed or thrown present at least one point at such an
angle that it is peculiar to and designed for use in puncturing or damaging vehicle
tires. J ackrocks are commonly used during labour disputes.
Job Safety Analysis (J.S.A.) - A job breakdown that gives a safe, efficient job
procedure.
Joint - A divisional plane or surface that divides a rock and along which there has
been no visible movement parallel to the plane or surface.
K
Kettle bottom - A smooth, rounded piece of rock, cylindrical in shape, which may
drop out of the roof of a mine without warning. The origin of this feature is thought to
be the remains of the stump of a tree that has been replaced by sediments so that the
original form has been rather well preserved.
Kerf - The undercut of a coal face.
L
Lamp - The electric cap lamp worn for visibility. Also, the flame safety lamp used in
coalmines to detect methane gas concentrations and oxygen deficiency.
Layout - The design or pattern of the main roadways and workings. The proper
layout of mine workings is the responsibility of the manager aided by the planning
department.
Lift - The amount of coal obtained from a continuous miner in one mining cycle.
Liquefaction The process of converting coal into a synthetic fuel, similar in nature
to crude oil and/or refined products, such as gasoline.
31
Lithology - The character of a rock described in terms of its structure, colour, mineral
composition, grain size, and arrangement of its component parts; all those visible
features that in the aggregate impart individuality of the rock. Lithology is the basis of
correlation in coalmines and commonly is reliable over a distance of a few miles.
Load - To place explosives in a drill hole. Also, to transfer broken material into a
haulage device.
Loading machine - Any device for transferring excavated coal into the haulage
equipment.
Loading pocket - Transfer point at a shaft where bulk material is loaded by bin,
hopper, and chute into a skip.
Longwall Mining One of three major underground coal mining methods currently
in use. Employs a steal plough, or rotation drum, which is pulled mechanically back
and forth across a face of coal that is usually several hundred feet long. The loosened
coal falls onto a conveyor for removal from the mine.
Loose coal - Coal fragments larger in size than coal dust.
Low voltage - Up to and including 660 volts by federal standards.
M
Main entry - A main haulage road. Where the coal has cleats, main entries are driven
at right angles to the face cleats.
Main fan - A mechanical ventilator installed at the surface; operates by either
exhausting or blowing to induce airflow through the mine roadways and workings.
Manhole - A safety hole constructed in the side of a gangway, tunnel, or slope in
which miner can be safe from passing locomotives and car. Also called a refuge hole.
Man trip - A carrier of mine personnel, by rail or rubber tire, to and from the work
area.
Manway - An entry used exclusively for personnel to travel form the shaft bottom or
drift mouth to the working section; it is always on the intake airside in gassy mines.
Also, a small passage at one side or both sides of a breast, used as a travelling way for
the miner, and sometimes, as an airway, or chute, or both.
Measured coal resources Coal for which estimates of the rank, quality, and
quantity have been computed from sample analyses and measurements from closely
spaced and geologically well-known sample sites, such as outcrops, trenches, mine
workings, and drill holes. The points of observation and measurement are so closely
spaced and the thickness and extent of coals are so well defined that the tonnage is
judged to be accurate within 20 percent of true tonnage. Although the spacing of the
points of observation necessary to demonstrate continuity of the coal differs from
region to region according to the character of the coal beds, the points of observation
are no greater than mile apart. Measured coal is projected to extend as a -mile
wide belt from the outcrop or points of observation or measurement.
Meridian - A surveying term that establishes a line of reference. The bearing is used
to designate direction. The bearing of a line is the acute horizontal angle between the
meridian and the line. Azimuths are angles measured clockwise from any meridian.
Methane A potentially explosive gas formed naturally from the decay of vegetative
matter, similar to that which formed coal. Methane, which is the principal component
of natural gas, is frequently encountered in underground coal mining operations and is
kept within safe limits through the use of extensive mine ventilation systems.
Methane monitor - An electronic instrument often mounted on a piece of mining
equipment, that detects and measures the methane content of mine air.
32
Mine development - The term employed to designate the operations involved in
preparing a mine for ore extraction. These operations include tunneling, sinking,
crosscutting, drifting, and raising.
Mine mouth electric plant A coal burning electric-generating plant built near a
coal mine.
Miner - One who is engaged in the business or occupation of extracting ore, coal,
precious substances, or other natural materials from the earth's crust.
Mineral - An inorganic compound occurring naturally in the earth's crust, with a
distinctive set of physical properties, and a definite chemical composition.
Mining Engineer - A person qualified by education, training, and experience in
mining engineering. A trained engineer with knowledge of the science, economics,
and arts of mineral location, extraction, concentration and sale, and the administrative
and financial problems of practical importance in connection with the profitable
conduct of mining.
Misfire - The complete or partial failure of a blasting charge to explode as planned.
MSHA - Mine Safety and Health Administration; the federal agency which regulates
coal mine health and safety.
Mud cap - A charge of high explosive fired in contact with the surface of a rock after
being covered with a quantity of wet mud, wet earth, or sand, without any borehole
being used. Also termed adobe, dobie, and sandblast (illegal in coal mining).

N
Natural ventilation - Ventilation of a mine without the aid of fans or furnaces.
Nip - Device at the end of the trailing cable of a mining machine used for connecting
the trailing cable to the trolley wire and ground.
O
Open end pillaring - A method of mining pillars in which no stump is left; the
pockets driven are open on the gob side and the roof is supported by timber.
Outbye; outbye - Nearer to the shaft, and hence farther from the working face.
Toward the mine entrance. The opposite of inbye.
Outcrop Coal that appears at or near the surface.
Overburden Layers of soil and rock covering a coal seam. Overburden is removed
prior to surface mining and replaced after the coal is taken from the seam.
Overcast (undercast) - Enclosed airway which permits one air current to pass over
(under) another without interruption.
P
Panel - A coal mining block that generally comprises one operating unit.
Panic bar - A switch, in the shape of a bar, used to cut off power at the machine in
case of an emergency.
Parting - (1) A small joint in coal or rock; (2) a layer of rock in a coal seam; (3) a
side track or turnout in a haulage road.
Peat The partially decayed plant matter found in swamps and bogs, one of the
earliest stages of coal formation.
Percentage extraction - The proportion of a coal seam which is removed from the
mine. The remainder may represent coal in pillars or coal, which is too thin or inferior
to mine or lost in mining. Shallow coalmines working under townships, reservoirs,
etc., may extract 50%, or less, of the entire seam, the remainder being left as pillars to
protect the surface. Under favourable conditions, longwall mining may extract from
80 to 95% of the entire seam. With pillar methods of working, the extraction ranges
from 50 to 90% depending on local conditions.
33
Percussion drill - A drill, usually air powered, that delivers its energy through a
pounding or hammering action.
Permissible - That which is allowable or permitted. It is most widely applied to mine
equipment and explosives of all kinds which are similar in all respects to samples that
have passed certain tests of the MSHA and can be used with safety in accordance with
specified conditions where hazards from explosive gas or coal dust exist.
Permit As it pertains to mining, a document issued by a regulatory agency that
gives approval for mining operations to take place.
Piggyback - A bridge conveyor.
Pillar - An area of coal left to support the overlying strata in a mine; sometimes left
permanently to support surface structures.
Pillar robbing - The systematic removal of the coal pillars between rooms or
chambers to regulate the subsidence of the roof. Also termed "bridging back" the
pillar, "drawing" the pillar, or "pulling" the pillar.
Pinch - A compression of the walls of a vein or the roof and floor of a coal seam so as
to "squeeze" out the coal.
Pinch A compression of the roof and floor of a coal seam so as to "squeeze" out the
coal.
Pinning - Roof bolting.
Pitch - The inclination of a seam; the rise of a seam.
Plan - A map showing features such as mine workings or geological structures on a
horizontal plane.
Pneumoconiosis - A chronic disease of the lung arising from breathing coal dust.
Portal - The structure surrounding the immediate entrance to a mine; the mouth of an
adit or tunnel.
Portal bus - Track-mounted, self-propelled personnel carrier that holds 8 to 12
people.
Post - The vertical member of a timber set.
Preparation plant - A place where coal is cleaned, sized, and prepared for market.
Primary roof - The main roof above the immediate top. Its thickness may vary from
a few to several thousand feet.
Primer (booster) - A package or cartridge of explosive which is designed specifically
to transmit detonation to other explosives and which does not contain a detonator.
Prop - Coal mining term for any single post used as roof support. Props may be
timber or steel; if steel--screwed, yieldable, or hydraulic.
Proximate analysis - A physical, or non-chemical, test of the constitution of coal.
Not precise, but very useful for determining the commercial value. Using the same
sample (1 gram) under controlled heating at fixed temperatures and time periods,
moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash content are successfully determined.
Sulfur and Btu content are also generally reported with a proximate analysis.
Pyrite - A hard, heavy, shiny, yellow mineral, FeS2 or iron disulfide, generally in
cubic crystals. Also called iron pyrites, fools gold, sulfur balls. Iron pyrite is the most
common sulfide found in coalmines.
Q

R
Raise - A secondary or tertiary inclined opening, vertical or near-vertical opening
driven upward form a level to connect with the level above, or to explore the ground
for a limited distance above one level.
34
Ramp - A secondary or tertiary inclined opening, driven to connect levels, usually
driven in a downward direction, and used for haulage.
Ranks of coal The classification of coal by degree of hardness, moisture and heat
content. "Anthracite" is hard coal, almost pure carbon, used mainly for heating homes.
"Bituminous" is soft coal. It is the most common coal found in the United States and
is used to generate electricity and to make coke for the steel industry.
"Subbituminous" is a coal with a heating value between bituminous and lignite. It has
low fixed carbon and high percentages of volatile matter and moisture. "Lignite" is
the softest coal and has the highest moisture content. It is used for generating
electricity and for conversion into synthetic gas. In terms of Btu or "heating" content,
anthracite has the highest value, followed by bituminous, subbituminous and lignite.
Reclamation The restoration of land and environmental values to a surface mine
site after the coal is extracted. Reclamation operations are usually underway as soon
as the coal has been removed from a mine site. The process includes restoring the land
to its approximate original appearance by restoring topsoil and planting native grasses
and ground covers.
Recovery - The proportion or percentage of coal or ore mined from the original seam
or deposit.
Red dog - A nonvolatile combustion product of the oxidation of coal or coal refuse.
Most commonly applied to material resulting from in situ, uncontrolled burning of
coal or coal refuse piles. It is similar to coal ash.
Regulator - Device (wall, door) used to control the volume of air in an air split.
Reserve That portion of the identified coal resource that can be economically mined
at the time of determination. The reserve is derived by applying a recovery factor to
that component of the identified coal resource designated as the reserve base.
Resin bolting - A method of permanent roof support in which steel rods are grouted
with resin.
Resources Concentrations of coal in such forms that economic extraction is
currently or may become feasible. Coal resources broken down by identified and
undiscovered resources. Identified coal resources are classified as demonstrated and
inferred. Demonstrated resources are further broken down as measured and indicated.
Undiscovered resources are broken down as hypothetical and speculative.
Respirable dust - Dust particles 5 microns or less in size.
Respirable dust sample - A sample collected with an approved coal mine dust
sampler unit attached to a miner, or so positioned as to measure the concentration of
respirable dust to which the miner is exposed, and operated continuously over an
entire work shift of such miner.
Retreat mining - A system of robbing pillars in which the robbing line, or line
through the faces of the pillars being extracted, retreats from the boundary toward the
shaft or mine mouth.
Return - The air or ventilation that has passed through all the working faces of a split.
Return idler - The idler or roller underneath the cover or cover plates on which the
conveyor belt rides after the load which it was carrying has been dumped at the head
section and starts the return trip toward the foot section.
Rib - The side of a pillar or the wall of an entry. The solid coal on the side of any
underground passage. Same as rib pillar.
Rider - A thin seam of coal overlying a thicker one.
Ripper - A coal extraction machine that works by tearing the coal from the face.
Rob - To extract pillars of coal previously left for support.
35
Robbed out area - Describes that part of a mine from which the pillars have been
removed.
Roll - (1) A high place in the bottom or a low place in the top of a mine passage, (2) a
local thickening of roof or floor strata, causing thinning of a coal seam.
Roll protection - A framework, safety canopy, or similar protection for the operator
when equipment overturns.
Roof - The stratum of rock or other material above a coal seam; the overhead surface
of a coal-working place. Same as "back" or "top."
Roof bolt - A long steel bolt driven into the roof of underground excavations to
support the roof, preventing and limiting the extent of roof falls. The unit consists of
the bolt (up to 4 feet long), steel plate, expansion shell, and pal nut. The use of roof
bolts eliminates the need for timbering by fastening together, or "laminating," several
weaker layers of roof strata to build a "beam."
Roof fall - A coal mine cave-in especially in permanent areas such as entries.
Roof jack - A screw- or pump-type hydraulic extension post made of steel and used
as temporary roof support.
Roof sag - The sinking, bending, or curving of the roof, especially in the middle, from
weight or pressure.
Roof stress - Unbalanced internal forces in the roof or sides, created when coal is
extracted.
Roof support Posts, jacks, roof bolts and beams used to support the rock overlying
a coal seam in an underground mine. A good roof support plan is part of mine safety
and coal extraction.
Roof trusses - A combination of steel rods anchored into the roof to create zones of
compression and tension forces and provide better support for weak roof and roof
over wide areas.
Room and pillar mining A method of underground mining in which approximately
half of the coal is left in place to support the roof of the active mining area. Large
"pillars" are left while "rooms" of coal are extracted.
Room neck - The short passage from the entry into a room.
Round - Planned pattern of drill holes fired in sequence in tunnelling, shaft sinking,
or stopping. First the cut holes are fired, followed by relief, lifter, and rib holes.
Royalty - The payment of a certain stipulated sum on the mineral produced.
Rubbing surface - The total area (top, bottom, and sides) of an airway.
Run-of-mine - Raw material as it exists in the mine; average grade or quality.
S
Safety fuse - A train of powder enclosed in cotton, jute yarn, or waterproofing
compounds, which burns at a uniform rate; used for firing a cap containing the
detonation compound which in turn sets off the explosive charge.
Safety lamp - A lamp with steel wire gauze covering every opening from the inside
to the outside so as to prevent the passage of flame should explosive gas be
encountered.
Sampling - Cutting a representative part of an ore (or coal) deposit, which should
truly represent its average value.
Sandstone - A sedimentary rock consisting of quartz sand united by some cementing
material, such as iron oxide or calcium carbonate.
Scaling - Removal of loose rock from the roof or walls. This work is dangerous and a
long bar (called a scaling bar)is often used.
Scoop - A rubber tired-, battery- or diesel-powered piece of equipment designed for
cleaning runways and hauling supplies.
36
Scrubber Any of several forms of chemical/physical devices that remove sulfur
compounds formed during coal combustion. These devices, technically know as flue
gas desulphurisation systems, combine the sulfur in gaseous emissions with another
chemical medium to form inert "sludge," which must then be removed for disposal.
Seam - A stratum or bed of coal.
Secondary roof - The roof strata immediately above the coalbed, requiring support
during the excavating of coal.
Section - A portion of the working area of a mine.
Selective mining - The object of selective mining is to obtain a relatively high-grade
mine product; this usually entails the use of a much more expensive stopping system
and high exploration and development costs in searching for and developing the
separate bunches, stringers, lenses, and bands of ore.
Self-contained breathing apparatus - A self-contained supply of oxygen used
during rescue work from coal mine fires and explosions; same as SCSR (self-
contained self rescuer).
Self-rescuer A small filtering device carried by a coal miner underground, either on
his belt or in his pocket, to provide him with immediate protection against carbon
monoxide and smoke in case of a mine fire or explosion. It is a small canister with a
mouthpiece directly attached to it. The wearer breathes through the mouth, the nose
being closed by a clip. The canister contains a layer of fused calcium chloride that
absorbs water vapour from the mine air. The device is used for escape purposes only
because it does not sustain life in atmospheres containing deficient oxygen. The
length of time a self-rescuer can be used is governed mainly by the humidity in the
mine air, usually between 30 minutes and one hour.
Severance The separation of a mineral interest from other interests in the land by
grant or reservation. A mineral dead or grant of the land reserving a mineral interest,
by the landowner before leasing accomplishes a severance as does his execution of a
mineral lease.
Shaft - A primary vertical or non-vertical opening through mine strata used for
ventilation or drainage and/or for hoisting of personnel or materials; connects the
surface with underground workings.
Shaft mine An underground mine in which the main entry or access is by means of
a vertical shaft.
Shale - A rock formed by consolidation of clay, mud, or silt, having a laminated
structure and composed of minerals essentially unaltered since deposition.
Shearer - A mining machine for longwall faces that uses a rotating action to "shear"
the material from the face as it progresses along the face.
Shift - The number of hours or the part of any day worked.
Shortwall An underground mining method in which small areas are worked (15 to
150 feet) by a continuous miner in conjunction with the use of hydraulic roof
supports.
Shuttle car A self-discharging truck, generally with rubber tires or caterpillar-type
treads, used for receiving coal from the loading or mining machine and transferring it
to an underground loading point, mine railway or belt conveyor system.
Sinking - The process by which a shaft is driven.
Skid - A track-mounted vehicle used to hold trips or cars from running out of control.
Also it is a flat-bottom personnel or equipment carrier used in low coal.
Skip - A car being hoisted from a slope or shaft.
Slack - Small coal; the finest-sized soft coal, usually less than one inch in diameter.
Slag - The waste product of the process of smelting.
37
Slate - A miner's term for any shale or slate accompanying coal. Geologically, it is a
dense, fine-textured, metamorphic rock, which has excellent parallel cleavage so that
it breaks into thin plates or pencil-like shapes.
Slate bar - The proper long-handled tool used to pry down loose and hazardous
material from roof, face, and ribs.
Slickenside - A smooth, striated, polished surface produced on rock by friction.
Slip - A fault. A smooth joint or crack where the strata have moved on each other.
Slope - Primary inclined opening, connection the surface with the underground
workings.
Slope mine An underground mine with an opening that slopes upward or downward
to the coal seam.
Sloughing - The slow crumbling and falling away of material from roof, rib, and face.
Solid - Mineral that has not been undermined, sheared out, or otherwise prepared for
blasting.
Sounding - Knocking on a roof to see whether it is sound and safe to work under.
Spad A spad is a flat spike hammered into a wooden plug anchored in a hole drilled
into the mine ceiling from which is threaded a plumbline. The spad is an underground
survey station similar to the use of stakes in marking survey points on the surface. A
pointer spad, or sight spad, is a station that allows a mine foreman to visually align
entries or breaks from the main spad.
Span - The horizontal distance between the side supports or solid abutments along
sides of a roadway.
Specific gravity - The weight of a substance compared with the weight of an equal
volume of pure water at 4 degrees Celsius.
Split - Any division or branch of the ventilating current. Also, the workings ventilated
by one branch. Also, to divide a pillar by driving one or more roads through it.
Squeeze - The settling, without breaking, of the roof and the gradual upheaval of the
floor of a mine due to the weight of the overlying strata.
Steeply inclined - Said of deposits and coal seams with a dip of from 0.7 to 1 rad (40
degrees to 60 degrees).
Stemming - The noncombustible material used on top or in front of a charge or
explosive.
Strike - The direction of the line of intersection of a bed or vein with the horizontal
plane. The strike of a bed is the direction of a straight line that connects two points of
equal elevation on the bed.
Stripping ratio The unit amount of overburden that must be removed to gain access
to a similar unit amount of coal or mineral material.
Stump - Any small pillar.
Subbituminous Coal of a rank intermediate between lignite and bituminous.
Subsidence The gradual sinking or sometimes abrupt collapse, of the rock and soil
layers into an underground mine. Structures and surface features above the subsidence
area can be affected.
Sump - The bottom of a shaft, or any other place in a mine, that is used as a collecting
point for drainage water.
Sumping - To force the cutter bar of a machine into or under the coal. Also called a
sumping cut, or sumping in.
Support - The all-important function of keeping the mine workings open. As a verb,
it refers to this function; as a noun it refers to all the equipment and materials--timber,
roof bolts, concrete, steel, etc.--that are used to carry out this function.
38
Surface mine A mine in which the coal lies near the surface and can be extracted
by removing the covering layers of rock and soil.
Suspension - Weaker strata hanging from stronger, overlying strata by means of roof
bolts.
Syncline - A fold in rock in which the strata dip inward from both sides toward the
axis. The opposite of anticline.
T
Tailgate - A subsidiary gate road to a conveyor face as opposed to a main gate. The
tailgate commonly acts as the return airway and supplies road to the face.
Tailpiece - Also known as foot section pulley. The pulley or roller in the tail or foot
section of a belt conveyor around which the belt runs.
Tail section - A term used in both belt and chain conveyor work to designate that
portion of the conveyor at the extreme opposite end from the delivery point. In either
type of conveyor it consists of a frame and either a sprocket or a drum on which the
chain or belt travels, plus such other devices as may be required for adjusting belt or
chain tension.
Tension - The act of stretching.
Tertiary - Lateral or panel openings (eg, ramp, crosscut).
Through steel - A system of dust collection from rock or roof drilling. The drill steel
is hollow, and a vacuum is applied at the base, pulling the dust through the steel and
into a receptacle on the machine.
Timber - A collective term for underground wooden supports.
Timbering - The setting of timber supports in mine workings or shafts for protection
against falls from roof, face, or rib.
Timber set - A timber frame to support the roof, sides, and sometimes the floor of
mine roadways or shafts.
Tipple - Originally the place where the mine cars were tipped and emptied of their
coal, and still used in that same sense, although now more generally applied to the
surface structures of a mine, including the preparation plant and loading tracks.
Ton A short or net ton is equal to 2,000 pounds; a long or British ton is 2,240
pounds; a metric ton is approximately 2,205 pounds.
Top - A mine roof; same as "back."
Torque wrench - A wrench that indicates, as on a dial, the amount of torque (in units
of foot-pounds) exerted in tightening a roof bolt.
Tractor - A battery-operated piece of equipment that pulls trailers, skids, or personnel
carriers. Also used for supplies.
Tram - Used in connection with moving self-propelled mining equipment. A
tramming motor may refer to an electric locomotive used for hauling loaded trips or it
may refer to the motor in a cutting machine that supplies the power for moving or
tramming the machine.
Transfer - A vertical or inclined connection between two or more levels and used as
an ore pass.
Transfer point - Location in the materials handling system, either haulage or
hoisting, where bulk material is transferred between conveyances.
Trip - A train of mine cars.
Troughing idlers - The idlers, located on the upper framework of a belt conveyor,
which support the loaded belt. They are so mounted that the loaded belt forms a
trough in the direction of travel, which reduces spillage and increases the carrying
capacity of a belt for a given width.
39
Tunnel - A horizontal, or near-horizontal, underground passage, entry, or
haulageway, that is open to the surface at both ends. A tunnel (as opposed to an adit)
must pass completely through a hill or mountain.
U
Ultimate analysis - Precise determination, by chemical means, of the elements and
compounds in coal.
Undercut - To cut below or undermine the coalface by chipping away the coal by
pick or mining machine. In some localities the terms "undermine" or "underhole" are
used.
Underground mine Also known as a "deep" mine. Usually located several hundred
feet below the earth's surface, an underground mine's coal is removed mechanically
and transferred by shuttle car or conveyor to the surface.
Underground station - An enlargement of an entry, drift, or level at a shaft at which
cages stop to receive and discharge cars, personnel, and material. An underground
station is any location where stationary electrical equipment is installed. This includes
pump rooms, compressor rooms, hoist rooms, battery-charging rooms, etc.
Unit train A long train of between 60 and 150 or more hopper cars, carrying only
coal between a single mine and destination.
Universal coal cutter - A type of coal cutting machine which is designed to make
horizontal cuts in a coal face at any point between the bottom and top or to make
shearing cuts at any point between the two ribs of the place. The cutter bar can be
twisted to make cuts at any angle to the horizontal or vertical.
Upcast shaft - A shaft through which air leaves the mine.
V
Valuation - The act or process of valuing or of estimating the value or worth;
appraisal.
Velocity - Rate of airflow in lineal feet per minute.
Ventilation - The provision of a directed flow of fresh and return air along all
underground roadways, travelling roads, workings, and service parts.
Violation - The breaking of any state or federal mining law.
Virgin - Unworked; untouched; often said of areas where there has been no coal
mining.
Void - A general term for pore space or other reopenings in rock. In addition to pore
space, the term includes vesicles, solution cavities, or any openings either primary or
secondary.
Volatile matter - The gaseous part, mostly hydrocarbons, of coal.
W
Waste - That rock or mineral which must be removed from a mine to keep the mining
scheme practical, but which has no value.
Water Gauge (standard U-tube) - Instrument that measures differential pressures in
inches of water.
Wedge - A piece of wood tapering to a thin edge and used for tightening in
conventional timbering.
Weight - Fracturing and lowering of the roof strata at the face as a result of mining
operations, as in "taking weight".
White damp - Carbon monoxide, CO. A gas that may be present in the afterdamp of
a gas- or coal-dust explosion, or in the gases given off by a mine fire; also one of the
constituents of the gases produced by blasting. Rarely found in mines under other
circumstances. It is absorbed by the haemoglobin of the blood to the exclusion of
oxygen. One-tenth of 1% (.001) may be fatal in 10 minutes.
40
41
Width - The thickness of a lode measured at right angles to the dip.
Winning - The excavation, loading, and removal of coal or ore from the ground;
winning follows development.
Winze - Secondary or tertiary vertical or near-vertical opening sunk from a point
inside a mine for the purpose of connecting with a lower level or of exploring the
ground for a limited depth below a level.
Wire rope - A steel wire rope used for winding in shafts and underground haulages.
Wire ropes are made from medium carbon steels. Various constructions of wire rope
are designated by the number of strands in the rope and the number of wires in each
strand. The following are some common terms encountered: airplane strand; cablelaid
rope; cane rope; elevator rope; extra-flexible hoisting rope; flat rope; flattened-strand
rope; guy rope; guy strand; hand rope; haulage rope; hawser; hoisting rope; lang lay
rope; lay; left lay rope; left twist; nonspinning rope; regular lay; reverse-laid rope;
rheostat rope; right lay; right twist; running rope; special flexible hoisting rope;
standing rope; towing hawser; transmission rope.
Working - When a coal seam is being squeezed by pressure from roof and floor, it
emits creaking noises and is said to be "working". This often serves as a warning to
the miners that additional support is needed.
Working face - Any place in a mine where material is extracted during a mining
cycle.
Working place - From the outbye side of the last open crosscut to the face.
Workings - The entire system of openings in a mine for the purpose of exploitation.
Working section - From the faces to the point where coal is loaded onto belts or rail
cars to begin its trip to the outside.

6 Mining Methods Classification System

The classification system for mining methods provides an initial guideline for
preliminary selection of a method or methods for mining a mineral deposit. It has
great significance as the choices made here will impinge on all future mine design
decisions and also on safety, finances and the environment.

The assumptions made in the classification system are:

1. Knowledge of the mining methods
2. Understanding of ground control, excavation techniques and bulk handling
equipment.

The system developed here is based upon the system developed in the SME Mining
Engineering Handbook (ed. Hartmann H.L) and is a hybrid of many similar systems.

6.1 Input Statement

The important input parameters are listed in Table 1.
UG prod sys/ 2004 1

Table 1: Input parameters. (After Hartmann H.L, SME Mining Engineering
Handbook)



6.2 Spatial Description

Ideal ore-bodies are geometrically characterised by an idealised shape, complex ore-
bodies are composed of a number of idealised shapes. Ideal shapes are either tabular
or massive. Tabular ore-bodies have extensive dimensions in two dimensions,
massive ore-bodies have extensive dimensions in three dimensions. Inclination of ore-
bodies has to be taken into account especially for tabular ore-bodies. Thickness of the
orebody is also an important parameter as it has a direct influence on support
requirements. The following tables identify a number of variables which need to be
accounted for in the classification and selection system.
UG prod sys/ 2004 2

Table 2:Tabular deposits classified by attitude and related to bulk handling and rock
strength. (After Hartmann H.L, SME Mining Engineering Handbook)

Table 3: Surface pit slopes related to rock strength and time. (After Hartmann H.L,
SME Mining Engineering Handbook)

UG prod sys/ 2004 3
Table 4: Underground deposits classified by thickness. (After Hartmann H.L, SME
Mining Engineering Handbook)


Table 5: Deposits classified by depth. (After Hartmann H.L, SME Mining
Engineering Handbook)

UG prod sys/ 2004 4
Table 6: Deposit classified by geometry and type. (After Hartmann H.L, SME Mining
Engineering Handbook)

Table 7: Rocks classified by strength. (After Hartmann H.L, SME Mining
Engineering Handbook)
6.3 Classifying underground mining methods

In the case of underground methods two main independent parameters are considered
to form a matrix, these being:

UG prod sys/ 2004 5
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. The support requirement to produce stable stopes or to produce caving
ons where both of the methods
entioned in the previous sentence can be employed.
rmation from tables 5 and 7. The main areas for concern are
e roof, pillars and fill.
inally competent
ither heavy artificial support is required or caving can be expected.
size will affect recovery. Typical slenderness
tios are 10/1 for coal to 1/3 for rock.
raw control. Caving methods suffer the problems of dilution
nd/or poor recovery.
or flat
eposits the use of fill is less useful because of shrinkage and settlement effect.
imbering can also be employed as a means of support.
counted for in the case of individual deposits
ome of these are shown in Table 11.

1. The basic deposit geometry
2

Deposit geometry is important in a number of ways. Flat deposits require machine
handling of the bulk solid at or near the production point, steep deposits can employ
gravity. Obviously there is a range of middle conditi
m

Ground control requires knowledge of the structure, material and loads which will be
present. In this case the structure is the opening, the material is the rock and the loads
are the pressures. Table 8 gives the structural components for strength and deposit
type and is based on info
th

The main roof or hanging wall differs from the intermediate roof by being the critical
load bearing element between the overburden and the pillars. The intermediate roof
can be removed (mined) or supported artificially and lightly. The main roof can be
defined as the first close in, competent strata or rock. If it is marg
e

Pillars are used to support the main roof and the loads associated with it. Pillars can be
of ore or of waste rock. Pillars not only need to be sufficiently strong, they also
require to be adequately stiff. Pillars that are strong but not adequately stiff result in
roof collapse about the pillar. Minimum pillar sizes or slenderness ratios therefore
exist but it should be noted that pillar
ra

In hard rock situations continuous vertical pillars are used. Stopes are usually filled
after mining, except in the case of some caving methods, to provide long term
stability. When a massive deposit comprises of weak rock and the cap rock is weak
caving methods are required either in the form of horizontal lifts or as block caving.
Caving always requires a sufficient span in order to be initiated, this is usually >9m,
it also requires good d
a

Fill, often in the form of a sandy slurry can be easily introduced into confined
(plugged), inclined and steep tabular stopes. Once drained and dry the hardened fill
provides permanent resistance to ground movement. It is widely employed and can
either be progressively placed as a stope is mined out or done all at once. F
d

T

Based on the understanding of bulk handling and ground control the classification
system shown in Table 10 can be employed. It must be recognised that the factors
taken into account in this classification system are limited and that in most cases
numerous other factors need to be ac
s

Table 8: Structural components located and described for underground mining. (After Hartmann H.L, SME Mining Engineering Handbook)



UG prod sys/ 2004 7
Table 9: Deposit and structural components related to underground mining methods. (After Hartmann H.L, SME Mining Engineering
Handbook)




UG prod sys/ 2004 8
Table 10: Classification of underground mining methods based on deposit geometry and support. (After Hartmann H.L, SME Mining
Engineering Handbook)
UG prod sys/ 2004 9





Table 11: Secondary factors to be considered in selecting a mining method. (After Hartmann H.L, SME Mining Engineering Handbook)

UG prod sys/ 2004 11
Table 11 continued: Secondary factors to be considered in selecting a mining method. (After Hartmann H.L, SME Mining Engineering
Handbook)
UG prod sys/ 2004 12
6.4 Selecting a mining method

The objective in selecting a mining method to extract a particular ore deposit is the
design of an ore extraction system that is the most suitable given the particular
circumstances. One interpretation of this is maximisation of profit, but it is a decision
that is based on a number of technical and other considerations. As an example high
productivity, complete extraction of the ore and safe working conditions are all
factors that need to be considered in selecting a mining method.

In some cases conditions around a particular deposit may be quite distinctive and may
dictate a particular method or immediately exclude other methods. In such cases the
method selection is limited to adapting and refining the general method to suit the
orebody. In other cases several methods may be applicable requiring comparison and
evaluation of the methods.

Whichever of the above is the case the planning and evaluation of the mining method
coupled with the preliminary selection of equipment is a task that requires careful
study and consideration. Once plans are set and development has begun change to an
alternative method is difficult and costly.

The emphasis on carefully skilled engineering cannot be underestimated. A mining
project started today will require several years to reach production and will be
expected to produce for several years. Thus a time factor exists. Whilst mining
techniques can be expected to remain essentially the same the rapid developments in
machinery and ore utilisation can have a marked effect. This means knowledge of the
most up to date developments in mining engineering and an idea of future trends is
essential.

Flexibility and growth should also be incorporated into any plans, a particularly good
example of this is the provision of ventilation.

How does one select a mining method?

Step one is obviously a compilation and evaluation of the facts known about the
orebody from geological/mining information, eg surface and/or underground core
drilling, information from development drives and/or production information.

A number of the factors that need consideration have been identified in the previous
sections and include:

1) Geological conditions
a) Dip: see Table 12.
b) Rock strength: see Table 13.
c) Span limits
2) Ore Reserves and Grades
3) Ore Value: does one use simply the mineral content multiplied by the price, or
market value minus the mining costs. Also how does this enable us to compare
methods?
UG prod sys/ 2004 13
4) Mining costs and ore values
a) Productivity and Mechanisation
i) Machine considerations
ii) Mine considerations
iii) Efficiency considerations: tonnes/man shift, see Table 14.

Table 12: Ore body depths and mining method.

Dip Mining Method Comments
Flat (0-20 depends on
equipment)
Room and pillar Competent horizontal ore
body
Flat (0-20 depends on
equipment)
Longwall Thin seam
Medium (20-50) Room and pillar Competent orebody
Medium (20-50) Inclined room and pillar Slope will not allow
mechanisation
Medium (20-50) Step room and pillar Stepping allows
mechanisation
Medium (20-50) Longwall Thin seam
Medium (20-50) Cut and fill Firm orebody, allows
selectivity and
mechanisation
Medium (20-50) Square set mining High grade, labour
intensive
Steep (>50, allows
gravity flow)
Sublevel stoping Competent orebody with
regular boundaries
Steep (>50, allows
gravity flow)
Shrinkage stoping Competent ore, regular
boundaries, delayed ore
recovery
Steep (>50, allows
gravity flow)
Cut and Fill stoping Firm orebody, allows
selectivity and
mechanisation
Steep (>50, allows
gravity flow)
Sub-level caving Large orebody, extensive
development
Steep (>50, allows
gravity flow)
Block caving Massive orebody,
extensive development
Steep (>50, allows
gravity flow)
Longwall Thin seam
Steep (>50, allows
gravity flow)
Square set mining High grade, labour
intensive

UG prod sys/ 2004 14
UG prod sys/ 2004 15
Table 13: Classification of rock by UCS.

Compressive
Strength

Rock Types kPa bars psi Comments
Quartzite, basalt,
diabase
Over 220,000 Over 2200 Over 32,000 Very high
strength
Most igneous rocks,
stronger
metamorphic rocks,
hard limestone and
dolomite
140,000-220,000 1400-2200 20,000-32,000 High strength
Shales, limestone,
sandstone
100,000-140,000 1000-1400 14,500-20,000 Medium
strength
Friable sandstone,
mudstone, coal
measures
40,000-100,000 400-1000 6,000-14,500 Low strength

Table 14: Productivity for various mining methods.

Tonnes/man shift
Method Normal High
Room and Pillar 30-50 50-70
Sublevel caving 20-40 40-50
Block Caving 15-40 40-50
Sublevel Stoping 15-30 30-40
Cut and Fill Mining 10-20 30-40
Shrinkage Stoping 5-10 10-15
Square set Mining 1-3 -

Further details on method classification and method selection can be found in:

Hartman, H.L. SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition, Colorado:
SME Inc., 1992. (Note also available as a CD-ROM)

Gertsch R.E and Bullock R.L Techniques in Underground Mining, Colorado:
SME Inc, 1998. Chapter 2.

Bise, C.J . Mining Engineering Analysis, Colorado, SME Inc, 1986.


7 Dilution and Recovery

A simple definition of recovery from a mining viewpoint is the amount of ore, which
is extracted from an orebody compared to the total ore available in the orebody prior
to mining. Dilution can also be easily defined, as the existence of non-ore bearing
rock into the feed of ore to the mill from the mine. It is the inclusion of waste material
other than that immediately associated with the ore itself, ie the rock which the
mineral one is trying to mine is contained in.

The aim of the mining engineer is to devise systems of ore recovery, which will
maximise recovery taking into account all factors. Mining systems do exist which
achieve almost 100% recovery, but most achieve much lower figures for numerous
reasons. Given this one would assume that mining engineers would wish to minimise
dilution, unfortunately life is not as simple as this. Mining is one chain in a production
cycle, broadly mining can be defined as:

With due consideration to the quality of the ore and country rock the mine shall
deliver for further processing a product that gives the lowest cost from firm rock to
finished metal. (Ingler 1975)

Based on the above the most effective mining method is one that makes the highest
contribution to this goal at the lowest possible cost. Herein lies the problem is the
lowest cost solution the best solution? Reduction of rock dilution by increasing the
cost of the mining method can enhance profitability, it can also have the opposite
effect.

Considering simply how rock dilution can vary annual income consider the following:

a
o
=mineral assay of ore in situ
a
h
=mineral assay of hoisted ore
D =rock dilution in %
I =income per year

The following simple formula can be defined

100
1
D
a a
o h


For mining method 1 and method 2 the quotient between the mineral assay of 1 and 2
is then


100
1
100
1
21
1
2
1
D
D
a
a
h
h

Annual income is a function of the mineral assay of the hoisted ore, thus:

2
1
2
1
h
h
a
a
I
I


The above is highly simplistic as numerous marginal effects such as overbreakage,
powder factors, blasthole burden etc can have an important effect on dilution.

7.1 Sampling

Mine Sampling determines the practicability of a mining operation. Sampling that is
not undertaken correctly can lead to an incorrect appraisal of present production and
future potential.

Sampling consists of a process by which portions of an orebody are collected and
analysed to estimate the average mineral content of the entire orebody. A large
number of samples will not eliminate errors in a sampling method. Unbiased samples
must be collected and proper sample location with respect to rock type and
mineralisation is important.

Sampling also allows collection of information about the bulk composition of ore for
mineralogical and metallurgical tests, these allow the determination of economic ore-
waste boundaries and geological trends for exploration. Real mining plans can be
developed from this information to achieve maximum profitability.

Accurate sampling is critical and must be approached in a scientific manner.

7.1.1 Sampling techniques

These vary from mine to mine and are tailored to specific mining companies or mine
needs. For routine day to day sampling four techniques are suitable:

1. Channel sampling
2. Chip sampling
3. Grab sampling
4. Bulk sampling

The final sampling results depend on how these methods are combined to accurately
determine the grade of the orebody. Combining these techniques together at different
stages of mine development allows in house checking of sampling procedures, but it
must be noted the best check is still the daily mill production.

7.1.1.1 Channel Sampling

Channel samples simply consist of cuttings collected from a groove cut into rock
about 102mm wide and 19mm deep. A number of tools can be used to make the
channel. Careful cleaning of the area needs to be undertaken. The aim is to collect all
the cuttings. The length of the groove requires to be determined accurately.

7.1.1.2 Chip sampling

This is a variant of channel sampling undertaken when the rock is too hard to sample
economically by channel sampling or when little variation in mineral content
indicates that this method will produce the same results as channel sampling. Chip
sampling involves flaking small chips at regular intervals over the entire area being
sampled.

7.1.1.3 Grab Sampling

This is a fast method for providing a double check of either of the two previous
methods. Grab sampling takes equal amounts of material at selected intervals over a
mine dump, muck pile or from an ore car to determine the mineral content. As a
method it is not considered reliable as numerous independent variables can affect the
process.

7.1.1.4 Bulk Sampling

Used to evaluate ore zones with irregularly distributed mineralisation or to determine
composite ore characteristics. The amount collected is variable but can range from a
few kg to several tonnes.

7.2 Mine Sampling

The importance of accurate sampling can become obscured in the routine day to day
operations of a mine. However accurate information is essential to allow the
production of accurate mine plans for production and influences:

1. Guiding development headings
2. Ore Reserve calculation
3. Production grades in stopes
4. Mineralogical and Metallurgical evaluation.

7.2.1 Development Headings

All headings are sampled on a daily basis to determine the ore content at the face.
This allows determination of the assay boundaries and the projection of mill head
grades. Channel or chip sampling is commonly used and accurate logging is essential.

7.2.2 Ore Reserve calculations

These are a part of the permanent mine record (also require reporting to outside
bodies) and require updating on a regular basis to include newly developed reserves
and depletion of reserves from production areas.

7.2.3 Production Grades

Sampling provides sample control for daily production. Mine head grade as opposed
to mill head grade is closely monitored to assure that the mill receives the required
grade of ore.


References

Gertsch R.E and Bullock R.L Techniques in Underground Mining, Colorado: SME
Inc, 1998. Chapter 4.

J ones, M. J ., ed., 1974, Geological, Mining and Metallurgical Sampling. Proc IMM.

AusIMM Australasian Code for Reporting of Identified Mineral Resources and Ore
Reserves (The J ORC Code), 1996

AusIMM, Code and Guidelines for Assessment and Valuation of Mineral Assets and
Mineral Securities for Independent Expert Reports (The Valmin Code), 1998

(Both the above can be viewed at http://www.ausimm.com.au)


8 General Economic Overview

The economic appraisal techniques used in mining form the basis of other units in this
course, EG 408 Company Economics and Finance and EG 410 Ore Reserve
Estimation,

The importance of mining to the world economy and in particular the economy of
Australia has been the subject of numerous studies and reports. A particularly good
recent example is presented at:

Minerals: Our wealth down under, A Stoekel (1999)

http://www.minerals.org.au/media/view_pub.asp?Pub_ID=120&PageNumber=1

8.1 Determining the worth of a deposit

This is a complex procedure. The following section details a method for determining
the revenue from mining an ore body.

In the simplest case, that of a single product ore body, the revenue can be easily
computed from the metal price and the metallurgical recovery. For example if the
gold price is $ 370/oz, metallurgical recovery is 95%, then for a 100 tonne block with
a grade of 2.5 g/tonne the revenue is given by:

Grade x metal price x Recovery =2.5 x (370/31.1035) x 0.95 x 100 =$2,825

Note the factor of 31.1035 converts the gold price into a price per gramme.

In more complex cases where several products with different process/treatment routes
exist the revenue calculation becomes more complex. Two approaches can be used,
each product can be considered individually and then combined to give revenue, or
more simply equivalent grades can be used. This is best shown by example.

A deposit has four products, Cu, Au, Ag and S. For each of these products a market
price is known as are the costs incurred in extracting the product ($/unit of product).

Commodity Market Price Processing costs Net commodity
price
Cu $ 1,800 US$/t $ 461.610 $ 1,338.390
Au $ 13.30 US$/g $ 9.883 $ 3.417
Ag $ 0.202 US$/g $ 0.147 $ 0.055
S $ 155 US$/t $ 60.340 $ 94.790

From the standardised net commodity price and the metallurgical recovery an
equivalence factor can be calculated to convert the grade of any product to an
equivalent copper grade.

recovery Copper price Copper
recovery Product Price Product
factor e Equivalenc

Commodity Net commodity
price expressed
per tonne of
product
Recovery % Equivalence factor
Cu $ 1,338.39 76.6 1.0 Cu% to Cu%
Au $ 3,417 47.0 1.5665 Au g/t to Cu%
Ag $ 55 48.0 0.0258 Ag g/t to Cu %
S $ 94.79 82.0 0.07582 S % to Cu %

The above Equivalence factors the copper equivalent grade of a block can be
calculated.

Commodity Block Grade Equivalence
factor
Equivalent
Copper
Cu 0.2% 1 0.20000
Au 0.2 g/t Au 1.5665 0.3133
Ag 20 g/t Ag 0.0258 0.5160
S 2% 0.07582 0.1564

Thus the commodities in this block have a combined value equivalent to a block only
containing copper but at a grade of 1.1857%, in other words the sum of the last
column in the table above.

The revenue from this equivalent copper grade is:

Revenue =Equivalent Cu grade x Cu recovery x Net commodity price

Revenue =1.1857 x 0.766 x 1338.39 =$1215.58

The concept of equivalent grades is also useful as a tool when considering cut off
grades in polymetallic deposits.

The paper by Stebbins and Schumacher details a techniques for estimating costs for
various underground mining methods.


9 Mining Methods

Mining methods vary from mine to mine and even within individual mines. Thus
classifying a mine to use a particular type of system of producing ore can in some
cases be difficult. However no matter which production system is used mining
systems can be broadly classified according to the following criteria:

1. Self-Supported Methods
2. Supported Methods
3. Caving methods
4. Novel methods

Within this course we will follow the above classification and for each of the above
methods the following underground mining methods will be investigated in detail:

1) Self Supported Methods
a) Room and Pillar
b) Stope and Pillar
c) Shrinkage Stoping
d) Sublevel Stoping
e) Vertical Crater Retreat
2) Supported Methods
a) Cut and Fill Stoping
3) Caving Methods
a) Longwall Mining
b) Sublevel Caving
c) Block Caving
4) Novel Methods
a) Highwall mining
b) Auger Mining

For each mining type, the method will be described in detail, any variations on the
technique will be described, where possible case studies will illustrate the general
principles of how the method is used in practice, economic and occupational health
and safety issues will be highlighted. At the end of this section a general overview of
advantages and disadvantages of each method will be given as well as defining their
range of applicability for metalliferous and coal types of mining.



Figure 1: Basic Mine Infrastructure.(After Hamrin H, Atlas Copco, Mining and
Construction Methods Guide to Underground Mining Methods and Applications,
Fourth edition, Atlas Copco, 1997, Sweden)

9.1. Self Supporting Methods

Self Supporting, open stoping underground methods of mining are some of the earliest
mining methods in existence, examples include the prehistoric flint mines of Western
Europe and the Egyptian gold mines in the time of the Pharaohs. There is a good
reason for this, when early miners created an opening underground it had to be stable
and self supporting in order to allow the mine to develop. So as mining progressed
from simple fossicking self supporting methods of stoping were developed to meet the
needs of orebodies. Timber as a means of additional support was introduced to mining
at about 1000 BC but was used for local ground control only. Open stoping methods
produce more tonnage today than any other mining system.

The characteristics of open stoping methods are as follows:

1) Applied in moderate to strong rocks with little jointing or fragmentation.
2) Good back, hanging and footwall conditions requiring no more than incidental
support.
3) All inclinations of I can be mined.
4) Mechanical and gravity ore movement used depending on I inclination.

Table 1 below details the range of orebodies suitable for open stoping.

Table 1:Application of open stoping methods (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Flat dipping applications usually employ ore pillars for support and ground control
which can be recovered in some cases once the stope has finished normal operations
(ie pillar recovery). In steeper ore bodies rib, crown and sill pillars are employed to
block out the ore and can be recovered once stoping has been completed. To enable
recovery of pillars open stopes are usually filled. Vertical crater retreat and shrinkage
stoping use the fragmented ore to provide temporary support.

Self-supported stopes in orebodies over 6m thick are primarily high production and
are amenable to unnelling n . Two developments have made the application of
UG prod sys/ 2004 1
open stoping in the modern mining industry a highly attractive method for the right
type of I, these being:

1) The development of large diameter (150-200mm) downhole drills which have
improved the accuracy of drilling long blast holes (120m +).
2) The development of trackless mining.

9.1.1 Room and Pillar Mining



Figure 2: Classical Room and Pillar Mining (After Hamrin H, Atlas Copco, Mining
and Construction Methods Guide to Underground Mining Methods and Applications,
Fourth edition, Atlas Copco, 1997, Sweden)

Room and Pillar mining is a type of open stoping used in horizontal or near horizontal
deposits in reasonably competent rock. The roof is supported primarily by pillars. Ore
or more commonly coal is extracted using rectangular shaped rooms (entries) leaving
pillars of ore or coal to support the hangingwall or roof. The pillars are arranged in a
regular pattern or grid, this simplifies planning and operation. Pillars are usually
rectangular but can be any shape. The room and pillar dimensions depend on a
number of factors, including:

1) Stability of the hangingwall (roof)
2) Strength of the ore
3) Thickness of the deposit
4) Mining depth

The aim is to extract the maximum amount of ore possible with the proviso that this
must be compatible with safe working conditions. Ore left in the pillars is generally
regarded as being irrecoverable or recoverable only with backfill in non-coal mining.
In coal mining pillars can be recovered by retreat mining allowing the roof to cave so
relieving stress and reducing the likelihood of bumps.

Room and pillar mining is employed in flat or horizontal deposits or those that have a
dip of less than 30. The main requirement is that the roof is relatively competent over
a short time period or that it is capable of support by rock bolts. It is particularly
UG prod sys/ 2004 2
suited to bedded deposits of moderate thickness (2-6m) such as coal (its main use),
salt, potash, limestone and gypsum.

9.1.1.1Pillar Design

9.1.1.1.1 Pillar Stress

Figure 3: Section and plan of rooms and pillars with widths and dimensions for simple
analysis. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

The method has a simple structure. But despite this and the advances made in rock
mechanics, pillar design has changed little for over 100 years. The basic assumption is
that the stress in a pillar is evenly distributed and equals the original geostatic stress
divided by the pillar area/original area ratio. As such pillar failure occurs when this
stress exceeds the compressive strength of the pillar rock. In a material, which
consists of a jointed, brittle material such as rock where there may be high
width/height ratios this is a somewhat I assumption.

Coates (1981) employed the following method. Starting with the simplest and
traditional statement of average pillar stress, the tributary method (this assumes that
UG prod sys/ 2004 3
each pillar supports all the overlying strata that are tributary to their location) the
following was developed:

The average pillar stress for square pillars with consistent width rooms is:
( )
p
o p
z pa
B
B B +
o = o

o
pa
=average pillar stress
B
p
=width of pillar
B
o
=width of room
o
z
=pre-mining stress acting normal to the excavation plane.

If the plane of excavation is horizontal then

o
z
=z

( )
p o
o
B B
B
R
+
=
Where =the rock unit average weight and z is the mining horizon depth. For the
case of rectangular or irregular shaped pillars this can be stated more simply by using
the extraction ratio R, which is the ratio of the I extracted to the total area of the I
mined. Now
( )
p o
p
B B
B
R 1
+
=

The equation for average stress can be written as:

This method assumes the following:
R 1
1
z pa

o = o

1 Mined area extensive and shallow
2 Mined rock is horizontally stratified
3 Pillars are equidimensional

It ignores the following:

1 The relative extent and depth of the mined area
2 Stress component parallel to plane of mining
3 Deformation (relative deformation) properties of the roof, pillar and floor rocks
4 Position of pillars in the mining zone

UG prod sys/ 2004 4
Taking some of these into account, Coates (1981) obtained a more general solution,
principally for deep, long, mine pillars but applicable generally, by solving the
statically indeterminate net deflection of the roof and floor rocks resulting from
mining. Then the solution for average pillar stress becomes:



Where

H =seam height
L =extent of mined area
K
o
=the ratio between o
z
and o
h
or the coefficient of geostatic stress
E
w
, E
p
, v
w
and v
p
=the elastic constants of the wall (roof and floor) and pillar
materials.

The solution above is basically a two dimensional elastic solution in plain strain, it
requires strictly speaking a length to width ration of about 3 or more to be applicable.
Analytical three-dimensional approaches are not feasible, however finite element and
boundary element approaches can be used to provide a numerical solution. Whilst the
above approach is not perfect it can be used to illustrate in a simple manner the
fundamental characteristics of strata and geometry which affect pillar stresses.
Examples include:

1 As the E
w
/E
p
ratio rises the pillar stress reduces from about 4o
z
to level of 0.5o
z
for H/L =B/L =0.1 (NB extraction ratio =80%). This is illustrated in Figure 4.
This illustrates the bridging effect of stiffer roof and floor layers and the
tendency to transfer stress to the side abutment.
2 As L decreases pillar stress reduces, again illustrating the bridging effects of low
spans.

The above are examples and in fact measurements of pillar stress are infrequent. One
interesting set of data is presented by Orawecz (1977) based on work in South Africa.
It should be noted that the concept of average pillar stress is not a good concept, as
pillar stresses are not evenly distributed.

UG prod sys/ 2004 5
Figure 4: Pillar stress (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME,
1992).
UG prod sys/ 2004 6
9.1.1.1.2 Pillar Strength

This has been the subject of a large amount of research, probably the most complete
work being that of Salamon and Monro (1967). The basic problem with pillar strength
is that in a brittle rock strength is dependent on size and also to an extent on the size
of the test specimen. Thus the conventional method of pillar design, which relates
rock strength to pillar strength via a factor of safety, is unacceptable for brittle rocks,
but it may be acceptable for more ductile rocks. Whilst this may be the case academic
arguments are not always applicable in industry and the factor of safety method still is
used widely in industry. The advantage of employing a factor of safety is that it takes
into account size effects and safe design. Quoted values of safety factor are not easy
to find, however factors of safety of 4 to 5 are commonly applied in industry.


Figure 5: (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

9.1.1.1.3 Barrier Pillar Design

Room and pillar mines usually are developed as a series of rectangular panels
separated by barrier pillars. No specific design method exists for barrier pillars, but
where the roof is not caved or if pillars are left in place the design of barrier pillars is
highly important. Figure 5 shows that pillar stress is not necessarily evenly
distributed. If the roof and floor strata are stiffer than the pillar rocks, stress will be
transferred to an abutment. Also a high probability exists that pillar deterioration or
over-mining of highly stressed pillars can cause a reduction in the load bearing
capacity of a pillar or group of pillars causing extensive pillar collapse. This is one of
the most common causes of extensive pillar collapse. Barrier pillars can control this.

UG prod sys/ 2004 7
For longwall coal mines barrier pillar widths of 1/10
th
of working depth have been
suggested (Wilson 1983). For room and pillar mining pillar yield needs to be
considered and a commonly applied figure is to design barrier pillars designed to
yield rather than fail in a brittle manner with a width 3 to 4 times the excavation
height. This rule also works at greater mining depths.

9.1.2 Room Support

9.1.2.1 Rock Bolts

Support is the key to room design. In room and pillar mining this implies rock bolts.
Several designs of rock bolt exist, the type of bolt used and the method of installation
can significantly effect their performance. Rock bolts are usually either grouted
(mainly fully grouted) or anchored mechanically into position. Point anchored bolts
are usually tensioned whereas fully grouted bolts are untensioned. Mechanical
anchors are easy to install but are unreliable over a period of time, resin grouted bolts
require more precision when installed but have better long term characteristics.

Bolts are either used singly to provide reinforcement, in a designed pattern to provide
overall support, with wire mesh to stop spalling of rock onto workers or with roof bars
to provide support. They are widely used in roof and pillar mining due to their ease of
use, low cost and simplicity of installation. The only conditions under which rock
bolts should not be used are in rocks prone to swelling or slaking (especially true for
anchored bolts), or where there are high water pore pressures or water flows (in this
case the frictional effect on which the bolt relies or the anchorage effect of grout is
reduced). Bolts also are subject to deterioration and should be considered as
temporary support only as like all rock stress systems they deteriorate with time. At
differential roof deformations of 1-1.5 % they usually cease to function (mechanically
anchored bolts) however shotcreting can improve the situation. Mechanical bolts
require constant monitoring and re-tensioning. Grouted bolts do not suffer the bolt
head failure common in mechanically anchored bolts, however in wet holes resin
grouting is not recommended due to poor adhesion.

UG prod sys/ 2004 8
9.1.3 Methods of Room and Pillar Mining

9.1.3.2 Hard Rock Mining

Room and pillar mining is usually undertaken in panels or sections, which are usually
rectangular and regular in plan. A difference needs to be drawn at this point between
hard rock applications and coal mining as for hard rock the method is very similar to
stope and pillar mining. In hard rock mining grade control is usually the primary
design criteria with ground control and ventilation secondary parameters. In coal
mining the latter are major parameters and panel design requires careful room and
pillar design with panels isolated from others and the remainder of the mine by barrier
pillars and carefully controlled ventilation. Coal mining room and pillar can also
require plans to be made for retreat mining of the pillars and caving.

Hard rock room and pillar is effectively a form of stope and pillar mining at a low
angle to the horizontal or on the horizontal. The method differs from most hard rock
mining applications in that gravity flow of ore is very limited and ore must be loaded
in the excavation from which it has been blasted. This involves the use of trucks and
loaders, LHDs or in some cases slushers. A number of techniques exist, which will
be described in the stope and pillar section of these notes.

9.1.3.3 Coal Mining

Basic unit is termed a panel, this defines the area of the mine to be worked and
ventilated. In a panel two main phases of work can be identified:

1 The rooms are first developed in an advancing mode, isolating the pillars, to the
full extent of the panel.
2 The pillars are then extracted in some cases on the retreat, leaving a caved waste
area otherwise called a goaf or gob.

During room advance conveyor belts and services are extended during room advance
and taken up during retreat. Room advance and pillar extraction can be undertaken
separately, at the same time or the pillars can be left intact. In a paper Kauffman,
Hawkins and Thompson (1983) describe four basic methods of production in room
and pillar coal-mining operations, these can be adapted for other mining operations.
These are shown in Figure 6 and are unnelling as follows:

1 Panel advanced on entry set, rooms only extracted on retreat: In this method a
group of entries, usually 3 or 4, but large enough to handle the required
ventilation, haulage and other required services are developed usually in the
unnel of the panel. These are developed so as to connect to a return airway or
return gas-bleeding system. Once this has been done production rooms in-
groups of four or five are driven in both directions from the unnel entries as
the equipment is retreated from the panels.
2 Full panel advanced on rooms, pillars extracted on retreat: In this method a full
width panel of 10-12 rooms is developed to the full panel length connecting
through to the return airway system. Pillars are then extracted on the retreat until
the complete panel has been mined. It is essential in this case to maintain a pillar
UG prod sys/ 2004 9

Figure 6. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

3 Panel advanced on an entry set, rooms developed and pillars extracted on
retreat: In this method an entry set as in the first method is developed to the full
panel length and a bleeder system (through ventilation) is established. This entry
set can be at the side of a panel, which is usual, or at the unnel of the panel.
Production rooms are then developed to the side of the entry set in-groups of 3
or 4, then production and chain pillars are extracted using flat or angled pillar
lines. As there is a limited number of working faces this method can only be
used with continuous mining.
UG prod sys/ 2004 10
4 Panel developed on an entry set, rooms are developed and pillars extracted on
advance and retreat: this method is only suitable for continuous mining. In the
method rooms are developed and pillars extracted on one side of the panel entry
as panel advance occurs. Once the entry set reaches the panel limit and through
ventilation has been established the rooms on the other side of the entry set are
developed and the resulting pillars and entry set chain pillars are extracted
together on the retreat.

Also in the same paper the desirable features of room and pillar mining were
discussed, these are (note non-conforming methods described above also mentioned):

1 Active working areas should not be near a caved zone. A drawback with
methods 3 and 4.
2 The length of time openings are maintained should be at a minimum. Exposure
time is greatest in cases 1 and 2 and problems with strata and rock bolt
deterioration may occur.
3 Ideal conditions require the maintenance of a solid coal pillar on one side of the
panel entry to reduce pressure on the chain pillars during advance development
of the panel. Not the case in method 4.
4 Work places should be concentrated in a limited area, so reducing the
supervisory area and improving management. Not so in method 2.
5 The tonnage produced between take ups of belts and services should be
unnellin whilst haul distances should be unnellin so reducing downtime and
non-productive time. This is lowest for method 2, highest for 1,3 and 4.
6 Ventilation system should operate with the minimum number of diversions
during mining. Method 4 is the most difficult to ventilate.
7 Bleeder or through flow ventilation should be easy to establish and maintain to
reduce ventilation requirements. Again method 4 presents the most problems.
8 Maximum amount of coal should be recovered.

9.1.3.4 Multiple layer room and pillar

This is a type of pillar mining that is common. The problem here is that where close
vertical spacing of the pillars may cause stability problems in roofs and floors. The
design approach is to reduce stress concentrations in the roof, thus it is logical to
position pillars below pillars. Particular advice for mining multi-seams by room and
pillar methods can be unnelling as:

1) Mining upper seam prior to lower seam. In this case high abutment pressures
under upper seam pillars and abutments is the most likely interaction to be seen in
the lower seam. Particular guidelines that can be adopted include:
a) No pillars should be left in the upper seam
b) Small pillars should be left if partial extraction is unnellin
c) Pillars in upper and lower seams should be columnised
d) No entries should be driven under areas of high stress, such as abutment
zones.
e) Longwalling is the best option for the lower seam.
2) Lower seam mined out prior to mining upper seam: In this case subsidence will be
the main form of trouble, caving induced from below may disrupt mining
UG prod sys/ 2004 11
a) Do not drive entries in the tensile zone of a subsidence trough
b) Reduce subsidence by reducing opening width and extraction ratio
c) Columnise pillars
d) Backfill the lower seam
3) Simultaneously mine upper and lower seams: development and pillaring kept in
advance in the upper seam. Any interaction here may be due to pillar stress
concentrations, design guidelines include
a) Columnise pillars
b) Keep face of upper seam ahead of lower seam by a minimum distance
unnelli the product of the interburden thickness and the angle of draw.

9.1.5 Yielding Pillars

Major concept in pillar mining. Major application is in deep potash mines. Yield
pillars are pillars designed to yield as soon as they are isolated, so transferring their
overburden pressure to the abutment pillars of the panel. This prevents a build up of
pressure from roof and floor at the edges of the pillars in the unnel of the panel,
ensuring improved roof conditions in most rooms at the expense of the outer rooms.

Figure 7 illustrates the principle for a typical 6-entry system. Outer entries are driven
first as quickly as possible. The adjacent entries are then driven immediately
afterwards leaving a yield pillar. Yielding of this pillar should concentrate the stresses
in the abutment pillar so forming a pressure arch that will lower the vertical stresses
over the remainder of the panel while damaging the outer room and abutment edge.
The inner entries can then be driven in stress relieved ground.

Figure 7: Yield pillar layout for a six entry system. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

UG prod sys/ 2004 12
An alternative approach to high extraction used in salt, potash and trona deposits is
sometimes called the time-control technique, this is shown in figure 8. It involves the
rapid single, double or treble entry extraction using a Christmas tree or chevron
approach. This is designed for use in weak ground and the object is to excavate as
much ore as possible rapidly in a controlled manner using secondary yield pillars to
protect a central entry. The aim is also to use as little support as possible over a short
time period. Method cannot be applied in coalmines.


Figure 8: Rapid development or time control layouts used to obtain high productivity
in weak deposits at depth: (a) 3 room yield pillar, (b) Christmas tree and (c) chevron.
(After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

9.1.5 Production Methods: Non-coal

9.1.5.1 Production Cycle

Production cycles between coal and non-coal room and pillar operations need to be
differentiated between because of three main factors:

1 Strength: continuous miners can usually cut weaker coal.
2 Scale: coal seams are usually thinner than non-coal deposits.
3 Gas: coal mines are usually gassy, non-coal mines are usually gas free

Three basic room and pillar mining cycles exist these are illustrated in figure 9. For
hard rock orebodies the basic cycle is similar to hard rock unnellin and has 4 main
elements:

1 Mark out and drill boreholes (wedge pattern is usual)
2 Charge, blast, ventilate to remove blast fumes
3 Muck out and load
4 Scale face and walls, roof bolt as required

UG prod sys/ 2004 13
These elements interact in a complex manner and definition of a critical path can be
difficult.

Figure 9: Flow diagrams and element interaction bar chart for (a) conventional room
and pillar and (b) continuous mining. Conversion factor: 1 ft =0.3048 m. (After
Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

9.1.6 Panel Development

A typical layout is shown in figure 10. Excavation height is 4.5m and the normal
stoping practice is to drive a single development drift about 10.5m wide a distance of
about 4 or 5 rooms into the ore body. This will be the main haulage drive. Pillars are
then marked out and rooms extracted between them. In the case of the initial
unnelli blasting only has a single free face so a cut pattern of blast os required, this
is also called a face round or swing. For a 4.5 x 10.5m face 60-70 holes will be used.
When there is more than one free face a group of holes can be drilled at a low angle to
the face to undertake a slab round, also called slabbing or slashing. This uses much
less explosive.

Drilling usually undertaken by jumbo hydraulic rigs, loading either by gathering arm
loader or LHD then loading directly into trucks, an ore pass system or conveyor.
Typical production figures for this type of mining are given in Table 2.



UG prod sys/ 2004 14
Figure 10: Typical non-coal room and pillar layout. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).
Table 2:Typical productivity of Non-coal room and pillar mines (1970s data). (After
Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

UG prod sys/ 2004 15

9.1.7 Cut and Fill Pillar Mining

In coal mining and other similar operations where the roof caves easily high levels of
extraction can be achieved by pillar extraction on the retreat. When the roof is
stronger as in hard rock applications the pillars are generally left as semi-permanent
support. In high-grade ores at depth or when roof conditions are poor requiring larger
pillars a loss of 25-50% of the ore is unacceptable. In this case backfill may be
considered. Using a form of slot and fill mining rather than room and pillar can more
easily do this. In this system parallel panels or drives are developed across the strike
and then filled in an alternating sequence. An example is shown in figure 11.

Figure 11: Slot and Fill mining layout. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).

9.1.8 Production methods Coal

9.1.8.1 Panel Development

Blasting off the solid is illegal in coal mining mainly due to the danger associated
with blown out shots in a gassy environment. When blasting is used a horizontal cut is
formed in the face first to provide a free face for blasting. Using this reduces the
amount of explosive and the chance of blowouts. In thin seams a bottom cut is used,
in thicker seams a middle cut is used. Typically a cutter jib is used which is 2.7-3.6 m
long, picks are arranged to cut a 150mm slot or kerf. Firstly the cutter jib is sumped
UG prod sys/ 2004 16
into the centre of the face and then moved to each side. The basic set of operations is
indicated in figure 9 (a).

Cyclic systems are usually referred to as conventional room and pillar. Mechanised
mining by continuous miners is much more productive and commoner. Continuous
mining reduces the number of unit operations within a cycle, as shown in figure 9 (b).
Numerous types of continuous miners exist, but all have the same elements, a cutter
head above or combined with a gathering arm loader, which is attached to a small
armoured conveyor. Thus the only delays on the critical path are for ventilation and
support. The reduction in the number of unit operations implies that for efficient
operations a fewer number of faces need to be worked continuously. Figure 12
illustrates this for (a) conventional room and pillar with a six pillar, seven entry
development and (b) continuous miner development of a 4 pillar, 5 room entry set for
the development of a panel.

Figure 12. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

In figure 12 (a) initial development is on 6m rooms with 18x15m pillars. Advance per
cut is 3m. The point on the cycle for each entry is marked on figure 12 (a). A
gathering arm loader with an integral armoured face conveyor (AFC) undertakes
loading. Blasted material loaded by this is transferred to a rubber tyred shuttle car,
which transports the coal to a feeder belt. Usually 2 shuttle cars will be used each
following a separate path to the belt to avoid traffic problems. Typical cycle times are
listed in Table 3.
UG prod sys/ 2004 17

Table 3: (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

As the cycles are concurrent the overall cycle time is influenced by the longest
element in the cycle. Real cycle data is shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Comparisons of productivity estimates for conventional (A) and continuous
miner (b) room and pillar mining. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).

Continuous mining is non-cyclic and uses a smaller crew. The main advantage is the
reduction in cycle times reduces the number of entries that need to be driven to
maintain output. Where the cutting and support operations can be combined and
shuttle cars eliminated by extensible conveyors 30m of continuous driving can be
undertaken to isolate a pillar side before moving the machine.

9.1.8.1 Pillar extraction

Four basic methods exist:

1 Split and Fender
2 Pocket and wing
3 Outside lift
4 Open ending

These are shown in figure 13.
UG prod sys/ 2004 18
Figure 13: (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

1 Split and Fender: most commonly used method in USA. Basically one mines
through the centre of the pillar parallel to the longer side, so creating a split and
fender on each side of the split. Prior to mining breaker posts are put at all
openings to the gob and roadway posts are placed to reduce roadway widths to
4.8m. Turn and breaker posts are employed in the split for additional support, as
are roof bolts. The split has the same dimensions as the original room and the
fender width is fixed so that they can be completely excavated by a continuous
miner without additional support. This feature determines the maximum pillar
width. Usually the minimum fender width is 2.4 m, maximum is 3.9 m. Split
width can vary from 3m to 6m, thus a range of pillar widths from 7.9m to 14m
can be extracted with a single split. Multiple splits can be used on wider pillars
but this is more complex and method 2 would be preferred. No limit exists on
pillar length. Ventilation is difficult. The method is not suitable for wide pillars
and fragile roofs.
2 Pocket and Wing: In this method two working places are extended into the pillar
leaving wings or fenders to support the roof. Easily adapted to extract large
pillars. Ventilation and haulage are easier. The method is used primarily at depth
on large pillars, it is not as efficient as method 1 as it leaves pillars of coal and
cannot be used in bump conditions.
3 Open Ending: Similar to method 2 but the mining sequence is taken along the
sides of the pillars, with breaker posts extended at the pillar edge. It is of limited
use as the roof should be competent enough to span the opening but brittle
enough to break off and cave beyond the breaker posts.
4 Outside lifts: rarely used except to extract narrow pillars.
UG prod sys/ 2004 19

9.1.8.2 Mobile roof support.
as system is shown in figure 14 and typical use
onfigurations shown in figure 15.
support. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
andbook, SME, 1992).

Retreat pillar mining is highly productive. Supply, power, haulage and strata
mechanics knowledge are established during panel advance. It is however dangerous
especially when the roof does not collapse or cave in a predictable manner. Standard
methods of support such as cribs, posts and roof bolts are passive. The application of
longwall based technology in the form of powered roof supports (mobile) has
improved the safety record. Such
c

Figure 14: Mobile roof
h
UG prod sys/ 2004 20

Figure 15: Pillar extraction using two pairs of mobile roof supports. (After Hartman
L, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).
.1.9 Ventilation
ation, line curtains, exhaust ventilation and forcing
entilation to mention a few.

References
.F., 1981, Rock Mechanics Principles, Monograph 874 (revised) CANMET,
ttawa.
Retreat
ining: A Manual for the Coal Industry, USBM, IC 8849, Washington DC.
d
illar Workings in Coal Mines, Int J of Rock Mechanics and Min Sci, 14, pp 7-23.
67, A Study of the Strength of Coal Pillars,
S. Afr Inst Min Metall, 68, pp 55-67.
d Workings in the Soft Rocks of the
Coal Measures, Int J Mining Eng, 1, pp 91-187.
H

9

Ventilation is highly important, especially in coalmines. Major requirements are for
bleeder entries and systems. Bleeders are entries which surround the area being
mined, or which has been mined. Their purpose is to bleed explosive gases away from
the waste or gob areas and into the main return airway system using a controlled filter
flow of intake air. These entries need to be maintained for access and examination.
Bleeding requires a pressure differential to be maintained between the intake and
return airways across the gob to ensure gas flows to the return. Section ventilation
requires air to be directed to the working faces, this can be achieved ion several ways,
line brattices, ducted ventil
v

Coates, D
O

Kauffman, P.W, Hawkins, S.A., and Thompson, R.R, 1981, Room and Pillar
M

Orawecz, K., 1977, Analogue Modelling of Stresses and Displacements in Bord an
P

Salamon, M.G.D. and Monroe, A.H, 19
J

Wilson, A.H., 1983, The Stability of Undergroun
UG prod sys/ 2004 21


Continuous miner (Courtesy Chamber of Mines of South Africa)


Continuous miner (Courtesy Cleveland Potash)




Stress release (Courtesy Cleveland Potash)
UG prod sys/ 2004 22


Rock Bolting (Courtesy Cleveland Potash)




Eimco continuous miner (Courtesy of Tamrock)



ST1000 Scooptram (Courtesy Atlas Copco Wagner)

UG prod sys/ 2004 23



Toro 40 Dump Truck (Courtesy of Tamrock)



Haggloader 8HR (Courtesy Rock Machines AB)

UG prod sys/ 2004 24


Loading into shuttle car (Courtesy Rock Machines AB)


9.1.10 Stope and Pillar Mining

Probably the oldest mining method. Stope and Pillar mining differs from room and
pillar mining in that the latter term is usually reserved for coal or soft rock mining
where regular pillars are left in well defined panels in thin deposits. Stope and Pillar
mining is also called Breast Stoping, Breast and Bench Stoping, Stall and Pillar and
Panel and Pillar.

9.1.10.1 General Features

Stope and pillar mining is characterised by the following features:

1 Irregular pillars left for support, both in terms of shape and size. There may be
little or no planning involved. The ultimate pillar dimensions must be able to
support the overburden load and must take into account the ultimate pillar height
as this is a major feature of pillar strength.
2 Flat orebodies of large horizontal extent, dipping at angles less than the angle of
repose. Below the angle of repose, 30-35, ore will not flow under the action of
gravity. This feature separates stope and pillar methods from higher angle
methods. Massive orebodies can be mined by the method in a series of slices
from the top down.
3 Competent rock masses are desirable, as rooms may stay open for the full life of
the mine. Rock strengths between 345 Mpa and 25 Mpa, structural integrity of
roof, floor and pillar should be excellent unless secondary support is to be used.
The method can be used successfully in less competent rock but secondary
UG prod sys/ 2004 25
4 Depth limitations: Due to increasing pillar size with depth leading to reduced
extraction of mineral. A well quoted figure is a maximum depth of 600m, but it
depends on the mineral mined. The exception to this is breast stoping which has
been used at depths of over 3600m, as total stope closure is permitted.
5 Absence of surface subsidence except in the long term where massive pillar
failure has occurred.
6 Large scale method with regard to total production, also versatile and flexible
enough to meet a large range of production requirements.

9.1.10.2 Conventional stope and pillar

Development

In most cases there is no development unless the ore body is very irregular and a
separate haulage level requires to be developed. Under such conditions ore-passes,
ventilation and access-ways will need to be developed. Most mines hoist from a single
level and declines can be used to allow rubber-tyred vehicles to be used.

Stoping

Typically a cyclical operation using the following operations:
DRILL BLAST SUPPORT LOAD HAUL DUMP
UG prod sys/ 2004 26
Figure 16: Stope and Pillar Mining with Random Pillars. (After Hartman HL, SME
Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Continuous miners can be used in softer rock. Drilling undertaken by mobile drill
jumbos or in smaller operations hand held jacklegs could be used. Blast holes are
drilled horizontally using wedge or V cut rounds, for rocks such as limestone or
dolomite burn cuts can be used, a typical pattern is shown in Figure 17. Slabbing or
slipping rounds are then used to expand the initial cut around the proposed pillar as
shown in figure 10. Faces, otherwise called breasts can be up to 9m in height using
conventional equipment, hole depths of 4.8m are suitable. Under dry conditions
ANFO is the main explosive, slurries, water gels and dynamite are also used. Blasting
is usually undertaken at shift change times with good fragmentation and limited throw
being the aim of the blast. Scaling is undertaken immediately after the blast and re-
entry period using cherry pickers.

Mining is undertaken on the advance with pillar extraction rarely used except in the
case of breast stoping where artificial support is required. Three mining options are
used:

1. Single pass: in thinner ore bodies, 7.5-9m thick, mining can be taken in a single
pass.
2. Multiple pass system: this is suitable for irregular ore-bodies over 9m thick where
the face would be too high to mine in a single pass. The first pass is used to define
the orebody and typically starts near the top at a convenient mining height. By
starting near the top the first pass can be mined on a regular upgrade. The top of
the orebody can then be mined out by upwards or overhand stoping by operating
the drilling and support equipment on a shrinkage pile, as shown in figure 18.
UG prod sys/ 2004 27

Figure 17: Typical V cut as used in dolomites or limestones. (After Hartman HL,
SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).


Figure 18: Overhand stope and pillar mining. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).
3. Advancing multiple bench: An ideal system for orebodies where the upper and
lower boundaries are well known. Mining commences at the upper orebody
UG prod sys/ 2004 28
mps. Vertical
bench blasting is used on all benches except the first, see figure 19.


Figure 19: Stope and Pillar mining using vertical and front benching. (After Hamrin
H, Atlas Copco, Mining and Construction Methods Guide to Underground Mining
ethods and Applications, Fourth edition, Atlas Copco, 1997, Sweden).
er be self supporting
uring pillar removal, or fill needs to be used to support the roof.
oading and Haulage.

ost common with sizes up to 100 tonne common. Rail and belt haulage is also used.
round Control
ction cycle as required and
sually consists of roof bolts for roof and pillar control.
entilation
illars. Face airflow is normally undertaken using auxiliary ventilation or air
jectors.
M

To improve extraction rates limited pillar robbing or slabbing is used in some
operations. Ground control is a major consideration and is usually undertaken near to
the end of the mine life if full pillar extraction is not an option. Pillar removal requires
good ground conditions. In workings with low mining heights caving which usually
follows pillar removal will normally swell and support the main roof. With higher
mining heights this will not be the case and the roof needs to eith
d

L

Usually front-end loaders or LHDs are used for loading, the size depending on truck
parameters. Slushers and gathering arm loaders are also used. Truck haulage is the
m

G

Roof span, pillar sizing and floor stability are important aspects and are covered in
Hartman (1992) Chapter 10.5 and also within the unit EK 881 Rock mechanics.
Support is normally installed outside the normal produ
u

V

Generally ventilation is fair to good in these methods as the large volume of the
workings dilutes gases and dust. Exhaust ventilation is the norm with well-defined
intake and return airway systems. Airflow control is difficult due to the large areas
between p
in
UG prod sys/ 2004 29

Water
ons, as roadways cannot always be
riven upgrade. Pumping is therefore the answer.
ipping ore bodies
ing up to 30, one allowing rail transport
nd one for conventional trackless mining.
.1.11 Step Stope and Pillar
ent. Thus the footwall is stepped
down dip except where cut by equipment roadways.

Water can be troublesome in some tabular operati
d

D

Conventional stope and pillar mining is impossible above a 20% grade as equipment
cannot travel up-dip. Numerous systems have been developed to overcome this but
two basic versions exist for orebodies dipp
a

9

This uses trackless haulage with access drifts running transversely across the dip at an
angle which the equipment can operate at. The method is illustrated in Figure 20. Ore
is extracted from a series of stope drifts that run horizontally along the strike of the
ore body working from the top down. Pillars are sufficiently narrow up-dip to allow
drilling and loading equipment to operate and extract broken ore. Stopes are cut
successively down dip with each stope having a almost horizontal floor and being
stepped in the middle to second half of the stope. Crosscuts are also mined with
horizontal floors to allow for the passage of equipm

Figure 20: Step Stope and pillar in an inclined orebody. (After Hamrin H, Atlas
Copco, Mining and Construction Methods Guide to Underground Mining Methods
nd Applications, Fourth edition, Atlas Copco, 1997, Sweden).
.1.12 Inclined Stope and Pillar
a

9
UG prod sys/ 2004 30

This method, as shown in figure 21, can operate efficiently up to angles to 30. It can
also use rail haulage, which as a transportation method is limited to near horizontal
grades. Development of the stope starts by driving a series of haulage drifts along the
footwall following the line of strike. Haulage drift spacing is selected to allow the
operation of a single slusher to pull all the ore from immediately below the upper
haulage level to the level below, practically this is typically 150m but production is
reduced by longer scrapes. Stoping starts by mining up-dip from a haulage level using
hand drilling or jumbos and then scraping the broken ore down dip into mine cars. To
accommodate the scraper winches a scraper cut out is made on the down dip side of
the haulage level. At higher dips the method becomes labour intensive, as
echanisation is more difficult and low stope efficiencies result.
und Mining Methods and Applications,
Fourth edition, Atlas Copco, 1997, Sweden).
m

Figure 21:Inclined stope and Pillar mining. (After Hamrin H, Atlas Copco, Mining
and Construction Methods Guide to Undergro
UG prod sys/ 2004 31

9.1.13 Breast Stoping

This is a unique variation in stope and pillar mining in that 100% of the ore is
extracted and no natural pillars are left for support. Artificial pillars are left instead for
roof control with the aim that stope closure will ultimately be close to 100%. There
are a number of variations on the method but the classical application is in the gold
mines of South Africa. As a method it is confined to flat tabular ore bodies dipping at
less than the angle of repose. Typical mining heights are less than 2.4m to allow for
stope closure without caving of the roof. The selection of breast stoping as opposed to
conventional stope and pillar stoping depends on the following:

1 Ore body depth related to ore strength: under deep conditions the extraction
ratios for conventional stope and pillar would be low and uneconomic.
2 Poor ground conditions making conventional stope and pillar hazardous due to
roof caving and/or rockbursts.
3 High cost of ground control under deep and poor ground conditions.
4 Deposit not amenable to the practise of longwalling methods.

In the South African gold mines these conditions apply due to the great depth and the
strong rockburst prone ore, which implies leaving conventional pillars impracticable.

Under such conditions in South Africa, drilling is usually undertaken using hand-held
jackhammers. 1.2m long holes are drilled perpendicular to the face and blasted
electrically. Muck is then cross scraped down the face to stope drifts where it can
either be scaped again to ore passes or loaded directly into rail cars. Armoured face
conveyors can be used in softer non-abrasive ores. Friction or hydraulic props provide
face roof support. A number of layouts have been used to basically fit the mine layout
of particular mines, examples include:

1 Dip-gully method
2 Track-gully method
3 Herringbone system (see figure 22)

Faces are as straight as possible, especially in areas prone to rockbursts. Faces can be
up to 1200m in length. Packs are made in various ways, the most common being
wooden cribs filled with waste rock. These systems are not designed to support the
overlying rock, but to control closure and minimise stress build up at the face.
Ventilation can be problematical.

Stope efficiencies are low, as the method is highly labour intensive. Faulting can
seriously effect production.

UG prod sys/ 2004 32
Figure 22: Herringbone stope. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages:

1 Most systems can be highly mechanised, so giving high stoping efficiencies.
2 Method can be selective.
3 Development requirements are minimal, so production can start quickly.
4 High production rates can be achieved, as multiple workings are possible.
5 Most methods allow use of mobile plant.
6 Most methods not labour intensive.
7 Production rates vary from 45-63 tonnes/man shift.
8 Low dilution.
9 Surface subsidence not usually a factor
UG prod sys/ 2004 33

Disadvantages:

1 Ore left in pillars
2 Ventilation difficult
3 Continual maintenance of the openings is required.
4 Can be water problems, especially if mining down-dip.

9.1.14 Shrinkage Stoping (figure 23)

This is a vertical overhand method of mining, in which almost all the broken ore
remains in the stope to form a floor for the miners to work on. The broken ore also
supports the walls of the stope. Once the stope is completed all the ore is drawn out.
Stopes mined overhand, upwards in horizontal slices. Under normal conditions 35%
of the ore from the slices (the swell) can be drawn off or shrunk as mining proceeds.

The method is labour intensive as it is difficult to mechanise and is usually applied to
narrow vein ore bodies or other ore bodies which cannot be mined by other
techniques. Ore body widths from 1.2m to 30m have been successfully mined by the
method. The broken ore should ideally be free flowing and not pack in the stope. Clay
or other sticky materials within the ore or country rock can cause dangerous hang-ups
or drawing problems. The ore should also not be liable to oxidation due to the effects
on mineral processing and the possibility of spontaneous heatings. Preferably the ore
should be continuous along the strike to avoid excess dilution problems.

Figure 23: Typical shrinkage stope, longitudinal section. (After Hartman HL, SME
Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

The plunge or Rake of the deposit also needs to be taken into account, especially if
the ore body is to be mined as a single stope. A stope with a shallow plunge can be
difficult to mine by shrinkage stoping as the ore moves too quickly away from the
pre-developed extraction system, as shown in figure 24. The same can be true for
orebodies with irregular boundaries, as shown in figure 25.

UG prod sys/ 2004 34
Figure 24: Shrinkage stoping on a shallow raking ore body. (After Hartman HL, SME
Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Figure 25: Shrinkage stoping on an irregular orebody. (After Hartman HL, SME
Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Development and preparation

Drifting on two levels into the vein usually develops shrinkage stope sites. Spacing
between these levels is usually between 30-180m apart. This basically establishes that
a viable orebody exists but is enhanced by the raising of one or more raises, which are
used to access and ventilate the proposed stope. These raises are developed either
conventionally by drill and blast or by using raise borers.

Extraction raises for the stopes can be developed in a number of ways:

1 Establish extraction raises at 7.5-9m centres along the length of the stope. Each
extraction raise is fitted with a chute normally constructed from timber. The
UG prod sys/ 2004 35
2 Blast down two production lifts, clean up the broken ore and install stull timbers
in the drift below the stope at about 7.5m centres.
3 In modern operations an extraction drift is driven parallel to the orebody
development drift about 7.5-15m into the footwall. Subsequently draw-hole
extraction crosscuts are driven from the footwall drift on 7.5-15m centres. The
back or roof of the ore body is then blasted down in the orebody development
and the swell is extracted through the draw-holes, as shown in figure 26.

Figure 26: Shrinkage stope with LHD extraction. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Stoping Operations

Once established the next operation in a shrinkage stope is to install manways in the
raise from the next level. A manway or serviceway is normally constructed at one or
both end panels of a stope. Once these and ventilation raises have been established
mining can start.

Drilling is usually undertaken using hand-held stopers or jacklegs, but drill jumbos
have been used in wider stopes. The normal method of drilling is back stoping but
breasting down can be used. Up holes are usually 1.8-2.4m in length and are generally
all loaded, thus a complete back is blasted at once. Breasts are drilled with horizontal
hole lengths of 2.4-3m and blasted once a shift. Common explosives are ANFOs or
water gels. Initiation commonly uses non-electric methods.

UG prod sys/ 2004 36
Once a cut is blasted drawdown of the 35% swell needs to be undertaken. Once this is
completed levelling of the muck pile needs to be done to allow the next cut to be
drilled.

Stopes should have strong self-supporting walls to allow shrinkage stoping. Scaling
from the walls can preclude the use of the method due to dilution. Random or
systematic pillars can be left in the stope to provide wall and back support. The
preferred method is the use of rock bolts, with both mechanical and grouted bolts
used.

Stope sampling is important. In narrow stopes, chip or channel sampling on a regular
basis, 1.5m intervals, in the back, ends and walls, achieves this. In wider stopes drill
sampling can be undertaken.

Stope Draw-down

This one of the most dangerous jobs in mining, especially when the ore contains
sticky material to hang up between the stope walls. Hung up stopes need to either be
washed down with water, bombed down with explosives, picked down by miners
(THIS IS NOT RECOMMENDED), Abandoned or re-mined. A hung up stope is a
costly and dangerous problem, therefore when ore has this tendency shrinkage stoping
should not be used.

Stopes need to be drawn down systematically so that the pile is drawn evenly. This
ensures that if the walls do peel the waste remains on top of the ore pile. Once draw
down has started an operators control over the walls, pillar recovery etc is minimal.
The re-entry of miners into the stope during this period is not allowed due to safety
considerations.

Variations and Applications

Variations on shrinkage stoping include:

1 Inclined shrinkage: this is illustrated in figure 27 and is an adaptation, which
allows multiple faces or benches to be mined on the back as it is mined upwards.
2 Longhole shrinkage: These are developed as conventional shrinkage stopes but
drilling of the stopes is undertaken from vertical raises driven through the ore at
roughly 15-30m centres. The basis of the method is shown in figure 28.
3 Construction shrinkage: shrinkage methods can be applied to the development
of shafts, winzes or large break raises for sub-level caving stopes, as illustrated
in figure 29.

UG prod sys/ 2004 37
Figure 27: Inclined shrinkage stope. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).


Figure 28: Longhole shrinkage stope. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).

UG prod sys/ 2004 38

Figure 29: Construction shrinkage stoping. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Summary

The widespread application of shrinkage stoping is precluded because of its labour
intensity and hence high cost. However in some cases it is the only method available
to mine certain ores especially in mines, which have narrow vein orebodies. It is also
used to extract ore in special circumstances, where ore is in small blocks and cannot
be economically extracted any other way.

Parameters, which influence the selection of shrinkage stoping, include:

1 Ore characteristics: strong ore, non-oxidising, ore that does not pack or stick
together, ore not liable to spontaneous combustion.
2 Host rock: strong to moderately strong walls.
3 Deposit shape: almost any, uniform dip and boundaries preferred.
4 Dip: greater than 45, preferably greater than 60.
5 Size: narrow to moderate width, 1-30m, minimum length 15m, maximum length
is unlimited.
6 Ore grade: moderate to high.

Advantages:

1 Small to moderate production rate
2 Gravity draw down
3 Simple method
4 Low capital investment, some mechanisation possible.
5 Ground support of ore and walls is minimal
6 Moderate stope development
7 Good ore recovery, 75-100%, low dilution, 10-25%.
8 Reasonably selective
UG prod sys/ 2004 39

Disadvantages:

1 Low to moderate productivity, 2.7-9 tonne/shift.
2 Mining costs moderate to high
3 Labour intensive
4 Difficult working conditions
5 Approximately 60% of ore tied up in stope until mining complete
6 Ore able to pack, oxidise or spontaneously combust in the stope
7 Risk of loss of stope if draw down not properly controlled
8 Safety risks are high


9.1.15 Sublevel stoping

Also called blasthole or longhole stoping. A form of open stoping, achieving high
production and is a bulk mining method which can be applied to large, steeply
dipping regular orebodies which is characterised by ore and country rock requiring
little or no support. The earliest version of this method reported was in 1902 in the
Michigan iron ore mines. As a method it is often used as an alternative to sub-level
caving in order to minimise dilution.

The method is very development intensive, however as most of this development is
undertaken in ore the high development requirements are compensated for. A major
feature of the method requires gravity flow of the ore. The method is highly
mechanised, longhole drill rigs, LHDs and the use of large-scale blasting. It is one of
the lowest cost underground methods. It can also be applied to pillar recovery in
mines using cut and fill techniques.

Ore body types

Typical ore bodies where sub-level stoping is applied have the following
characteristics:

1 Regular
2 Large
3 Strong to very strong
4 Competent
5 Country rock self-supporting, minimum 55 Mpa, no maximum.
6 Angle of dip must exceed angle of repose of broken ore to allow gravity flow
via drawpoints and chutes
7 Minimum width of 6m to allow for use of longhole blasting.
8 Wider and weaker ore bodies mined either using transverse stoping or by
leaving support pillars which are extracted later in the mining cycle.

The use of longhole drilling requires well-defined orebodies that are even with regular
ore boundaries to avoid excessive dilution.
UG prod sys/ 2004 40

Stope Development

Stope Layouts

Mine development usually starts from a shaft or decline sunk in the footwall to avoid
any subsequent caving effects from the stopes. The orebody is then divided vertically
by driving crosscuts and haulage levels every 45-120m. Access raises are then driven
in the orebody to divide it further into stoping blocks. The next stage, within a stoping
block is to construct the collection system, which involves undercutting all or part of
the block. Sublevels are then driven through the stope block at 10-55m intervals.
Depending on the width of the block more than one sublevel may be used on each
level. A typical stope is shown in figure 30 and typical stope dimensions are given in
Table 5.



Figure 30: Sublevel stoping at Outokumpu Oy Vihanti mine (After Mattikainen,
1981)
UG prod sys/ 2004 41
Table 5: Sublevel stoping basic dimensions. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Stoping is undertaken by blasting vertical slices of ore into an expansion slot, which is
the height and width of the proposed stope, see figure 31. The expansion slot is
developed by using longhole drilling and blasting to widen a slotting raise.

Figure 31: Production blasting in a sublevel stope. (After Hamrin H, Atlas Copco,
Mining and Construction Methods Guide to Underground Mining Methods and
Applications, Fourth edition, Atlas Copco, 1997, Sweden).


UG prod sys/ 2004 42
Typically stopes are contained by a crown pillar to protect the level above, rib pillars
and a sill pillar through which the ore collection system is cut, see figure 32. The use
of filled stopes can negate the need for rib pillars. Pillars are generally retrieved once
stopes are exhausted.
Figure 32: Pillar system around a overhand sublevel stope. (After Hartman HL, SME
Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Stope Extraction systems

The base of the stope may be slotted on the horizontal prior to production blasting
with the base of the slot being a collection trough or a series of 45 cones. These are
cut through the sill pillar to collect ore. Alternatively no slot is cut and stope blasting
exposes the collection system as the stope face retreats. Excavation of the cones is
undertaken by drilling from the proposed drawpoint and mining upwards using 55-
94mm longholes as shown in figure 33.

Seven ore handling systems can be used to remove broken ore from the stope:

1 Ore can be directed from the cones to finger raises to a grizzly level and directly
into mine cars, see figure 34. Secondary blasting is confined to the grizzly. This
system is generally used for very large stopes where the high development cost
can be offset against stope longevity.
UG prod sys/ 2004 43
2 Where are breaks very fine it can be directed into finger raises and loaded
directly from the boxhole into mine cars.

Figure 33: Use of small diameter holes for cutting of collection cones (After Mabson
and Russell, 1981)

3 To minimise the number of boxholes a single boxhole and chute feed into a
scram or slusher drift may be used. Up to 10 drawpoints feed the slusher drift
which pulls ore to the grizzly.
UG prod sys/ 2004 44
Figure 34: Grizzly and orepass collection system (After Mabson and Russell, 1981)

4 This is the slot hole method, as shown in figure 35, and is similar to method 3
except that a Chinaman is utilised and drops ore directly into mine cars.


Figure 35: Slot hole method of ore handling.
UG prod sys/ 2004 45
5 Use of LHDs loading directly out of drawpoints and transporting the ore to the
ore-passes is the more modern approach, as shown in figure 36. Use of remote
LHD operation when loading from drawpoints enhances safety.

Figure 36: LHD drawpoint system. (After Irvin, 1982)

6 Similar to 5 but uses a rail mounted system loading into mine cars, as shown in
figure 37.
Figure 37: Track mounted loading system.

7 Direct loading of ore from drawpoints onto pan feeders.
UG prod sys/ 2004 46

Stoping action

Typically stoping is undertaken overhand by blasting the lowermost faces first and
then moving progressively upwards from the overlying sublevels. Overhand working
facilitates ore flow in the stope as shown in figure 32. Underhand stoping has been
undertaken but not with much success due to ore loading problems.

Drilling and Blasting

Drilling usually undertaken in a mechanised manner, column and arm longhole drills
are common. These use electric over hydraulic drive and feed systems, high pressure
pneumatic DTH hammers or rotary percussion drilling systems. A number of these
rigs have 360 capability allowing for up and down hole drilling from the same site.
Parallel and ring drilling patterns are used, parallel holes are generally used in steeply
dipping deposits, whereas ring drilling is usually used in massive deposits. The
parallel system of drilling is illustrated in figure 38.

Figure 38: Parallel hole system of drilling from a drill sill. (After Hamrin H, Atlas
Copco, Mining and Construction Methods Guide to Underground Mining Methods
and Applications, Fourth edition, Atlas Copco, 1997, Sweden).

Explosive selection requires consideration of a number of factors, including:

1 Required fragmentation
2 Hole size
UG prod sys/ 2004 47
3 Hole spacing and burden

t size
Ore hardness
on of these two are used. Loading of
oles can be undertaken in a number of ways:
can be used, this means the hole is loaded from toe to
this system the hole is
Spherical charges can be used to blast large diameter holes.
d resulting fragmentation.
ypically one ring of holes will be blasted at any one time.
econdary blasting is sometimes required and can take two forms:
drilling holes into oversize boulders loading these with explosive
Using small shaped charges placed on the surface of the boulder.
ld be avoided as much as possible by
nsuring the primary blast is well designed
aste Filling
ill, cemented rock fill, cemented
ydraulic tailings fill and high density tailings fill.
round Control
. Rock bolts are used for local support.
he use of cable bolts to support stope walls.
afety
4 Hole condition
5 Water inflow
6 Allowable blas
7

Typically used explosives are ANFO, water-gels, emulsions and heavy ANFOs in
bulk or packaged form. ANFO is the cheapest and can be free poured into down holes
or pneumatically loaded into up holes. Where water is a problem ANFO cannot be
used so water-gels, emulsions or a combinati
h

1 In ring blasting a slot or raise is developed in the footwall of the stope, in this
case column loading
collar with explosive.
2 In ring blasting a slot or raise is developed in the footwall of the stope, an
alternative to column loading is decking the hole. In
loaded with alternate layers of explosive and stemming.
3

Both electric and non-electric detonation systems can be used. Which ever is used,
timing of the blast sequence is important to blast success an
T

S

1 Blockholing:
and blasting
2

Secondary blasting is expensive and shou
e

W

Backfilling of the voids is usually practised and allows for support pillar recovery.
Types used included uncemented rock and sandf
h

G

Typically minimal as the rock must be strong
T

S

This is an inherently safe method by virtue of its design. Miners work only in ground
that is secured by rock bolts and do not work on broken ground. Mining on the retreat
also enhances safety. High levels of mechanisation and remote operation of
UG prod sys/ 2004 48
equipment in modern operations also have enhanced safety. Blasting is undertaken
ntilation is good.
ypical sub-level stope.
Advantages and Disadvantages
l stoping is very amenable to mechanisation, and therefore stoping
s (22,700 t)/month.
y can be high, in excess of 90%, when good pillar recovery is
r most
remotely. Ve

Economics

A high production, low cost method, a typical cost breakdown is shown in figure 39.

Figure 39: Cost distribution for a t


Advantages

16 Subleve
efficiencies are high, running up to 110 tons (100 t)/employee-shift in larger
stopes
16 The method has a moderate- to very high-production rate, with individual
stope outputs running as high as 25,000 ton
16 The method is safe and, apart from driving the sublevels, easy to ventilate,
particularly where weekly blasts are used.
16 Ore recover
possible. Dilution is generally low and can be contained below 20% fo
operations.
16 Stopes can be drilled in advance of blasting, as equipment is available.
UG prod sys/ 2004 49
16 In big operations, blasts can be carried out periodically, such as once a week,
by very efficient highly trained crews, thus improving blasting efficiency.
e drawn off immediately once primary stope blasting commences.
or hanging wall are difficult to accommodate.
e.
. Secondary blasting fumes may leak back into the stope if excessive secondary
s necessary.
e and Sublevel
topes at the Pea Ridge Mine, Underground Mining Methods Handbook, Sec. 2,
ines of the Zambian Copperbelt, Design and Operation of
aving and Sublevel Stoping Mines, Chap. 43, D. Stewart, ed., SME-AIME, New
1, Sublevel Stoping in Finland, Design and Operation of
aving and Sublevel Stoping Mines, Chap. 45, D. Stewart, ed., SME-AIME, New
nted stoping method. Blasting is undertaken at the base of vertical holes
aking horizontal cuts and advancing upwards. Shrinkage can be used for wall
der is the block shape and consistency. The block
ust have a shape that can be defined by two sills a significant vertical distance apart.
16 Ore can b

Disadvantages

16 The method is very capital intensive, requiring a large amount of development
before production can begin.
16 The method is non-selective and requires most of the ore body to be taken.
Variations in footwall
16 The method becomes very inefficient at lower dips where dilution may be
expected to increas
4
blasting i

References

Irvine, J .C., 1982, Recovery of Pillars Between Blasthole Shrinkag
S
Chap. 10, W.A. Hustrulid, ed., SME-AIME, New York, pp. 447455.

Mabson, L.R., and Russell, F.M., 1981, Applications of Sublevel Open Stoping on
the RCM Limited M
C
York, pp. 585607.

Matikainen, R., 198
C
York, pp. 627633.

1.1.16 Vertical Crater Retreat Mining

Also known, as VCR is a horizontal, flat back variant of sublevel stoping which
employs spherical crater charges to break the ore. It has the distinction of being the
only pate
m
support.

General Method

As with sublevel stoping the initial step in VCR mining is to define an ore block.
Initial criteria to be satisfied are dip and plunge as gravity flow of ore to drawpoints is
used. The second factor to consi
m
Blast design is then investigated.

Once the design is completed the top and bottom sills are cut. The vertical distance
between sills depends on a number of parameters such as ore consistency, accuracy of
drilling, accessibility and the competency of the hanging wall. After the sills have
been developed secondary ground control is installed as required. The stope is then
UG prod sys/ 2004 50
UG prod sys/ 2004 51
is extracted as fast as the
xtraction system will allow. Once the ore has been extracted the bottom sill accesses
eferences:
rr, S.A., 1983, Refinement of Vertical Crater Retreat Stoping at the Homestake
was originally developed to remove large pillars where there was only
mited access. It is now being applied in a large number of situations it is highly
CR stoping possesses many of the best features of sublevel and shrinkage stoping,
n and can
pport during the stoping phase using shrinkage.
. Safe method with miners working under fully supported roof that can be
ess.
e
16 Some ores that are mineralogically unstable may be subject to breakdown,
causing subsequent difficulties in mineral dressing.
artman, H.L. SME Mining Engineering Handbook,
drilled from the top sill down to the bottom sill. Once completed the stope is then
ready to blast, during blasting horizontal slices of ore are taken out progressing from
the bottom sill to the top sill. During blasting only enough broken ore is mucked from
the stope to open enough volume for successive blasts. The aim of this is to keep the
open stope full of broken ore, as in shrinkage stoping, which supports the walls. Once
blasting is completed the remained of the ore in the stope
e
are closed off and the stope can be backfilled from the top.

The theory of VCR mining is detailed in the following r

Livingston, C. W., 1973, US Patent 3,762,771, Oct. 2.

O
Mine, Report, Homestake Mining Co., Lead, SD.

The method
li
adaptable.

Advantages and disadvantages

V
with which it shares some parentage. Advantages include:

16 Bulk high-capacity mining method with good recoveries.
16 Efficient stoping method that is very susceptible to mechanisatio
have productivitys in excess of 35 tons (32 t)/employee-shift.
16 Offers good wall su
4
adequately ventilated.

There are also disadvantages:
16 Requires extensive diamond drilling, pre-stope planning, and development
leadtime for maximum effectiven
16 Ore is tied up in the stope until final drawdown, which represents lost incom
and can tie up significant funds.


Examples of self supported mining methods can be found in:

H 2
nd
Edition, Colorado: SME
Inc., 1992.

Gertsch R.E and Bullock R.L Techniques in Underground Mining, Colorado: SME
Inc, 1998. Chapters 7 (Open Stope), Chapter 10 and 12 (Sub-level open stoping),
Chapter 13 (Blasthole Stoping), Chapter 15 (VCR), Chapter 16 (Sublevel longhole
stoping), Chapter 19 and 21 (Shrinkage stoping).


16 Supported Methods

In underground stopes, which require more than minimal support backfill is almost
universally used. The methods outlined in the following sections can be broadly
classed as cut and fill, this implies that long-term support is provided by backfill.

Cut and Fill stoping

This is an underground mining method and covers those methods in which a single
excavation pass is made and backfilled prior to another cut being made. This then
makes the distinction between these methods and other mining methods where
backfill is used but after numerous cuts or once mining is completed, such as VCR or
sublevel stoping.

Its main use is in the mining of steeply dipping vein deposits and large, irregularly
shaped deposits. It is also used in the flatly dipping South African gold reefs and in
longwall coal mining. A list of the work elements involved in cut and fill mining is
given in Table 6.

Table 6: Main work elements of the cut and fill mining cycle. (After Hartman HL,
SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Variations

1 Overhand cut and fill stoping; in this method horizontal cuts 1.8-4.6m high are
mined advancing away from an access point. Excavated ore falls and rests on
the backfill floor placed during the previous cycle. As the cut and fill cycles are
completed the stope advances upward.

The backs may require little or no support other than occasional rock bolts to support
loosened slabs if the ore is competent. Where the roof is less competent the most
common means of support is by rockbolting on a defined pattern, however rock bolts
can be a nuisance when blasting the following cut and need to be removed from the
broken ore. Timber stull back and rib supports and square set timbers can also be
used.

UG prod sys/ 2004 1
2 Post-pillar stoping; used for wide ore bodies with a grater vertical extent than
can be mined by the room and pillar method. As each horizontal cut is mined
and backfilled the pillars are maintained to support the roof. The pillars become
tall and slim but the backfill prevents buckling.
3 Undercut and fill stoping; this is the same as the overhand method but the
direction of stope advance is downwards. Cemented fill is used to provide the
roof or back.
4 Drift and fill stoping; this is a modern replacement for square set stoping for
wide ore bodies with moderate to poor ore competency. A horizontal cut is
mined as a series of drifts. Once completed a drift is filled with cemented
backfill and another drift can then be mined alongside it.


Figure 40: Cut and fill stoping. (After Hamrin H, Atlas Copco, Mining and
Construction Methods Guide to Underground Mining Methods and Applications,
Fourth edition, Atlas Copco, 1997, Sweden).

Excavation methods

1 Back Stoping. When back stoping enough open space is left between the backfill
surface and the stope back to drill vertical or steeply inclined blastholes into the
back in an upward direction.
2 Breasting down. This uses a vertical working face and horizontal or slightly
inclined blastholes.
3 Drifting. Used on a first cut or in other situations where breaking room is not
allowed drift rounds are used with a burn or other type of drifting cut.
4 Benching. This is the drilling of vertical down holes in underhand stoping.
5 Mechanical excavation.
UG prod sys/ 2004 2

Reasons for selecting cut and fill methods

1 Ore body geometry; cut and fill is almost always considered for mining steep
veins. As some gravity flow is used the dip needs to be greater than the angle of
repose, >45. Well suited to irregular ore bodies. Cut and fill is selected when
manned stoping of orebodies with potentially high backs and walls as the fill
supports the walls and limits the working height by providing a suitable height
working floor.
2 Selectivity/Grade control; because of the limited open volume and support of the
fill irregular ore contacts can be followed more closely, allowing greater
selectivity and hence lower dilution.
3 Prevention of caving and dilution
4 Rock Quality Designation; the lower the RQD the more likely cut and fill will
be selected.
5 Subsidence prevention.
6 Waste disposal; waste can be employed as fill.
7 Stress control in bursting mines. Backfill acts as a method of stress control.
8 Ventilation; effective routing of ventilation can occur, the reduced open space
compared to other methods can reduce air quantity requirements.
9 Cost: generally more expensive than other mining methods, the extra cost needs
to be offset against the other benefits listed above.

Mining costs

See

Anon., 1987, Bureau of Mines Cost Estimating System Handbook, US Bureau of
Mines Information Circular 9142.

Excavation Techniques

Overhand Cut and fill mining

Description of Methods

See section 1.1.2 and figures 41, 42, 43, 44 and 45.

UG prod sys/ 2004 3

Figure 41: longitudinal section of a typical non-mechanised breast stope. (After
Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).


Figure 42: Post-pillar stoping. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).
UG prod sys/ 2004 4

Figure 43: Drift and fill stoping. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).

UG prod sys/ 2004 5
Figure 44: Longitudinal section of a mechanised back stope. (After Hartman HL,
SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Figure 45: Longitudinal section of a undercut cut and fill stope. (After Hartman HL,
SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Overhand cut and fill mining is applicable to ore bodies with a considerable vertical
extent and dip between 50 and 90. It is applicable to orebodies that meet one or
more of the following:

1 Require selective mining
2 Have weak walls
3 Poor continuity
4 Where other mining methods would produce excessive dilution

UG prod sys/ 2004 6
Post-pillar mining is applicable to wide ore bodies, drift and fill can be applied to ore
bodies wider than 5-6m and where ore competency is moderate to poor. Back stoping
is particularly suited to steeply dipping narrow ore bodies.

Sampling during mining allows the operator to change the shape and size of the stope
as conditions change.

A common method of developing narrow veins is to drive crosscuts from a lateral in
the footwall when ground conditions are poor or where the vein is crooked. These
cross cuts are driven through the vein and raises driven on the vein from the crosscuts.
An initial drive is driven in the ore for the length of the stope as an undercut.

Access to stopes is via raises or by ramps in mines employing LHDs. Drilling is
undertaken by jacklegs or by mobile drill jumbos. Raises are extended by shuttering
or some other method when filling is undertaken.

Underhand and fill mining

A description of the method was given in a previous section. This method can be used
when either the wall or vein is too unconsolidated to allow safe mining by overhand
techniques. It can be applied to all angles of dip.

Common elements to overhand and underhand methods

A comparison of drilling and mucking for the different stoping methods is given in
Table 7.
Table 7: Equipment requirements cut and fill.

UG prod sys/ 2004 7
Blasting is usually undertaken in the following manner. Each drill hole is loaded
firstly with an initiating device along with a booster. The hole is then loaded with
cartridges or ANFO.

Ore removal is either by slusher or in mechanised stopes by LHD. The ore is cleared
from the stope via the stope orepass and then loaded into the main mine ore handling
system. Stope ore passes can be lined or unlined, the unlined type can only be used
when the ore pass is located in country rock. Ore passes located in the backfill are
usually constructed of square or hexagonal wood cribs reinforced with angle iron
wear plates or constructed of a round steel liner plate. Ventilation of a cut and fill
operation is shown in Figure 46.


Figure 46: Simple ventilation system for overhand cut and fill.

Backfilling

Waste Fill

The use of waste fill is probably as old as mining as it is useful to dispose of
development waste in old stopes to avoid having to take it out of the mine. The main
purpose of waste fill or other types of fill is to support mined out workings to prevent
one or more of the following:

1 Caving
2 Surface subsidence
3 Pressure on the working areas
4 Rock bursts

UG prod sys/ 2004 8
Waste material is also conveniently available at mine sites and generally presents the
most economical method of filling mined out openings.

Sources of waste fill include but are not limited to the following:

1 Surface quarries near the mine
2 Underground development rock
3 River gravel
4 Glacial till
5 Talus
6 Dune sand
7 Mine dumps
8 Float and sink plant reject
9 Coal preparation plant reject
10 Smelter slag

Such sources may include variations like:

1 Completely ungraded waste rock with little or no fines
2 Graded and sized material with cement and water added to provide greater
strength
3 Raw materials containing sulphides or other materials to aid in fill consolidation
4 Mixtures of waste rocks and mill tails to provide a better size gradation that will
fill most of the voids in the mixture.
5 Mixtures of waste rock and smelter slag or fly ash with added cement.

Preparation of the fill will depend on the handling and placement operations that the
fill goes through. For example if waste fill is excavated in a quarry, dropped into the
mine via waste raises, trammed by rail to a stope raise and slushed into position
material <305mm is satisfactory. The same is true for development waste. If waste is
to be handled pneumatically the fill will generally be <25mm in size depending on
pipe size.

Fill can be improved and strengthened by sizing the fines and coarser material so as
much of the void space as possible is filled and a more compact fill is achieved. To
achieve this requires additional crushing and screening and the question must be
raised ids the extra cost of doing this required?

Fill can be placed in a number of ways:

1 Slushing; directly from a waste raise to the area to be filled.
2 Slinger belt; high-speed belt and hopper supplied by truck or LHD. These
provide good compaction and a relatively strong fill if proper gradation of the
material is undertaken. See figure 47.
3 Stower placement; Dry waste, less than 76mm diameter can be placed by a
pneumatic stower, consisting of a low pressure blower and a rotary feeder,
which delivers material to the filling area by pipeline.

UG prod sys/ 2004 9
Figure 47: Truck mounted slinger belt for fill placement. (After Hartman HL, SME
Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

The advantages of waste fill are:

1 Use of underground development rock reduces the cost of disposal by removing
it from the mine, also eliminates environmental problems associated with this
type of waste on surface.
2 Addition of cement or another binder can make a strong consolidated fill.

The disadvantages are that waste fill can result in a relatively loose, uncompacted fill
that will not resist closure well unless it is sized such that fines occupy most of the
voids within the fill.

A Typical backfill plant is shown schematically in figure 48.

Pneumatic fill

Disposal of mine tails, development rock and other material by pneumatic means has
been practiced in the coal industry for a number of years. More recently it has been
applied in metalliferous mining situations, notably the deep gold mines of South
Africa to reduce the incidence of rock bursts and in some uranium mines.

Pneumatic filling is capable of overcoming a number of the problems associated with
hydraulic filling, see section 2.3.3. In that voids can be completely filled with a high
degree of compaction, heavy bulkheads are not needed and development rock can be
added in underground so eliminating the need to hoist this rock from the mine.
Cement can also be easily added.

The main disadvantages that pneumatic filling has over hydraulic filling are

1 Excessive power requirements for long horizontal haul distances
2 Excessive wear problems in long pipes

UG prod sys/ 2004 10

Figure 48: Backfill plant schematic. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).
Sources of material for pneumatic fill include:

1 Deposits of overburden
2 Mine dumps
3 Mine development waste
4 Float and sink plant reject
5 Coal preparation plant reject
6 Smelter slag
7 Mill tails
UG prod sys/ 2004 11

Cement can be added to improve strength and stability. The main difference between
ordinary waste fill and pneumatic waste fill is in the preparation and delivery of the
pressures, 34-138 kPa. The particles are
spended and carried in the airstream.
e their cost as this can be offset against their
nger life compared to mild steel pipes.
usually,
specially if cement is added to the mixture, but can be added at the feed end.
amage of the motor the following protection should be
pplied to the blower unit;
f valve set at 125 kPa
if air temperatures become too
high, to provide electrical overload protection.
ir feed into the blower should be filtered.
fill.

Dense-phase pneumatic handling techniques are used for fine-grained materials such
as cement, rock dust, pulverised coal and chemicals that can be easily flushed. A
reciprocating compressor in these cases usually provides air at a high pressure. Dilute
phase type pneumatic conveyors are usually used to handle material used in mine
backfilling. In these cases, air is usually supplied by a fan or positive displacement
blower to transport the material at low
su

Dilute phase pneumatic conveying has been in use in the coal industry since the
1920s. Pipeline diameter should not be less than three times the particle size,
however in practice 203mm ID pipes are used in the mining industry. Rubber lined
pipes should not be used because of their high friction factor, instead abrasion
resistant steel pipes should be used despit
lo

To achieve early bearing compact stowing it is essential that the stowing material
contains material with enough fines to allow for the formation of the most densely
compressed spherical packing. To keep dust levels to a minimum at the delivery end
neither too little nor too much moisture should be present in the feed. Too much
moisture will result in a dust carrying fog, whilst too little moisture will result in
airborne dust. Moisture contents of 8-10% are recommended for material with a good
size distribution. Water is added at the delivery end via a wetting ring
e

Essentially a pneumatic conveying system consists of a air supply, an in feed
arrangement, a pipeline and a discharge, a typical system is described below. For a
system conveying 180 tonnes/hr of refuse into a coalmine, the air requirement will be
of the order of 85-142 m
3
/min. For a pipeline of 200-250mm diameter the pressure
requirements would be about 104 kPa, allowing a factor of safety say 125 kPa. The
most economical method of supplying the air is a positive displacement blower.
Blowers of this type can be directly coupled to electric motors, they are of simple
construction and easy to maintain. The only disadvantages are that they suffer from a
pulsating flow and a very noisy. Because such machines are positive displacement,
blowers provide air at a pressure that increases according to the demand made on it.
Thus if the pipe becomes blocked or obstructed for any reason pressure will continue
to rise, to avoid physical d
a

1 Pressure relie
2 Rupture disc
3 Pressure sensing switches to reduce in feed, shut down the motor if pressure
continues to increase, to shut down the motor

A
UG prod sys/ 2004 12

Material can be introduced into the pressurised airstream in a number of ways:
Rotary feed valves
nd
ssociated damage the provision of a fluid coupling or shear pin is recommended.
ted
roblem of slugging pipes are fitted with kickers to re mix the backfill together.
velocity and the air
llowed to flow freely, this produces a well compacted backfill.
dvantages
kfilling
sion
ethane emission
cost of transporting this to surface and
e eliminated
High velocity impact yields a well compacted fill
isadvantages
cated underground, requires a system of transport from surface for
st
perating costs
ning small crooked veins due to number of
Same as 6 for small mines, needs to be a semi-permanent set-up.
ydraulic Fill with dilute slurry
number of workers and have been summarised by Dickhout (1973). A comprehensive

1 Lock gates
2 Pressure vessels
3

Rotary feed valves have proven to be the best method, too avoid jamming a
a

Pipelines are generally made of hardened steel, but plastic, mild steel and fibreglass
pipes have been used. To avoid the effects of settlement in pipes and the associa
p

At the delivery end backfill is ejected from the pipe at high
a

A

1 Improvement in face climate due to extra air from the bac
2 In uranium mines better control over radon gas emis
3 In coal mines better control over m
4 Reduction in surface subsidence
5 Reduction in internal mine damage
6 Use of development waste saves on the
reduces surface environmental damage
7 Problems of excess water as with hydraulic fills ar
8

D

1 If system is lo
fill materials
2 Dust can be a problem
3 High initial capital co
4 High o
5 Noise
6 Not well suited for operations mi
bends and short filling time frame
7

H

Basically this is a dilute slurry of solids and water, ranging from 35-75% solids. This
slurry is pumped or gravity fed to the stoping areas to be filled. The simplest source
for material is mill tailings though other sources are used. Feed material needs to be <
25mm in size and a cement or binder is used. Table 8 reports on a survey of a number
of plant operating conditions and describes typical hydraulic fills for 6 different
mines. The basic characteristics of various hydraulic fills have been reported by a
UG prod sys/ 2004 13
discussion on such fills is given in by Crandall in the SME Mining Engineering
Handbook (ed Hartman 1992).

Advantages

Compared to waste fill
1 Better wall support due to flow against irregularities
2 Overall pressure in the workings is reduced when the improved support reduces
wall closure. This is improved by good size distribution in the fill and by use of
cement
3 Better ventilation control due to tighter seals
4 When used with cement as a floor capping provides a firm clean up surface and
a good surface for use of mechanised mining equipment
5 Surface storage and environmental problems are reduced

Disadvantages
1 If density not maintained in 65-70% range, excess water causes carry over of
slimes at the bulkheads leading to house keeping problems such as slime filled
pumps, muddy haul roads and equipment wear.
2 Excess water leads to weak, stratified cemented sand fill and wastage of cement.
3 If fill not properly drained the possibility of hydraulic failure exists
4 Slimes in sumps and shaft bottoms difficult to remove
5 Plugged pipelines if slurry too dense
6 Excessive wear in pipelines


High Density Backfill

The development of high-density backfill began in the 1970s because:

1 Excess water and slimes associated with most hydraulic fills cause wall
deterioration in some mines with weak ground, and provide a continual clean up
problem
2 Denser consolidated fill is more advantageous in deeper mines with high wall
pressures
3 In mines where high fill exposures were encountered in mining adjacent to fill a
stronger consolidated fill was advantageous.
4 Allows wider spans and a stronger back in undercut cut and fill mining
5 Allows the use of a greater proportion of slimes, reducing the amount required
to remain on surface
6 When cement used the low water content in high density consolidated backfills
results in maximum strength of the fill
7 Wear problems are reduced in pipelines as this type of fill is transported at lower
velocities

Such fills can be entirely manufactured from numerous sources, the most common is
mill tails. This can be strengthened by the addition of waste rock and cement.
Preparation of the fill depends on how much support is required. If it is just intended
to fill a space little or no preparation is required. If a strong clean up work floor is
UG prod sys/ 2004 14
UG prod sys/ 2004 15
required as in an overhand cut and fill operation a graded fill with enough cement to
produce a 4.1-4.8 Mpa concrete may be required.

The fill must be designed to fit the operating requirements of the mine.

To deliver the material a positive displacement concrete or mud pump is required, due
to the high density. Cement can be added at delivery or at the plant, the former
reduces the likelihood of line plugging. The fill is delivered into an area which is
shuttered off, poured, water is then allowed to decant, the concrete is allowed to cure
for a period and then the filling operation is completed. See Hartman 1992 for some
examples.

Advantages

1 Can utilise all mill tails including slimes
2 Can utilise waste rock up to 25mm.
3 Can dispose of other mine waste products also in the fill
4 Produces a strong fill allowing underhand cut and fill stoping
5 85% solids by weight fill with a water-cement ratio that binds all or most of the
available water results in the strongest possible fill for the least cement
6 elimination of excess water problems associated with hydraulic fill
7 use of slimes fraction from mill benefits pumping or gravity flow of the liquid,
due to lubrication action
8 if cement added at delivery end, fill can remain in pipes for several days with no
start up difficulty due to thixotropic nature of the mixture
9 pipe wear reduce due to low flow velocity
10 use of timber and other support reduced due to strength of fill

11 reduction in rock burst potential in deep mines

12 reduction in dilution and improved grade control dur to better wall support

Disadvantages

1 preparation plant is more expensive and sophisticated than with other methods
2 More precise control is required
3 Requires more highly skilled operators
4 Fill costs may be higher

References

Dickout, M.H., 1973,The Role and Behaviour of Fill in Mining, J ubilee Symposium
on Mine Filling, Aus. IMM, Aug., pp. 2, 8, 9, 10.

Gertsch R.E and Bullock R.L Techniques in Underground Mining, Colorado: SME
Inc, 1998. Chapters 23, 24, 29, 32 and 33.


Appendix 2 of these notes
UG prod sys/ 2004 17

Table 8: Survey of plant operating conditions. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

UG prod sys/ 2004 18

16 Underground Mining Caving Methods

Overview

Caving mining methods are based on the planned caving of rock above and
sometimes surrounding the area being mined. They can be classed into three broad
categories as each involves distinct technology as well as different operational
features, the categories are:

1 Longwall mining
2 Sub-level caving
3 Block Caving

Each of the above requires a relatively large, regular and predictable ore body. As a
general rule mining using these methods results in some form of impact or change at
the surface.

Caving methods are characterised by high productivity as well as a high percentage of
extraction of mineral in the orebody, good recovery. A key element of each method is
the ability to standardise the various work elements being undertaken underground,
thus specialist workers result. Each category is also amenable to a high degree of
mechanisation. Operations and the workforce can be centralised into a relatively small
area, thus supervision is more concentrated and effective, aiding occupational health
and safety and production.

These methods are unique in that the openings created underground to extract the
mineral are deliberately destroyed during the mining process. The art of rock
mechanics in these methods is to ensure and to propagate the cave as well as ensuring
the mined openings required to extract the rock remain open. Production operations
are designed to ensure a steady, continuous flow of ore from the extraction areas.
Maintaining a steady flow of ore tends to promote good caving as well as reducing
hang-ups.

As a type of mining it is becoming more popular because of its low mining cost, high
productivity and high recovery compared to other mining methods.

Longwall Mining

Background

Longwall mining is one of the three main forms of underground coal extraction and is
used widely around the world. The origins of longwall coal mining are European,
today longwall techniques are used in all the major coal mining countries. The
advantages of the longwalling system are:

- Simplest system layout
- Continuous production
- Potential for automation is high
- Panel layout conducive to good ventilation
- Workforce always works under a fully supported roof
- Coal recovery is high (less coal left in residual pillars than other methods of
working)
- Surface subsidence is relatively uniform and complete.
- Can be applied to the full range of seam thicknesses (though not necessarily as a
single pass method)


Basics

The basic components of the longwalling system are shown in Figure 49. A longwall
panel consists of an intake airway(s), also called a loader gate or main gate, return
airway(s), also called a tailgate, with the longwall face in between. The intake and
return airways can be excavated within seam or extend beyond the main seam, but the
face is always within the seam. Figure 49 also indicates the two separate modes of
mining that can be used, advancing or retreating. In the advancing case the face and
tunnels (entries) at either end of the face advance in tandem with each other. In the
retreating case the entries are developed to the furthest extent of the face run initially,
then the face is developed and retreats backwards towards the main tine trunk
roadways. In both cases the usual method is to allow the mined out area to cave
behind the face so producing a goaf or mined out area. This causes subsidence, in
cases where subsidence has to be kept to a minimum for whichever reason backfilling
of the goaf is applied.

Direction
of Cut
Direction
of Cut
Face Face







16 (b)
Main gate Tail gate Main gate Tail gate
Figure 49: Basic layout of longwall face (a) advancing, (b) retreating.

The number of entries on the intake and return side of the face is variable. In the UK a
single intake and return airway service the face, although multiple gate or ladder
systems are used. In the USA it is usual to have two or three entry systems. The
number of entries is dependent on a number of parameters, for example legal
considerations, depth of cover, ventilation requirements etc.

Figure 50 details a cutaway view of a longwall coalface US style. Coal is cut from the
seam by a cutting/loading machine, usually a shearer, but sometimes a plough, and
loaded onto an armoured flexible conveyor (AFC) which transports the coal to the
entry in which the belt conveyor is located. To avoid the constant need to extend or
decrease the belt length an intermediate conveyor or stage loader is used to feed the
coal from the end of the AFC onto the belt conveyor. Powered supports are used to
support the roof along the length of the coalface. These push forward the AFC
following a cut and are advanced hydraulically after each shearer cutting cycle. The
roof strata behind these supports are allowed to cave. The roof between the rear edge
of the supports and the face line is termed the face area, whilst the area behind the
supports is termed the waste, gob or goaf.

The normal means of support for the gate entries has changed over recent years.
Previously steel supports were used extensively with corrugated steel sheets placed
between to provide cover from falling rock debris. Now the usual method of support
is rockbolts with wire mesh and in some cases the use of cable bolts. Where extra
support is required temporarily wooden cribs are employed (especially at the face
entry T-junctions). Steel supports generally only tend to be used for long term support
in main spine airways or when absolutely required elsewhere.






Figure 50: Typical Longwall face in cutaway view (note US example) (Peng and
Chang 1984, J ohn Wiley and Sons Inc, New York).

Figure 51: Longwall Coal face operations, showing cutter/loader (Shearer), AFC and
Powered Supports. (Courtesy of Chamber of Mines of South Africa)




Figure 52: Powered roof supports.




Figure 53: Longwall Powered Supports.


Figure 54: Shearer cutting drum.




Brief overview of coal Mining
large
xtent on seam depth but also on other geo-technical factors and historic factors.
the seam Mining (I. O. Jones)
his is widely practiced in many parts of the world, for the following reasons:
le
eir mining. Thus thick seams with good
roof and floor conditions can be worked.
ls, which
an be mined by, room and pillar, shortwall or longwall mining techniques.
number of entries are used, separated by large
illars capable of supporting the load.
ongwall/shortwall coal production

Coal is a stratified deposit, ie it was laid down as a horizontal bed of material which
over geological times has turned the original carbonaceous deposit into coal. There
are numerous grades or ranks of coal, graded as to carbon content and quantity of
volatiles, waste or unwanted components. Initially the seams were horizontal or near
horizontal, however geological activity has warped the original deposits into their
present layout and distribution. Coal seams in some locations extend for large
distances with little or no dip and very little faulting, in other areas whilst the coal
extends over large lateral distances the seam(s) can be highly faulted. Some coalfields
consist of seams with appreciable dip. Given the complexity of types of coal deposits
it is hardly surprising that methods of working or winning coal are highly variable.
One of the main features to note is that coal is a bulk commodity of relatively low
price, it is a relatively soft rock which lends itself to mechanical mining, thus coal
mining relies on continuous or near continuous mining. Extraction of coal from a
seam can be complete or incomplete, pillars of coal retained in seam as support, thus
high rates of recovery are possible. The choice of working method depends to a
e

In

T

- There remain relatively extensive shallow deposits availab
- Distances between productive seams often are substantial
- Coal producers can still be selective in th

Access to the seam to be worked is by direct entry at the seam surface outcrop or via
an inclined drift or shaft where the seam is located at depth. In shallow seams, less
than 400m of cover, the property can be blocked into sections and panels by means of
a series of entries. The number of entries depends on ventilation, transport, power,
water and drainage requirements. In the USA and Australia it is not uncommon to see
the mine developed by 8 or more main entries which then lead to a series of sub-
mains which can contain 6 or more entries. These lead to the production pane
c

In deeper mines multiple entry numbers are reduced due to the higher cover load and
the need to support this. Thus a reduced
p

L

The introduction of the longwalling method is probably the greatest single
technological advance in coal mining technology. It allows the productive extraction
of thinner seams and also seams which are gassy and/or suffer spontaneous
combustion. It can be applied to virtually all seam dips from 0 to 90 and to the
extraction of very thick seams. Its major advantage is that it allows production from
deeper seams, greater than 400m of cover, where room and pillar mining would be
impracticable. It is the most popular system of coal extraction in Europe, where it
originated, and is becoming more popular elsewhere in the world, especially the USA,
ustralia and China.
aces were of the advancing type now the majority of faces
re of the retreating type.
l. A typical example of a shortwalling method is shown diagrammatically
igure 55: Shortwall. (After J ones I.O, )
employed on
ngwall faces. Figures 56 and 57 illustrate typical continuous miners.

A

Longwalling provides a system for a continuous cutting, loading, haulage and roof
support system of extraction. It is also one of the safest methods of extraction. The
major disadvantage of the longwall method is the high capital cost of equipment.
Longwall faces can be advancing or retreating methods of working, whereas twenty
years ago the majority of f
a

Shortwall mining is a compromise system of extraction developed in Australia. It
allows for continuous cutting, loading and roof support but has the disadvantage of
discontinuous haulage. The capital cost of shortwalling is much lower than for
longwal
below.

F

Shortwall faces are much shorter than longwalls, typically 30-90m in length,
longwalls range in length from 150-300m. The other main difference is that it is
common to employ standard room and pillar type continuous miners on shortwall
faces whereas specially developed narrow web power loaders are
lo






Figure 56: Continuous Miner





Figure 57: Continuous Miner

Longwall face operating parameters

Length 150-300m
Web cut 0.5-1m
Width 2.5-4m
Can be bi-directionally cut or unidirectionally cut.
Panel length 500-6000m

Main Equipment

Cutter loader (type depends on seam thickness) Typical types

1. Trepanner,
2. Trepanner with roof cutter,
3. Single ended fixed drum shearer,
4. Single ended Ranging Drum shearer,
5. Double ended fixed drum shearer,
6. Double ended ranging drum shearer,
7. Plough
- Types1, 2, 3 5 and 7 suitable for thin seam extraction.
- Types 4 and 6 suitable for thick seam extraction.
- Types 3, 4, 5 and 6 suitable for multi-pass thick seam extraction.
- Cutter loaders can be floor mounted or AFC mounted.
- Typical haulage methods by rack and pinion type haulage (rack-a-track), chain
haulage or wire rope haulage.

Armoured face conveyors (AFC): loosely fitting pans of steel with a sigmoidal type
section, see figure 58. Coal haulage along face via scraper bars connected with chain,
motion provided via motors located at either end of the face driving the chain.
Depending on tonnage chain combinations variable, can have unnel located single
and twin chains, outboard chains or a combination of these. Each pan is typically 1.5
m in length.

Figure 58: Armoured Face Conveyor: Twin outboard chain haulage employed.
Powered roof supports: Hydraulically powered roof supports. Act as means of
support and provide power to hydraulically push the AFC forward following a cut.

Development for longwall extraction

1. Shallow workings, less than 500m depth, two or three entry development has been
used, at greater depths this method is less attractive due to excessive pillar widths
required between entries and the longwall panels.
igure 59.
igure 60.
serious problem due to closure, especially due to floor heave. This can be overcome

F

2. Deeper workings, in the case of advancing faces

F

In figure 60, (a) is limited to shallow workings, depth less than 350m, due to rock
pressure considerations. This can be overcome by providing extra support on the
waste edge by the construction of packs. However roadway maintenance can still be a
by driving new roadways in the de-stressed area within the consolidated waste some
60m or so behind the face, this is especially so where long term stability is required.

Where subsidence has to be unnellin, caving of the goaf needs to be suppressed, this
can be achieved by backfilling. This has been widely practiced in Poland.,

Comparison of Longwall advancing and retreating.

Table 9: Comparison of advancing and retreating longwall mining (after J ones, I.O)

Longwall advancing Longwall retreating
Service roads in waste Service roads in solid coal
Stable hole problems acute in thick seams Stable hole problems reduced
Ripping problems (can be overcome by
use of advance headings but still long
cycle times due to the need to remove
support prior to hearer cutting into gate
and replace support afterwards)
Ripping eliminated
Planned output available early Planned output not available until face
roadways driven to extremity
Leakage of air through waste prior to
arrival at face (20% loss of airflow not
uncommon). This can be a serious
problem if coal is liable to spontaneous
combustion or if rock temperature high
and climate is a problem.
No loss of air due to leakage
Roadway maintenance costs high Roadways in solid coal- maintenance
costs low.
Panel of coal not proved in advance Panel of coal proved in advance


Layout of Production coal faces.

Conventional advancing method is illustrated in figure 61. In the antitropal system the
ventilation and coal transport flows are in opposite directions. This has the advantage
of placing the main electrical equipment in fresh air where low concentrations of
general body methane are likely. Methane drainage can occur from both intake and
return gates. Where conveyors are located in the return airway/system this is referred
to as homotropal ventilation, the coal and airflow are in the same direction, this is
practiced in hot workings.

Figure 61: Advancing longwall ventilated antitropally.

Longwall retreating

Continental system, this is the simplest form of retreat mining but is vulnerable due to
the likelihood of methane emissions from the waste.

Figure 62: Continental System of Longwall retreating.

The Single entry development and waste ventilation system shown in figure 63 is the
most commonly used system of longwall retreat mining, the main feature being the
active ventilation of the waste area.




Figure 63: Retreating with waste ventilation.

The major problem with retreating is ensuring the stability of the gate entries and
solid drivages, especially at depth and where weak strata conditions exist. Use of rock
and cable bolting techniques has significantly improved the stability of such
operations.

Longwall Face layout, more detailed analysis

There are a wide variety of layouts.

Longwall advance/retreat with wide rib pillar, see figure 64.

Figure 64.

The pillar provides good protection for the roadways. It will allow recovery of the
face equipment on face1 whilst production is occurring on face 2. Pillar width should
be at least 0.08 to 0.1 times the depth of the workings. Pillar will also provide
protection if an inundation occurs or if isolation is required because a spontaneous
heating occurs.

Narrower widths of rib pillar can be used if a higher rate of reserve recovery is
required. In these cases additional support, for example rib side packs may be
required, these may be 2-3m wide and consist of high resistance material. Leaving an
adequate pillar allows for unnelling n of roof control problems at the coalface. The
narrower the pillar the greater the closure in the roadways, digging up of the floor,
dinting, may be required at one or more points to ensure adequate cross-sectional area
in the roadway. Narrower rib pillars have proved highly successful in deep mines
where soft floor conditions prevail.

Re-use of gate road: see figure 65.

Figure 65.

In this layout the gate roads will be subjected to three closure phases:

1. Closure due to goaf settlement behind face 1
2. Closure due to front abutment pressure ahead of face 2, usually within 30 m of
face line
3. Closure due to settlement of goaf behind face 2.

The total closure can be as much as 1.5 to 2 times the extracted seam height, thus a
dinting program is essential. Normally restricted to thinner seams.

Z system: see Figure 66.

Combination system, allows for reuse of unnel gate road, especially useful in hot
mines where it can be designed to allow for the injection of fresh air at the return end
of the face so improving the cooling power of the air at this point.


Figure 66: Z system.

General Conclusions

Longwall method is highly successful as a method of winning coal. It has also been
applied to the mining of a number of other ores, trona, potash, salt and metalliferous
ores. The advantages of the longwall method are:

- Simplest system layout
- Continuous production
- Potential for automation is high
- Panel layout conducive to good ventilation
- Workforce always works under a fully supported roof
- Coal recovery is high (less coal left in residual pillars than other methods of
working)
- Surface subsidence is relatively uniform and complete.
- Can be applied to the full range of seam thicknesses (though not necessarily as a
single pass method)

It is a highly unnelling method and capable of achieving high rates of extraction.
Whilst the basic method is simple to understand, considerable local differences exist
and the reader is referred to the wide range of literature available. Considerable
advances with the longwalling method are constantly being achieved, especially with
regard to equipment and technological advance, the reader should be aware of the
advances by reading the mining press and technical publications.

References:

J ones I.O Coal Mining Technology: Lecture notes vol III, WASM



Equipment selection for longwall mining

Cutting machine

Shearers and ploughs are the most common types of cutting machines over the world.
In Australia and the UK shearers are the dominant form of coal cutter. When selecting
a cutting machine the following require consideration:

1. Mining height
2. Seam structure
3. Roof bonding strength of the coal
4. Cutting or ploughing resistance

When selecting shearers the main parameters for selection are

1. Type
2. Dimensions
3. Haulage speed
4. Power capacity

Type: numerous types available but the double ended ranging drum shearer, DERDS,
is the most popular. They can be used in seams greater than 1.5 m thick and have the
advantage of being able to cut the entire seam thickness in a single cut, in either
direction of travel, so ensuring high production with rapid face advance and
shortening the roof exposure time.

Dimensions: Shearers come in a variety of models and sizes. In selecting a shearer
the first consideration should be the mining height, H
c
, as this selects the shearer
dimensions such as the diameter of the cutting drum, D, body height, H
b
, ranging arm
length, L
a
, body depth, B, and swing angle, o above the floor, of the ranging arm.
These are shown in Figure 67.


Figure 67: Components for determining shearer dimensions and mining height. (After
Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

The relationship between these parameters can be expressed as an equation as shown
overleaf or as a nomogram as shown in Figure 68. Note the maximum mining height
for a DERDS should not exceed twice the cutting drum diameter.


2
sin
2
D
L
B
H H
a b c
+ + = o

Figure 68: Nomogram for determining the dimensions of a shearer and mining height.
1 inch =2.54 cm. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME,
1992).

The width of the cut is referred to as the web, common webs cut vary between 762 to
1016mm with 813 mm being the most common. The rotational speed of the drum is
also variable, common speeds are 36, 44, 58 or 63 rpm. It should be noted that the
drum is scrolled so it not only cuts the coal it also loads the coal onto the face
conveyor. At rotational speeds less than 36 rpm the loading characteristics of the
drum are poor.

Haulage speed: this ranges from 4 to 25 m/min. The shearer hourly production, Q
she
,
cycle production tonnes/cutting cycle, Q
c
, and cycle cutting time, T
cut
in minutes, can
be determined from the following equations:

C V s H Q
s c she
= 60

C s H W Q
c c
=

she
c
cut
Q
Q
k T = 60

Where: H
c
=mining height, s =web cut, V
s
=haul speed (m/min), =weight per unit
volume of coal, W =panel or face length, C =shearer loading coefficient (0.9-0.95)
and k =coefficient of time utilisation.

The coefficient of time utilisation varies between 1.1 to 1.4 and depends on the length
of time for shearer stopping/reversing at both ends of the face and takes into account
some other stoppages. Calculations can also be undertaken using a nomogram as
shown in Figure 69.

Figure 69: Longwall production nomogram. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).
Power: the power consumed by a shearer reflects the total electrical load during
shearer operation. This is a factor of a number of variables including:

1. Haulage speed
2. Drum diameter
3. Web cut
4. Rotational speed of the drum(s)
5. Cutting depth
6. Bit conditions
7. Mining height
8. Seam hardness

Figure 70 illustrates a power nomogram for a DERDS.

Figure 70: Shearer power nomogram. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).

Armoured Face Conveyor

AFCs were described in a previous section. The most popular chain types include:

1. SCS: single centre
2. DCCS: double centre
3. DOCS: double outboard
4. TCS: triple chain

Pans come in numerous sizes and can be up to 1m in width.

Carrying Capacity: Q
afc
(t/hr)

c c
c c c c afc
A q
V A V q Q


=
= =
max
max
60


q
c
=weight of coal loaded per unit length of AFC, A
max
=largest loaded cross-section
of the pan line (depends on construction and width of the pan, type of chain used,
angle of repose of the broken coal, height of the spill plate), is a loading coefficient
(=1.0 for fully loaded but usually in the range 0.65-0.90),
c
=weight per unit volume
of broken coal, V
c
=chain speed (50-100m/min).

Power requirements: to determine these the moving resistances R
L
and R
E
loader
upper side and empty lower sides of the AFC require to be evaluated. This enables the
haulage force F
s
at the drive sprockets to be determined.

( ) o o sin ) ( cos + + =
afc n c afc n n c c L
L q q L f q f q R

) (
) sin cos (
E L s b s
n afc n E
R R K K F
f L q R
+ =
= o o


L
afc
=length of the AFC, q
c
and q
n
=the weight s of the loaded coal and chain per unit
length of the AFC, f
c
and f
n
are coefficients of moving resistance as shown in Table
10, o is the angle of the face slope and K
b
is a resistance factor covering additional
resistances due to curvature, sprockets etc and =1.1, K
s
=resistance factor for snaked
portion of the AFC.

Table 10 Coefficients of moving resistance for chains. . (After Hartman HL, SME
Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

The maximum power required by the AFC is given by
|

=
ele
c s
max
C
V F 15 . 1
N

| =transmission efficiency, 0.8 to 0.83
C
ele
=conversion coefficient =102 Kw units
1.15 =safety factor

Minimum power required for AFC when shearer starts is

|
o
=
ele
c afc n n
max
C
V cos L f q 15 . 1
N


So for a longwall with a shearer the AFC power required is
2
min min max
2
max afc
N N N N K 58 . 0 N + + =


K
afc
=is a safety factor =1.15 to 1.2

Roof Control

Roof control in longwall operations can be split into three broad areas:

1. Face roof control
2. Gate roof control
3. Face end roof control

A fourth area can also be added, that of roof control for emergency or roof cavity
support, this will not be dealt with here.

Face support

The main forms of hydraulic roof supports applied to longwall faces now are shield
supports. These have taken over from chock supports, however these are still used in
some situations. There are various types of shield supports available these include:

1. Two leg shields
2. Four leg shields
3. Four leg chock shields
4. Six leg shields

To select the correct face support it is required to understand the behaviour of the
overburden in order to achieve the design goal of good roof control.

Roof strata classification

Roof conditions can be classified according to the thickness and uniaxial compressive
strength of the immediate roof, ratio of thickness of intermediate roof to mining
height and the thickness and tensile strength of the main roof. Under US conditions
five types of roof can be classified:

Type 1: Main roof consists of thicker and stronger sandstone, the immediate roof is
very thin. Normally the main roof can overhang a long distance into the goaf causing
severe periodic weighting.
Type 2: As type 1 but the main roof sandstone is thinner or multi-layered, this means
it can cave more easily

Type 3: Intermediate roof thickness is 1-2 times mining height and the main roof
consists of a thicker sandy shale

Type 4: No main roof or thickness of the immediate roof is 6 times or greater than the
mining height. This type has no or only small periodic weighting , thus support load
requirement is small.

Type 5: Main roof is a thick jointed sandstone which can sag gradually and form an
equilibrated semiarch. So as a main roof the effect of the limestone is very small and
support requirement is smaller.

To determine the support capacity based on the above a statistical model for
describing the interaction between the roof strata and support has been developed
(Peng et al, 1987):

Two leg shields are most suitable for weak intermediate roof conditions, four leg
shields and chock shields for medium and strong rocks.

Gate support

The gates in a longwall operation refer to the access tunnels. Support of these tunnels
has been undertaken in numerous ways over the years, with steel supports being the
norm until relatively recently. The advent of improved rock bolt and cable bolt design
has seen these being used as the primary means of support recently. The trend towards
rectangular gate roads has aided this process. Now rock and cable bolts provide the
main means of support in coal mines, these can be used in conjunction with steel bars
and mesh. In zones of bad ground full steel support and lagging are still used.

Gate end support

This refers to the area at each end of the face or the tunnel/face junction area. This is
an area of high stress and requires enhanced support. Retreat mining is the norm now
so specific gate end arrangements for advancing systems will not be detailed here, the
reader is referred to the numerous literature sources available.

The main support in this area is provided by 2-3 heavy duty supports in the last
portion of the face, by wooden chocks to provide protection/crush zone at the
roadway edge and by wooden chocks/other extra support placed in the centre of the
gates in line with the powered supports.

Reference:

Peng, S.S., Hsiung, S.M., and J iang, Y.M., 1987, Methods of determining the
rational load capacity of shield supports at longwall faces, Mining Engineer, Vol
147, No 313, pp 161-167.
10.2 Sublevel Caving

Originally sublevel caving was applied to ground which was so weak that it would
collapse even in small headings when the support was removed. Thus heavily
timbered drifts were driven across the orebody, the timber was withdrawn at the end
of the drift, the ore caved and was slushed out. When the dilution became excessive
the next set of timbers were removed at the process repeated. As a method it suffered
from high dilution, poor recovery and slow production rates.

More recently the method has been adapted to the mining of stronger ground which
requires drilling and blasting, thus as such it is not a caving method as far as the ore is
concerned. But in as far as it requires the walls to cave it is a caving method. A
general application of the method is shown in Figure 71.

Figure 71: Transverse and longitudinal sections of a typical sublevel caving operation.
(After LKAB information brochure 1989).

Sublevels are usually established at 7.6-12.2 vertical intervals and are usually
accessed from a ramp system, either direct from surface or an internal ramp. A
haulage drift or tunnel is driven along the strike of the ore body within the footwall
and production drifts are turned off this haulage drift and driven across the orebody at
approximately 10.7 m centres. Thus the ore body is divided into a geometric pattern.

Slot raises are driven at the end of the drift near the hanging wall ore/waste contact
and this slot is expanded to the shape of the fan drilling. Up holes are drilled to break
towards the slot, burdens are typically 1.2-1.8 m. These are drilled past the next
sublevel to the production drift immediately above.
Once sufficient numbers of fans have been drilled production can commence. One or
two fans are blasted at once toward the slot. LHDs are then used to muck out the ore
which rills or flows into the drift. Initially when only a small area is mined the
hanging walls may not cave and the method is akin to open stoping. However
eventually the walls will cave and so fill any voids created and the ore after blasting
will be contained by the caved waste and gravity flow downwards as mucking
operations continue.

The process is repeated in each production drift as the face is retreated back towards
the haulage drift. Once production in the top level has retreated back a safe distance,
production from the level below can start and so on until all the ore body is mined.
Sub level caving requires a strict mining sequence to be followed.

The above is a generalised view of sub level caving, obviously layouts at mines need
modification to conform to local ore body conditions.

Application of sublevel caving

Sublevel caving requires control and minimisation of dilution. Broken rock is
surrounded on three sides by dilution. To control dilution two factors are required:

1. Strong Brow (junction of the blasted fan of drill holes with the roof of the
production drift.
2. Good fragmentation of the ore

Thus the rock characteristics required are as follows:

1. Ore should be strong enough to stand without excessive support, due to the large
amount of development work
2. Ore should be strong enough to provide a strong brow
3. Ore should be suitable for drilling up holes of 15m or more
4. Drill holes should stay open
5. The waste should be weak enough to cave.

The size, shape and dip of the orebody are also important factors to take into account.
Figures 72, 73 and 74 show the effect of dip. Vertical dips are best, but medium dips
of 60 are satisfactory but not as good, flat dips are not good unless the ore body has a
considerable width.

In the case of flat dipping deposits two disadvantages should be noted in particular:

1. Inefficient development and drilling of hanging wall drifts due to low ore height
above the drift.
2. On the top sublevel only 50% of the ore is drawn because the ore takes up its
angle of repose and cannot be reached by the loaders. In the case of a vertical dip
there is always a level underneath to reclaim ore lost in this way, ie left behind, so
recovery is good. In the case of flat dip only a small quantity of the ore left behind
is drawn from the levels below, thus high development costs per tonne and low
recovery results in the case of flat dip.


Figure 72: Steep dip.

Figure 73: 60 dip, shaded area represents un-recovered ore.

Figure 74: flat dip, shaded area represents un-recovered ore.
Thus desirable features of the orebody for the application of sublevel caving are:

1. Compact ore
2. Weak walls
3. Steep dip

Advantages

1. Can be applied to hard and weak ground
2. Flexible thus can be applied to irregular orebodies and also to wide and narrow
orebodies down to about 3.7m wide.
3. All operations occur in drift sized headings which can be well supported and
provide good conditions for accident prevention
4. High degree of mechanisation possible
5. Activities can be specialised so simplifying the training of personnel and reducing
the number of personnel required
6. No pillars left for subsequent high cost mining of lost ore
7. High rates of production
8. Method suitable for pillar recovery

Disadvantages

1. High dilution and dilution control
2. High development cost

To control dilution the important aspects are brow support, good drilling and blasting
and strict control of drawing. A well-developed sampling methodology is also an
essential.

Sublevel versus block caving

If the ore is wide and steep enough and will cave block caving would normally be
selected as the mining method due to cost considerations. However when the ore is
too hard to cave readily, or if the dilution from the hanging wall was excessive due to
a flat dip or if the orebody is too narrow or irregular, sublevel caving may prove more
advantageous.

Layout

Also refer to chapter 20.2 from the SME mining Engineering handbook. Sublevel
caving layouts have been studied in great detail using model studies and theory.
Models have proved to be highly beneficial to evaluate the requirements for particular
ores, understanding the principles involved and for staff training. Whilst a reasonable
correlation has been shown between model tests and real life the limitations of model
testing should be recognised. The main limitation is that the models take no account
of the consolidation, which occurs when ore is blasted against muck, in models the
material is loose.

Two main layouts are used in mines as illustrated in figures 75 and 76. Figure 75
illustrates the transverse layout, which is used in wide orebodies. The production
drifts are usually orientated at an angle to the strike to allow for turning from the
production drifts into the haulage drift.

In orebodies less than 15m width the transverse layout is impractical and a
longitudinal layout as shown in figure 76 is used. Production drifts are driven down
the strike to extract the ore, this may be a single drift or more, dependant on the
orebody width.

Figure 75: Transverse layout.

Figure 76: Longitudinal layout, shaded area represents ore not recovered.

Recovery is generally better in transverse layouts as the production drifts cover all the
ore from the hangingwall to the footwall. In longitudinal systems where the orebody
has an irregular boundary some ore can be left behind as shown in figure 76. In
transverse layouts the haulage drift is located in the footwall about 9m from the ore
contact, so ensuring that the haul road is safe from the effects of production blasting
and possible roof support problems which bast vibrations could cause.

In longitudinal layouts turnouts into the waste need to be provided at regular intervals
where ore passes are situated to transport the ore from the stopes.


Sublevel height

Theoretically this should be as much as possible, however in practice several factors
govern this:

1. Ore body dip: vertical dips have no height constraint, as dip flattens the height has
to be reduced to avoid drawing hanging wall waste.
2. Ability to drill, load and satisfactorily fragment rock. Hole deviation and cost
increase rapidly with length. If ore is weak it may be difficult to keep holes open
for loading with explosives. Badly fragmented ore seriously affects ore recovery
and dilution.

Common sublevel heights are in the range 9.1-10.7m with maximum hole lengths of
15.2-18.3 m

Production drift spacing and pillar width

A distinct relationship exists between the sublevel height and the optimum pillar
width, this directly relates to the width or spacing between production drifts.
Theoretical spacing is based on knowledge of the eccentricity of the cave ellipse. The
width selected for the production drift is also a factor as this influences the inflow of
caved rock into the drift. Ideally equal drift widths and pillar widths should be
employed but this is usually impracticable. Ground conditions should be considered,
as should the drill fan layout. For example with a sublevel height of 9.1m a 6.1 pillar
width is satisfactory unless the pillar is not strong enough to support the loading.

Size and shape of the production drift

These have an important effect on the draw. The drift should be as wide as possible,
whilst still giving good back support and good brow support. Optimum draw is
achieved with a flat back as the ore will draw evenly over the whole width of the drift.
Arched backs concentrate the draw in the middle of the drift and ore does not move at
the edges. Hence waste will be pulled into the centre of the drift before all the ore has
been drawn. Where the back has to be arched to provide enhanced roof support the
production drifts should be spaced closer together.

Loading operations leave ore remnants at the back of the muck pile. The amount of
this ore increases with the height of the drift, thus drift height should be as low as
possible, consistent with equipment sizes and ventilation requirements.

Fan drilling

Modern practice is to drill the fan such that it conforms with the ellipsoid of motion of
the fragmented material. Side holes should be steeper than 70 and should be collared
at the corners of the drift to obtain maximum throat width. The toes of the holes are
generally spaced at 1.5-1.8 m intervals. Fans usually consist of 8 holes, thus for a
9.1m high sublevel each ring consists of 100.6m of drill hole. Burden varies between
1.2 and 2.7 m.

The inclination of the fans is determined theoretically by the relative size of the ore
and waste. Due to the tendency of finer material to infiltrate coarser material the fan
should be inclined backwards if the ore is finer than the waste and forward if the
waste is finer than the ore. Backward fanning is impracticable as it weakens the brow.
Drilling is usually inclined forward between 70 and 80.

Brow support

Critical factor and directly influences the performance of sublevel caving. Strong
brows maximise recovery whilst minimising dilution, the effects of a strong and
collapsed brow are shown in figure 77.


Figure 77: Brows (a) strong brow, (b) collapsed brow.
row collapse has the following effects:
of holes to be blasted. Thus the holes
rough the high spot so reducing the
ith waste being pulled down the brow without loading out the
full width of ore.
echnical Requirements
as still in
roduction or drilling blastholes into holes already loaded with explosives.

B

1. Ore floods into the drift, covering next ring
need to be dug out, this can be dangerous.
2. If brow is uneven ore will funnel down th
width of ore flow and increasing ore losses.
3. Brow over-break leads to the ore flooding further back into the drift. Thus the
loader does not dig in its proper position relative to the broken ore. The result is a
thin draw of ore w

T

Mining sequence needs to be well ordered to avoid undermining are
p

Development and support sublevel caving involves a lot of development work, 15%
or more of the ore can be removed in development headings. Also require the
evelopment of one or more ramp systems to provide access for trackless vehicles,
mmon. On spiral ramps
e maximum slope is 15%. Ramps should be flattened off at turn-offs to sublevels.
critical
rea for support is the brow. In strong ground no extra support may be required, in
ay be required to reslot the stope.
t best there is loss of ore, if the bridge does collapse it is likely to do so as large
plosive is important to ensure good
d
ore passes and ventilation raises.

Maximum slope of ramps should be 20%, 18% slopes are co
th
Minimum practical internal radius for a spiral ramp is 12.2m.

Sublevel headings must be adequately supported for their short life, the intersections
of the haulage drifts and production drifts require special attention. The most
a
weaker ground rock bolts, shotcrete, steel or timber supports may be required.

Drilling and blasting drillholes must be carefully aligned and accurately drilled.
Marking out by surveyors is recommended. Loading and blasting the holes should be
done carefully. If drill holes are not drilled accurately or not properly loaded and
blasted a solid bridge or arch can be left, as shown in figure 78, and only the lower
part of the fan will be drawn. If this occurs it may not become evident until several
more rings have been blasted. In extreme cases it m
A
fragments which will enhance waste dilution.

All blasting in sublevel caving occurs against broken muck. Mucking of the previous
blast loosens the broken muck allowing an expansion of 15%. The powder factor
required in the holes needs to be about double that required for an open free face,
figures of 0.3-0.4 kg/tonne. Distribution of the ex
fragmentation. As fan patterns are used one needs to ensure that the collar area is not
overloaded, otherwise brow problems may result.


Figure 78: Bridge formation.

Loading or mucking the loading unit needs to dig into the muck pile, not skim it.
LHDs are most suitable for the task, the basis of selection of the LHD to use is based
on the largest unit giving satisfactory clearances in the drift. When mucking it is
important to alternate from one side of the heading to the other to ensure an even
raw. Good roadbeds for the LHD ensure maximum production and minimum
entilation Auxiliary ventilation is required in the production drifts, best provided by
s fills most of the available
rea centre drains are recommended. Sumps should be provided on each sublevel,
s into the central mine drainage system.
t which mucking ceases and the next fan of
oles should be blasted. It is a critical control as early cutoff leads to poor recovery,
uals the costs incurred. It
not easy to assess when this point is reached in the mucking cycle and two
visor will
form the operator to take a predetermined number of loads more. If draw conditions
applied where it is difficult to differentiate
etween ore and waste. A number of samples are taken, prepared and assayed, this
d
maintenance.

V
ducted systems.

Drainage good drainage is essential in both the production and haulage drifts to
provide good roadbeds for the use of trackless equipment. Heading grade of 3% will
facilitate drainage. As the equipment used in the heading
a
which then drain

Draw Control

Cutoff point this is the control required to maximise the economics of the draw, it is
more particularly related to the point a
h
late cutoff results in excessive dilution.

The theoretical grade at which mucking should be cut off needs to be established
initially. This is based on economic considerations such as operational costs, metal
prices etc and usually is the grade at which the ore value eq
is
techniques are available, visual determination and assaying.

The visual sampling system requires the difference between ore and waste to be
visually distinguishable. Given that it is difficult to accurately estimate the grade a
more common approach is to provide operators with information based on the
percentage of ore to waste that should be present at the required cutoff. Ore grade in
situ is determined by sampling the chippings and sludge from fan drilling. Tonnage
blasted is computed from drill hole layout. The ore to waste ratio is calculated using
the following method: if in situ grade is 2% and the desired cutoff is 0.5%, assuming
the dilution carries no value then mucking should stop when the muck pile appears to
consist of 25% ore and 75% waste. A theoretical number of LHD loads to achieve this
is calculated and provided to the production supervisor. If cutoff appears to occur
before the theoretical number of LHD loads have been taken, the super
in
do not improve mucking is stopped, if they do improve mucking continues.

The sample assay system is usually
b
preferably takes place underground.

The visual method is cheap and estimates can be made rapidly without interrupting
production. The assay method suffers from difficulties associated with the collection
f representative samples, mucking operations need to be stopped to allow assaying to
that are more accurate than estimating.
ver this is not the recovery of the in situ ore
serves. This will be less by an amount dependent on such factors as ore width,
ilution refers to the barren or low grade material drawn with the ore, this causes the
grade of the ore to decline until cutoff grade is reached, this can be expressed as:

o
provide data but does provide figures

Recovery, extraction and dilution

Recovery is the percentage of metal units extracted per units blasted. Commonly 85-
90% recovery of units blasted. Howe
re
regularity of ore boundaries and dip.

Extraction is the percentage of tonnes drawn to the tonnes blasted.

D
waste ore
waste

or

dilution of grade - situ in grade
extracted rade g situ in grade


ance
on can be air or diesel powered. Air powered units
re less expensive but need towing between sub levels which is inconvenient. Diesel
lasting equipment diesel powered vehicles mounted with pneumatic loaders for
ervice vehicles for supply and personnel transport, should be 4WD. Electric traction
ential element of all mining operations. Workshops should be
dequately sized and well equipped. Preventative maintenance is essential to ensure
Equipment and Mainten

Production Equipment

Loading and mucking diesel powered LHDs are common and recommended

Drilling Equipment manufacturers have designed 2 and 3 boom jumbos specifically
for sub level caving patterns. Tracti
a
powered traction is recommended.

B
loading ANFO or slurry.

S
can also be considered

Maintenance is an ess
a
maximum production.

Typical performance figures

Drilling with diesel powered jumbo, twin booms, in good drilling average hole length
of 152.4m per shift or more. Rock drillability is a major factor.
haul under good
onditions

36.3 t/worker shift for all underground personnel has been achieved.


A 3.8 m
3
LHD can average 453.5 t per shift over a 213.4m one way
c

10.3 Block Caving

Block caving is a general term referring to a mass mining method where ore
extraction depends mainly on the action of gravity. Removal of a thin horizontal layer
at the mining level of the ore column using standard mining methods, vertical support
of the ore column is removed, the ore above then caves under the influence of gravity.
Broken ore is removed at the mining level and the ore above continues to break. The
term block caving probably originated in the porphyry copper mines where the mined
area was divided into blocks (rectangular) that were mined on a checker board
sequence with all the ore in a block removed prior to mining starting in the adjacent
block. This method is no longer widely used as most mines today work on a panel
system. Panels are mined sequentially or by establishing a large production area and
gradually moving it forward as the first area caved becomes exhausted. The term
block caving is now used for all types of gravity caving methods.

Three main types of block caving exist, differentiated by the type of production
equipment used, they are

1. Grizzly or gravity system: this is a full gravity system in which the ore from the
drawpoints flows directly to the transfer raises after sizing at the grizzly, then it is
gravity loaded into ore cars or onto a conveyor.
2. Slusher system
3. Rubber tyred system: this uses LHDs

Block caving is the lowest cost of all mining methods with the exception of open pit
and in situ recovery methods.

Suitable ore bodies

Ore body characteristics

A typical ore body is a porphyry type deposit with well-disseminated mineralisation
and fairly large lateral and vertical extent. It can be applied to steeply dipping vein
deposits of sufficient width and to the mining of thick flat lying deposits. Rock
strength can be fairly weak or strong, but the rock mass must have sufficient fractures
in different orientations to allow it to break up under the influence of gravity into
pieces that are small enough to pass through drawholes and into the production drifts.
The lateral extent of the body must be large enough to ensure that a cave can be
established. This dimension depends on the rock mass, but a minimum figure is about
90m. The height of the orebody should be sufficient to allow a reasonable productive
life to individual drawpoints and also to ensure a reasonable rate of return on the
development and production costs. This will depend on the value of the mineral.
Cavability determination

Once one has determined that the orebody is large enough to use block caving, the
next feature to determine is the cavability. The frequency and orientation of the
various fracture sets must be determined. Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is used as
a first indicator, but a full geological, geo-technical and rock mechanics study needs
to be undertaken. At least three major fracture sets are required to justify block
caving, two vertical sets at about 90 orientation to each other and a third set lying
approximately horizontal will form rectangular blocks when the fractures separate.
The fracture spacing is also important, as this will determine the block size appearing
at the drawpoints. The fill in the fractures and joints also needs to be determined as
this will help determination of how easily the fractures will separate. The waste
capping also requires investigation, as one needs to ensure this will cave also. If the
waste capping breaks into larger blocks than the ore, then minimum dilution will
occur. If the opposite is true dilution will be a larger problem due to infiltration of the
ore by the waste. Major faults and dykes also need to be identified as these may affect
the caving action.

Productive Capacity

Best suited for high daily production. The method has been used in mines with daily
production rates varying from 1800 t/day to 72000 t/day. The productive capacity of a
mine is determined by the vertical draw that can be made and the horizontal area that
can be undercut at a given time without producing unusual ground control problems.
Draw rates vary from 0.15-0.6m day, the draw rate is determined by the rate at which
ore will cave, this is determined from experience.

Mining system selection

Once cavability has been determined and the size of material arriving at the drawpoint
evaluated the next stage is to select a mining system. The size of the broken material
is the main selection criterion but other factors will include the mine site location,
labour availability and economics.

Spacing of drawpoints is dependent on material size. If the ore breaks very fine, close
drawpoint spacing is required. Coarser breaking requires wider drawpoint spacing.
Fine ore is most suitable for the grizzly or gravity system, as the ore becomes coarser
slusher systems become more applicable, for quite coarse material the LHD system is
the best.

Choice of system

Full gravity or grizzly system: This system consists of the haulage level, transfer
raises, grizzly level, finger raises and undercut level. A typical layout is illustrated in
figure 79. The haulage and grizzly levels are driven across the ore block to be mined,
this can be done simultaneously as they are at different horizons. Finger raises are
then driven from the grizzly level upward to the undercut level. Then on the undercut
level short horizontal connections are driven between the tops of the finger raises to
form pillars that will later be longholed and blasted to initiate caving. Transfer raises
are driven between the haulage level and the grizzly level, with a loading chute on the
haulage level and grizzly rails on the grizzly level. Once undercut blasting is
completed and caving initiated ore flows down the finger raises, is sized by the
grizzly and then passes down the transfer chutes to the haulage level where ore cars,
trucks or conveyors are loaded. Oversize material is broken by sledge hammers or
mechanical breakers on the grizzly. Secondary blasting breaks hang-ups in the finger
raises.


Figure 79: Typical grizzly system layout. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Slusher drift system: slusher system is used for rock that will break into moderate-
sized pieces. A typical layout is shown in figure 80. The system consists of a haulage
level, slusher drifts immediately above the haulage, finger raises and the undercut
level. Haulage drifts are driven on even centres across the block to be mined,
ventilation drifts are then driven at the haulage level half way between the haulage
drifts. The slusher drifts are driven at right angles to the haulage drift at even intervals
usually with every other slusher drift driven at 180 to the previous drift. Once
concrete support is placed in the slusher drift finger raises are driven to the undercut
level and concreted. Under cut drifts can be driven from the finger raises or can be
developed from a separate access simultaneously with the lower level development.
Longhole drilling is done from the undercut drifts and then blasted to initiate caving.


Figure 80: Typical slusher system layout. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

LHD or rubber tyred system: if studies indicate that the ore will break into
relatively large pieces then this system should be considered, as shown in figure 81.
Use of LHD units requires the drawpoints to be spaced at greater intervals to allow for
equipment operation. The system consists of the haulage level, ore transfer raises,
production level, drawpoint entries and undercut drifts. Longholing and blasting are
used to form the undercut that produces caving. The large diameter draw cone allows
large pieces of rock to move down near the drawpoint, here small drills and
explosives can be used to break up larger pieces of ore. Using separate accesses the
undercut, production and haulage levels can be developed simultaneously. The
haulage and production levels should be well separated to provide adequate storage in
the transfer raises to ensure that haulage operations do not need to wait on mucking
operations. Drilling of the drawpoint cones can be undertaken from the drawpoint
entry or from the undercut level, it is generally safer to do it from the undercut level.



Figure 81: Typical LHD system layout. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Development

The sequencing and type of development opening varies depending on the operating
system used and also to a lesser extent on orebody configuration. Two of the main
components, the haulage and undercut levels are fairly standard. The third main
component differs substantially.

Haulage level

This is located under the production level, the distance between the two levels
depends on the production method used. The length of the raise will depend on the
storage desired. Raises should be inclined at 60-70 from the horizontal to ensure a
good flow of rock and to provide additional breakage of large fragments as they drop
down the orepass.

Production level

This is the grizzly level in the grizzly system, the slusher level in the slusher system
and the LHD level in the LHD system.

Undercut level

The quality of work on this level is of great importance. Undercut drifts are driven a
suitable distance over the tops of the drawpoints. They are used for longhole drilling
that will effect the final undercut blast, which initiates caving. Undercut drifts must be
driven accurately to ensure that they are in proper alignment with the workings below.
Cross cuts between undercut drifts are also driven to facilitate access between drifts
and to delimit blasting areas.
Longhole drilling

This is the last step before undercut blasting. The purpose is to remove pillars
between the undercut drifts and so form a horizontal slot, allowing the ore above to
cave. Longholes can be drilled horizontally through the pillars or at some angle above
the undercut to form an apex between drawholes. The flattest angle used in the latter
case is 45. The drill pattern must be evenly spaced along the undercut drifts, spacing
is determined by hole size and powder factor.

Drawpoints

For the grizzly and slusher systems drawpoints are driven at right angles to the grizzly
or slusher drifts, they are also inclined to the horizontal. The angle of inclinations
varies from almost vertical down to 45. The cross section of the drawpoint should be
large enough to allow most rock fragments to pass through the opening without the
need for secondary breakage. After driving the inclined section of the drawpoint a
vertical section may be driven upwards towards the undercut level. This allows the
undercut level to be raised further above the production level, ensuring an adequate
pillar exists between the caved zone and the production level. Typical drawpoint
designs are shown in figure 82. Drawpoints may or may not be concrete lined,
concrete lining allows for better flow of ore and will retain its shape better than
unlined rock, it is also easier to repair if excessive erosion occurs. The size of
drawpoints needs to be maintained to prevent flooding of the production drift with
rock.


Figure 82: Drawpoint designs for grizzly and slusher systems. (After Hartman HL,
SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

For the LHD system the drawpoint needs to be almost horizontal to allow LHD entry.
The connection between the production and undercut level is usually a fairly large
draw cone formed by drill and blast techniques. The brow of the drawpoint needs to
be high enough to allow for the LHD bucket to lift a load but not so high as to allow
broken rock to flood into the production drift.

Boundary weakening

This serves two purposes, firstly to minimise the side flow of waste material into the
broken ore column and secondly to facilitate caving. The later is of more importance.
This is particularly true during the initial caving period. All rock has a tendency to
arch, this can often hinder the development of a fully active cave. Boundary
weakening should be placed on two adjacent sides of the initial caving area, the extent
of the weakening depends on the ore strength. For a weak and highly fractured ore
body some corner raises and drilling along the two boundaries may be sufficient. For
a stronger less fractured ore body a completely fractured zone 2.4-3m wide may be
required. This type of weakening is formed by driving sublevels along the boundaries
at about 18m vertical spacings. The number of sublevels depends on the ore column
height and the ore strength. Two or three lines of vertical holes are then drilled
between the sublevels. When these holes are loaded and blasted they produce a
fractured zone that weakens two legs of the arch and facilitates good caving. This
method is shown in figure 83. Once an active cave is established, pre splitting may be
required or it may be possible to eliminate boundary weakening.


Figure 83: Boundary weakening. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).

Undercut blasting

The final step to initiate caving. This needs to be done with great care and the cave
area checked constantly for pillars of unblasted ore. Only a few longhole patterns at a
time should be blasted to allow pillar checking to be simple. Pillars left in the cave
area will hinder proper caving and can transmit weight to the level below they should
be removed.

Support

Rock support is important in block caving. As the cave area enlarges the weight
supported by the undercut area is transferred to the area around the undercut. This
places added stress on the rock and workings adjacent to the cave area. It is important
to maintain as much of the original rock integrity as possible. The most common
forms of support are rock bolts and concrete. Rock bolts should be installed as soon as
possible.

Ventilation

Good ventilation and frequent air quality monitoring are essential in block caving, a
common problem pollutant is dust. Contaminated air should be removed as rapidly as
possible. Intake and return trunk airways that are separated from the main mine
workings are desirable. The intake trunk airway needs to be positioned so that
controlled amounts of air can be introduced into the haulage and production drifts and
then to individual working zones. Contaminated air should be captured as close to the
working place a s possible, sent to exhaust ventilation drifts and the to the return trunk
airway. Airflow quantities needed will depend on the number of working places in use
at any one time and the type and amount of equipment used.

Principles and practices
Drawpoint spacing

Important to ensure good recovery of the ore, no set formulas exist to accurately
determine spacing, table 11 shows draw point spacing at a number of mines.

Table 11: Drawpoint spacing and block height. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).
Block heights

The height of ore column to be mined varies from mine to mine and even within a
mine. The critical height of ore is such that the mineral content will pay for the
development, production, milling, overhead costs and still provide a profit. Ore grade
and mineral price obviously exert a great influence on the critical height. Productive
life also needs to be considered. If the tonnage is exhausted too quickly development
may not be able to keep pace with production. The higher the column the cheaper the
development per tonne will be. But other considerations also need to be added into the
equation. Ore body configuration may influence where the mining level or levels are
to be located. It is not usually practicable to mine waste material to recover ore above,
so a horizontal level in the ore body may set a mining horizon. The number of unne
that can be drawn through a drawpoint before repairs are required is also a factor, if
several repairs are likely it may be more suitable to choose a lower height. The height
of the ore drawn also influences dilution, the higher the column the more likely
dilution is. Ore columns varying between 30-250m have been drawn successfully.

Dilution Control

Dilution factors cannot be predetermined, but estimates can be made. Typically
dilution rates of 10-25% are applied. The level of dilution depends on a number of
factors including:

1. Ore grades
2. Grade of diluting material
3. Costs
4. Metal prices

The more dilution tonnage that is drawn the higher the production costs will be per
unit weight of mineral recovered.

The best method of minimising dilution is through careful draw control, drawing
should be carefully monitored and drawn evenly over the entire caved area to ensure
the rate of draw does not vary between drawpoints. The purpose of good draw control
is to minimise the area of contact between the ore and the caved waste. Numerous
methods of draw control exist, figure 84 illustrates a method successfully applied at
the Climax and Henderson mine, and the principle is to maintain an ore-waste contact
of 45-50 moving away from the un-caved zone.



Figure 84: Draw control. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook,
SME, 1992).

Mining limits

These are usually determined by economic limits in porphyry type deposits. These
deposits may have no definite separation between mineralised and waste rock, the
grade of the ore diminishes until it becomes too low to mine economically. In such
cases the mining limit is set by the minimum height of economic grade ore that will
contribute profitably to the mine. Where a sharp differential exists between ore and
waste the setting of mining limits is simpler.

If the orebody has a large lateral extent, it might not be practical to mine it as a single
block. In this case the mining level needs to be divided into several blocks these are
mined sequentially. If there are more than 2 mining blocks the new mining block
should be immediately adjacent to the first mining block. If mining is done on two
sides of an unmined block the potential for excessive pressure in the unmined block
becomes greater.

Observing cave action

Observation of the caving action is a complex activity and is used to determine how
caving is progressing. It is not easy to do, a number of methods have been devised and
the choice of method depends on the funds available. One method involves the
driving of an observation tunnel at some distance above the undercut level and outside
the cave line. Crosscuts are then driven over to the cave limits to observe the process.
If arching is occurring then these cross cuts can be used to longhole drill and blast the
forming arch.

An alternative method is to use drill holes that are over the area of the initial cave to
survey the top of the arch, possible methods are shown in Figure 85.


Figure 85: Measuring cave progress. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).

Weight Problems

These are inherent to block caving, rock removal from one area transfers the support
of that rock to surrounding in place rock. Thus it follows that pressures will increase
due to the extra support requirements. The more rock that is removed the greater this
pressure will be. This pressure is transferred to the workings in the production area.
When the undercut is blasted, there is a momentary release of this pressure this can
cause cracking in the concrete support due to the momentary release of the pressure of
compression. As a result of this the production area will experience tension forces, if
these are too severe cracking of the concrete lining or rock around the production area
can result, thus rock bolting may be required.

The area of greatest pressure usually is the advancing cave line, thus the workings
directly underneath and in front of the advancing undercut are most subject to
damage. The effect of this can be reduced by advancing the undercut blasting as
quickly as possible, so reducing the exposure time of the production workings to this
pressure. If this cannot be done, making the connections between the undercut level
and production levels should be delayed until just before blasting the undercut. The
aim is to retain as much solid rock as possible to retain the support.

Weight damage can also occur from unblasted pillars or stubs left in the undercut.
These act as stress concentrators.

Critical workings and accesses should not be placed within cave limits, where this
cannot be avoided these should be well supported. Minimisation of the weight
problems at the undercut line occurs if the cave line is advanced at an angle to the
main workings. The advancing cave line should not be stopped for an extended time
over a main working.

Numerous methods of monitoring the pressure in workings exist, extensometers are a
simple and reliable technique and are used widely. These are also known as tell-tales.

Promoting active caving

All rock has a natural tendency to arch; the dimensions of this arch depend on the
rock strength. In caving, to produce a natural cave the aim is to exceed the width of
this arch such that the rock will break and cave. To start caving the undercut level
should be advanced in 2 directions to weaken the natural arching process as quickly as
possible.

Induced caving

Undercutting will eventually produce an active cave, but in some cases the size of the
undercut may become excessive, under these conditions blasting may be used to
induce caving prematurely in the stope.

Development Rate

The rate of development must be balanced with the rate of production. Generally if
the tonnage caved in a year is equal to the tonnage drawn then the productive capacity
will remain constant. If the tonnage above individual drawpoints varies significantly
then adjustments will need to be made with respect to the number of active
drawpoints required to draw the required tonnage. Lead-time required to bring
drawpoints on line is a critical parameter. Typical development parameters are as
follows:

Three years required to prepare a new production drift from initial access to
blasting the undercut.
Undercut drifts should be completed 6-12 months in advance of blasting to allow
adequate time for longholing.
Longholing should precede blasting by about 6 months.

Number of active production drawpoints

This depends on

Rate at which ore will cave
Tonnage that will flow through a drawpoint in a day
Productive capacity of equipment

Rate of draw should be fast enough to ensure that the solid ore above has room to
cave into but not so rapid as to create a large void. Draw rates vary between 150-
610mm/day. Tonnage drawn will also vary according to the frequency of hang-ups.
Drawpoint availability varies between 80-90% for new drawpoints.

Secondary blasting

Oversize boulders will occur, the usual method of breaking these is by secondary
blasting employing concussion blasting using surface charges.

Subsidence

Surface subsidence always occurs with block caving. The time from initial production
to the first indications of subsidence on surface depends on the following:

1. Depth of mining below surface
2. Ore strength
3. Rate of draw.

The zone of subsidence can be estimated by drawing a 45 line from the undercut
level to surface, within this zone no permanent structures should be built.

Mine Design

Grizzly System

Best suited to ores that breaks finely and requires closely spaced drawpoints. Also
favoured when labour is plentiful and cheap, thus it is a labour intensive method. It
also requires substantially more development than other systems, thus development
costs are comparatively high.
Haulage level this is driven some distance below the grizzly level, this allows storage
room for train loading. Minimum spacing should be 18m, but if ore is fed to a central
loading system it should be greater. Generally supported using concrete, dimensions
of haulage level depend on type of haulage equipment.

Raises or transfer raises are driven from the grizzly level to the haulage level, each
raise serves multiple grizzlies. The number of grizzlies served will depend on the
distance between the two levels and the grizzly chamber spacing. The raises are
usually lined with concrete or timber. Chutes or other loading arrangements are
generally installed at the base of the raises. Grizzly rails are installed at the top of the
raises to size material.

Grizzly drifts these connect the top of the transfer raises that lie in a given line.
These act as manways and ventilation routes. Usually concrete lined and generally are
of small size.

Draw or finger raises these are driven from the grizzly to the undercut levels. Two
raises are driven on opposite sides and at right angles to the grizzly drift and are
located at the top of a transfer raise. They are driven nearly vertical. The distance
between the grizzly and undercut level depends on the pillar width required,
commonly a 4.5m pillar is used.

Undercut drifts these connect the top of the draw raises. In driving these pillars are
left which are subsequently blasted to initiate caving.

Ventilation this is fairly simple, fresh air is passed along the haulage drifts and then
up to the grizzly levels and then out to a main return airway. Whilst it may be simple
air quality may not be the best.

Slusher system

Can be used for fine breaking ores but best suited to medium-coarse breaking ores.

Haulage drifts are driven on even centre across the to be mined block. The slusher
drift length and drawpoint spacing determine distance between haulages. Tunnel size
is a function of the haulage equipment.

Slusher drifts these are driven at 90 to and directly above the haulage drifts. Slusher
drifts consist of a loading cutout directly above the haulage, a slusher cutout at the end
opposite to the slusher drift and the slusher drift. The size of the drift depends on the
width of the scraper used and should be about 0.3m greater than the width of the
scraper. It is usually concrete lined, to provide a good sliding surface, rails should be
set into the floor of the drift. To aid drainage a slope of 5% should be used grading
from the haulage. Slusher drifts are usually staggered along the haulage, ie every
other slusher drift is at 180 to the previous drift.

Ventilation drifts these are drift half the distance between haulage drifts, directly
underneath the tailend of the slusher drifts from two adjacent haulage drifts. Small
vent raises connect the slusher drifts to the ventilation drifts to exhaust contaminated
air from the slusher drifts. Sizing of ventilation drifts depends on the quantity of air to
be passed.

Finger or draw raises these are driven at right angles to the slusher drifts at an angle
of about 45 from the horizontal. These are developed to the centre-line of the
drawpoint spacing and then driven vertically upwards to the undercut level, as shown
in figure 86.


Figure 86: Slusher drift-undercut level cross-section. (After Hartman HL, SME
Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Finger raises are driven both sides of the slusher drift, usually in opposite pairs but
sometimes they are staggered. Their size depends on the size of the caved material to
be passed through them. If too small hang-ups will occur too often, if too large the
slusher drift will become flooded with caved ore. The raises are generally lined with
concrete to firstly reduce wear and secondly to ensure that the brow remains intact.

Undercut drifts these are driven over the top of the finger raises, sizing depends on
the size of the equipment used in the undercut level.

Longhole drilling this is usually done as a fan pattern, see figure 86. Hole size and
powder load required depends on the rock strength, and these two factors determine
the fan burden distance. Drilling and blasting of fans in two adjacent undercut drifts
leads to the formation of an apex over the slusher drift which helps to protect the
slusher drift and cause the ore to flow towards the finger raises.

Ventilation is more positive in this system than in the grizzly system. Air flows from
a trunk intake airway located at the edge of the mining zone or underneath the haulage
level. Fresh air flows from the haulage drives to the slusher drifts and thence via the
exhaust raises to the ventilation drifts to the main return airway. The volume of air
flowing to each slusher drift is controlled by a variable air regulator.

LHD system

This system is highly productive and efficient. The system requires less development
per tonne of ore and has a high production-output capability. It is best suited to ore
bodies that are not intensely fractured and which cave into large pieces. Wide
drawpoint spacing is required to allow for use of the diesel equipment.

Haulage level is located well below the production level to allow for adequate storage
in the centralised orepass system. Sizing depends on the type and size of the haulage
equipment.

Production level these are driven on even centres across the production block. The
drawpoint spacing and layout determine spacing between these drifts. Drift size is
determined by the size of equipment used. They require good support and should be
rock bolted and concreted.

Drawpoints are initially driven horizontally from the production drifts, to allow for
LHD entry the entry angle from the drift on a horizontal plane is usually of the order
of 45. A typical drawpoint and draw cone are shown in figure 87. Drilling patterns
for both longhole drilling and draw cone drilling are shown in figure 88.

Figure 87: LHD drawpoint and cone. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering
handbook, SME, 1992).

Undercut level this is driven some distance above the production level, usually in the
15m range, thus allowing more pillar between the production level and the undercut
level so giving better protection. Undercut drifts are usually driven immediately above
the production drifts, again size is determined by the size of the equipment to be used.
Usually only temporary support is required.

Longhole drilling the undercut longholes and drilling for the draw cones is done
from the undercut level. Drilling of the draw cones from this level requires more
drilling than drilling them from the production level but it is far safer this way. Draw
cone blasting is done one or two rings at a time. Draw cone blasting immediately
precedes blasting of the undercut. The cones should only precede undercut blasting by
one or two drawpoints to ensure that the minimum amount of ground ahead of the
cave line is opened. Blasting of longholes is usually done in-groups of two or three to
allow for checking for pillars. As with the other two systems the cave line should be
advanced at an angle to the line of axis of the other workings to minimise weight
transfer.
Figure 88: Drilling pattern for undercut and draw cone for LHD system. (After
Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

Ore passes these can also be called storage bins are driven between the production
level and the haulage level to transfer ore to the haulage system. Ore passes should be
spaced intermittently along the production drifts so that they can service a number of
drawpoints. The distance between ore passes is a function of

Most efficient haul distance for the LHDs
Tonnage per orepass required per shift to service the haulage system.

Using branch ore passes several production drifts can be serviced by a single haulage
level. At the base of the ore passes loading chutes are installed, at the production level
a dump pocket is installed. Ore passes are usually not lined. Long ore passes are
generally raise bored.

Ventilation requirements for this system are higher than the other two due to the use
of diesel equipment, as such the ventilation system is more complicated. Ventilation
intakes are developed below the production level. Fresh air is fed to the production
level via raises at a number of points. Smaller ventilation raises feed contaminated air
from each orepass dump point to dedicated return airways, which are again developed
at a level below the production level.

The following figures illustrate the application of block caving at a number of mines.




Figure 89: Gravity block caving system, El Teniente Mine, Chile. (After Hartman HL,
SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).



Figure 90: Mechanised LHD block caving system, El Teniente Mine, Chile. (After
Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).





Figure 91: Production level layout, mechanised LHD block caving system, El
Teniente Mine, Chile. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook,
SME, 1992).





Figure 92: Production level support, mechanised LHD block caving system, El
Teniente Mine, Chile. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook,
SME, 1992).




Figure 93: Slusher block caving system, Ertsberg East Mine, Freeport Indonesia Inc,
Irian J aya. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).




Figure 94: Trench undercutting system, LHD block caving system, Ertsberg East
Mine, Freeport Indonesia Inc, Irian J aya. (After Hartman HL, SME Mining
Engineering handbook, SME, 1992).

References

Gertsch R.E and Bullock R.L Techniques in Underground Mining, Colorado: SME
Inc, 1998. Chapters 37, 42, 44.

MINING ENGINEERING I APRIL 2001 33
Borehole mining
environmentally friendly,
underused
Grigori
Abramov and
Mark Wiley
FIG. 1
Borehole mining
schematic and
tool.
R
ecent studies have shown that mining can be a solution to an environ-
mental problem that has been around for decades. According to the
Colorado Division of Minerals and Geology, some 20,000 abandoned
mines are dripping acid into the Colorado River. Congress has considered
appropriating $45 million just for Western states to clean up old mines and
stop further contamination. Nationally, that figure is many times higher.
All of these pollution sources are at least partially inaccessible. Or access
to the source is too dangerous. Most of them are at least partly flooded or
collapsed.
Grigori Abramov,
member SME, is presi-
dent, Borehole Mining
International, 4871 S.
Dudley St., Littleton, CO
80123. Mark Wiley,
member SME, is presi-
dent, Wiley Engineering
Inc., PO Box 4027,
Englewood, CO 80155.
33-36 3/28/01, 8:56 AM 33
Click here to return to TOC
34 APRIL 2001 I MINING ENGINEERING
FIG. 2
Borehole mining tool and jet test.
FIG. 3
Borehole mining could reduce or
eliminate acid drainage to water-
ways like this streamin West Vir-
ginia.
How, then, do we avoid this problem of acid mine
drainage? Is there any technology available to prevent
this environmental problem?
Borehole mining as a solution
Borehole mining (BHM) is a remote method of ex-
tracting ores and industrial materials by water jets
through boreholes. This underground mining method is
carried out from the surface. Recently, this technique
has been applied to the cleanup of an abandoned under-
ground coal mine in West Virginia.
Figure 1 presents a schematic of the BHM process.
The borehole mining tool (1) is lowered to the borehole
(2) and high pressure water (3) is pumped down. At the
bottom part of the BHM tool, part of that high-pressure
water comes out through the hydromonitor nozzle (4) in
the shape of a water jet (5) and cuts the material (6).
This material is reduced to a slurry (7) and moves down
by gravity toward the bottom of the borehole.
The remaining part of the water is directed to the
hydroelevator (8) jet pump eductor, producing a
vacuum. When the slurry reaches this vacuum zone, the
eductor sucks up the slurry and pumps it to the surface.
On the surface, rock separates from water in a tank (9)
or a pond by itself. Clarified water is pumped down
again, closing the recirculating BHM water-supply sys-
33-36 3/28/01, 8:57 AM 34
MINING ENGINEERING I APRIL 2001 35
FIG. 4
This borehole video systemshows
the video camera on the cable, along
with the television monitor and the
VCR.
FIG. 5
Borehole mining injection proce-
dures.
tem. The borehole mining tool is suspended on a stan-
dard drill-rig tower (10). This allows the tool to rotate
and move up and down along the borehole axis.
BHM is considered an underground mining method
because operations take place beneath the surface. Min-
ers never go underground. They conduct operations re-
motely from the surface. This method is currently used
to mine uranium, quartz sand, metal ores, phosphate,
gold, diamonds and rare earths.
The following are the main BHM technological pa-
rameters and achievements (data are based on previous
BHM experiences):
Mining depths, 20 m to 1 km (65 to 3,300 ft).
BHM tools, 70- to 300-mm-outside diam (2.75- to 12-
in.-outside diam).
Working water pressures, 7 to 21 MPa (1,000 to 3,000
psi).
Flow rates, 150 to 300 m
3
/h (83 to 1,600 gpm).
Tool capacity, 25 to 90 m
3
/h (890 to 3,200 cu ft/hour).
Pregnant slurry consistence (rock/water), 1/10 to 1/1.
Cutting radius, up to 10 m (33 ft).
Thickness of productive interval, 0.2 to 400 m (0.6 to
1,310 ft).
Water jet the main BHM instrument
As seen from this description, the jet (Fig. 2) is the
main working component in BHM. But, in addition to
the jet being a cutting tool, it also serves as an injector.
Changing from extraction to backfilling is simple.
All that is required is to add some filling material to the
working water. Bounced from the cavern wall, this mix-
ture (backfill slurry) separates by itself. The water flows
to the lowest cavern point (borehole sump or away from
the mine) while fill material will accumulate on the cav-
ern floor. It should be noted that, unlike cutting, the jet
free flight distance of the injected slurry can reach up
to 100 m (330 ft).
D
33-36 3/28/01, 8:58 AM 35
36 APRIL 2001 I MINING ENGINEERING
FIG. 6
Connecting the borehole to the void
for limestone slurry injection in a
coal mine.
Case study in coal
Borehole Mining International,
through Wiley Engineering Inc.,
provided a slurry injector and con-
sulting services to an acid rain drain-
age research project in northeastern
West Virginia. A joint venture pro-
ject between federal, state and the
coal industry has developed in-situ
pilot project to reduce or eliminate
acid drainage from an abandoned
underground coal mine. Polluted
underground water seeps into sev-
eral surface streams in this region.
(Fig. 3).
The project evaluated the sub-
surface hydrogeological conditions
of ground waters flowing through
the old works. The goal is to place
limestone in mine voids, intercept
the subterranean waters and neu-
tralize the potential to discharge acid waters into nearby
streams. Contacting the acid flow, limestone generates a
neutralization chemical reaction. This allows the ground
waters pH level to be restored back to neutral (pH 7).
Before development of the injection technology,
specially designed borehole video cameras were used to
inspect voids (Fig. 4). The injection technology proce-
dure is shown in Figs. 5 and 6.
Following the mine maps and other documentation,
several boreholes were drilled into drift intersection ar-
eas (Fig 5). In some clean boreholes, adequate treat-
ment could be achieved by just dumping limestone slurry
into the void. In most cases, though, this will not work
because the floor is covered by rubble (Fig. 5a). In these
voids, limestone dumped on top of this pile will never
contact the flowing water. Also, in some sites, the stream
is flowing far away from the borehole entrance to the
void.
Wiley Engineering demonstrated the use of BHM
technology to improve access and limestone placement
from the surface to 80-m- (260-ft-) deep, inaccessible
underground coal mine voids.
Two main technological patterns have been devel-
oped through the first of the BHM tool. The first in-
volves cleaning the void floor. This allows for limestone
access to the ground water flow (Fig
5b and c). The second step (Fig. 5d)
is accomplished by limestone slurry
injection and its distribution of the
limestone by the water jet far from
the borehole.
The borehole injector and
BHM technology elements de-
scribed here are not pure bore-
hole mining. This is because no slur-
ry is delivered back to the surface
and, thus, no mining occurs.
Several boreholes missed the
voids altogether and were drilled
into the coal pillar (Fig 6). In such
cases, the BHM tool is used to gain
access to the void by cutting through
the pillar. While creating access,
some coal will be mined from the
remaining pillars and delivered to
the surface, the same as in standard
borehole mining. The BHM tool is then used to inject
limestone slurry into the mine opening in a procedure
similar to what has been described. A total of 36 kt
(40,000 st) of limestone was placed in the old mine work-
ings during the summer of 2000.
Water pH is monitored in the old mines and at dis-
charge locations, to determine the success of the under-
ground treatment. The first results of the pilot testing
are expected later this year.
Conclusions
When first invented, borehole mining was seen as an
ideal mining method. It offered landscape-friendly ore
recovery and mineral extraction. And waste material
could be backfilled into the mine.
However, the following decades of industry develop-
ment have not included backfilling techniques. And min-
ing is still seen as a polluting industry. The success of this
West Virginia underground acid-drainage treatment
project may provide new methodology in the in-situ
treatment and prevention of acid mine drainage. The
project is also expected to be a good proving ground for
backfilling methodology and techniques.
For more information, contact: Mark Wiley, presi-
dent, Wiley Engineering Inc., phone 303-267-0791. I
The project evaluated
the surface
hydrogeological
conditions of ground
waters flowing
through the old
works. The goal was
to place limestone in
mine voids, intercept
the subterranean
waters and neutralize
the potential to
discharge acid water
into nearby streams.
33-36 3/28/01, 8:58 AM 36