BASIC MAINTENANCE

ASPECTS






Power Management Institute
Noida

IME/04
(Restricted Circulation Only)

CONTENTS


SI. NO. DESCRIPTION PAGE NOs.
1. ENGINEERING MATERIAL 1
2. BASIC SCAFFOLD CONTRUCTION 20
3. SLINGING METHODS 36
4. PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT HANDLING AND LIFTING 67
5. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND GAUGES 91
6. COUPLINGS 115
7. ALIGNMENT 147
8. REALIABILITY ANALYSIS 156
9. PERMIT TO WORK SYSTEM 180
10.
IMPROVING POWER PLANT AVAILABILITYWITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO MAINTENANCE
183
PMI, NTPC 1
1. Engineering Materials


METALS

Metals are distinguished from non-metals by their lustre and greater density. In the polished
condition all metallic elements are white, except copper, which is reddish, and gold, which is
yellow.

Few metals are used in the pure state, but are melted together with one or more other metals to
form alloys. This alloying is carried out to give the resulting metal certain desirable properties
such as greater strength, hardness, or increased resistance to corrosion. The proportions of the
various alloying elements are of great importance as slight variation can alter completely the
characteristics of an alloy. The alloying additions need not be metals; carbon and silicon are
added to steel, and sulphur is also found in ferrous alloys although it usually occurs as an
undesirable impurity.

Metals are usually divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Ferrous metals are those
containing and consisting mainly of iron, whilst non-ferrous metals contain little or no iron.

FERROUS METALS

The ferrous metals are outstanding for their mechanical strength and rigidity. Cast iron is very
strong in compression and can be cast into intricate shapes. It is used for machine beds,
columns, cylinder heads, and has countless other used. A further useful property is that a piece
of cast iron will slide over another piece without seizing. This is due to the presence of tiny
flakes of graphite which lubricate the sliding surfaces. This property is used to advantage in
machine tools, for example, the cast iron slide and saddles on a lather.

PLAIN CARBON STEELS

Plain carbon steels are used for all types of constructional work, from girders in bridge building
to tiny nuts and bolts in instruments. Plain carbon steel with a carbon content of between 0.4
PMI, NTPC 2
and 1.4 percent can be hardened by heating to a cherry red and quenching in oil or water. This
enables these higher carbon steels to be employed for cutting tools such as chisels and files.

ALLOY STEELS

There are a great many alloy steels each having special advantages. Some possess very high
strength or resistance to corrosion, whiles other retain their strength at high temperature or
possess exceptional hardness and resistance to abrasion.

Note:
Nearly all ferrous metals are magnetic, the exceptions being stainless and highly alloyed steels.

A magnetic material is one which is able to attract, or be attracted by, a magnet, and itself
capable of being magnetised.

NON-FERROUS METALS

In the pure state the non-ferrous metals are al mechanically weaker than the ferrous metals, but
they possess several important advantages.

Under most conditions their resistance to corrosion is good; lead, tin, chromium and zinc are all
used to give protective coatings to steel to prevent it from rusting away.

Copper and aluminum are very ductile metals and can easily be worked into such forms as wire,
tube and sheet in the cold state.

A wide variety of alloys can be obtained by different combinations of non-ferrous metals. Brass
and bronze are made by alloying copper with zinc or tin respectively; the resulting alloys are
much stronger than their constituent elements.

BLACK MILD STEEL

Black mild steel bar is a common rolling mill product. It may be obtained in round, square,
PMI, NTPC 3
rectangular and hexagonal sections. Round bar from 1/4 diameter to 10 diameter; rectangular
bar from 1/4" x 1/8" to 2 x 12, square and hexagonal from small sizes upto 6 across are
typical ranges. The surface of black scale is due to oxidizing of the steel by the atmosphere
during hot rolling. Generally, the corners of all black bar are slightly rounded.

BRIGHT MILD STEEL

Is obtained by cold drawing mild steel bar through shaped dies; the finish is smooth, and in
sections other than round; the corners are sharp. The size and shape may be guaranteed within
0.002 in. This accurate size and bright finish are often a great advantage. Capstan, turret and
automatic lathes are sometimes fitted with a collect chuck which feeds the bar forward as
required; this is self-centering chuck, and can be used only with accurate round bar stock. The
drawing operation work hardens the surface of bright drawn bar, the depth of this hardening
depending on the severity of the drawing.

CAST IRON

Carbon is the most important alloying element in iron and steel. In cast iron, which is the general
name for iron re-cast from pig iron, carbon is present in two forms; as free carbon or graphite;
and as combined carbon or iron carbide. The graphite is in the form of flakes which impart the
graphite is also responsible for the brittleness of cast iron and its dirtness when being
machined or filed. The graphite flakes are discontinuities in the structure; they are a source of
weakness if tensile forces are applied, but have little effect on the compressive strength of cast
iron, which is quite good. The small cavities containing graphite have a damping effect on
vibrations. Graphite is an excellent lubricant, and grey cast iron is easily machined, as the tool is
lubricated and the chips break off readily. The freedom with which articles will slide over a
smooth surface of cast iron is largely due to the graphite in the surface.

Although there is a tendency today to replace iron castings by mild-steel welded structures, cast
iron is still one of the commonest engineering materials. It can be cast into intricate shapes, and
is equally useful for one-offs to a wooden pattern, or for mechanical moulding with metal
patterns in mass production foundries. Cast iron is used in construction of machine tools, lathe
beds, etc.
PMI, NTPC 4
COPPER

Pure copper is a soft ductile metal of high electrical conductivity. The best quality of copper for
wires and other electrical conductors contains only faint traces of other elements. It is termed
electrolytic copper, from the method of refining. Best select copper is less pure and has a lower
conductivity but is cheaper and finds many uses. Arsenical copper has upto 0.5% arsenic and
smaller amounts of other elements; it is stronger than pure copper, and is used for heater tubes,
rivets, etc. Copper is resistant to a number of corrosive liquids, and is used in chemical works,
food and brewing plants; its ductivity allows heavy cold work, and sheet copper is spun, pressed
and drawn into many shapes.

BRONZE

The simplest type of bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze containing 95% copper and
5% tin is very ductile, but work hardens more rapidly than 70/30 brass. The tin content of simple
bronzes oxidizes very quickly when the metal is hot, forming tin oxide. This makes the bronze
brittle and scratchy. Various deoxidizers are added, the most common being zinc or
phosphorus.

PHOSPHOR BRONZE

Phosphor bronzes with a tin content of 10%, 13% and 0.5% - 1.0% phosphorus, with the
remainder copper, are used for heavy duty bearings. They have a low coefficient of friction,
great hardness and an excellent resistance to wear, together with very good resistance to
corrosion by sea-water.

ALUMINUM

Aluminum is a white metal which is processed from the oxide (alumina) which is prepared from
a clayey mineral called Bauxite. Pure aluminum is a weak but ductile metal, its most important
property is its light weight roughly one third that of iron.

PMI, NTPC 5
Aluminum mixed with other alloys in small amounts will become hard and rigid, aluminum itself
is very ductile and malleable. It can be rolled into leaf about 0.025mm thick and drawn into wire
about 0.10mm dia. A high finish can be obtained by burnishing and polishing. It has a very good
electrical conductivity, lending itself to be used for overhead cable as in the grid system pylons.
Owing to a thin layer of oxide which covers its surface it has a high resistance to corrosion
which makes it a useful metal for cooking pans.

Aluminum foil is used for wrapping chocolates, cigarettes and for sealing milk bottles.

Powdered metal is used as the base for aluminum paint.

TYPE OF STEEL FORM OF SUPPLY CARBON % USE AND PROPERTIES
Dead Mild Black and Bright 0.07-0.15 Pipes, Chains, Rivets, Screws,
or Bar, and Tube Boiler Plates.
Low Carbon and wire
Easily worked when hot,
Difficult to machine owing to
Tendency to tear.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Black Bar Section 0.15-0.25 Ship Plates and Forgings,
Mild and Sheet Bright Gears, Shafts, Nuts and Bolts,
Strip, Tubes and Rivets, Chains.
Forgings Easily machined and welded
And is cheapest steel
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Black Bar Sheet 0.25-0.5 Machine parts and forgings,
Medium Sections and Castings, Springs, Drop
Plate Hammer Dies.
Bright Bar, Rod, Responds to heat treatment
Carbon Flat, Strip and and can be machined
Forgings. satisfactorily.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Black Bar and 0.5-0.7 Hammers, Sledges, Stamping
High Strip and Pressing Dies, Drop-
Forging Dies, Screwdrivers,
Set-Screws.

0.7-0.8 Punches, cold Chisels,
Hammers, Shear Blades,
Drop-Forging Dies Lathe
Centres, Spanners, Band
Saws, Rivet Sets, Vice Jaws
PMI, NTPC 6

Silver Steel 0.8-1.0 Punches, Rivet Sets, Screwer
Dies, Screwing Taps, Shear
Blades, Drop-Forging Dies,
Saws, Hammers, Cold Chisels,
Springs, Axes, Rock Drills,
Milling Cutters.

Carbon Rod 1.0-1.5 Drills, Milling Cutters, Lathe
Tool Files, Saw Blades, Ball
Bearings, Wi Drawing Dies,
Screwing Dies, Taps

BRASS

This is an alloy of copper and zinc. It has a wide range of properties and uses.

Usually available in bar form for automatic and capstan lathes or as sheet and strip to be cut
into blanks for press work. Castings are of course, available to special order. Any cold working
of brass will tend to harden it, so before any subsequent operations can be carried out it is
nearly always necessary to anneal the brass by heating to about 500
O
C and quenching in water.
Brass may be sub-divided into 3 main groups, depending upon the zinc content.

1. The Alpha Brasses contain up to 39% Zinc.
They are extremely malleable and may be cold rolled into sheets, drawn into tubes, wire
and rod and used for cold stamping.

The best combination of tensile strength and ductility is found in cartridge brass which
is used for cartridge cases and condenser tubes. Although Alpha brass may be severely
cold worked, it is hot-short i.e. it tends to crack and disintegrate at high temperature.

2. The Alpha-Beta Brasses contain 39% - 46% Zinc. The most common brass in this
group in MUNTZ METAL which has a high corrosion resistance, is readily hot worked
and is used for extrusions, hot stampings, and for rolling into sheets and rods.

Bolts, pins and spindles are manufactured from bar and pump components are
frequently made from this metal. Stresses may be set up during casting, resulting in
PMI, NTPC 7
considerable distortion when machining occurs. The remedy being an annealing process
at 600 650
O
C carried out prior to machining.

These brasses are rather difficult to machine, but this can be remedied by the addition of
up to 3% lead in the composition of the metal. It can be cold worked only to a limited
extent.

3. Beta-Brass contains 46% - 49% Zinc
Is used a lot in marine engineering due to its excellent corrosion resistance. It has a
tensile strength of 25-30 tons/in 2 and a low ductility, but it cannot be cold worked
without possibility of fracture. It is primarily a hot working metal. Above 49% zinc, the
alloys are very hard, but are so brittle that they are useless for most engineering
purposes. An exception to this is brazing brass with 50% zinc which is used because of
its comparatively low melting point.

GUNMETAL

This is a bronze with 2% zinc and was once used to product artillery, hence the name.

The zinc helps to produce sounder castings as it increases the fluidity of the bronze
counteracting the effect of the lead which is sometimes added to improve mach inability. It also
finds many uses in marine engineering and for steam plant work. Improved properties can be
obtained by an annealing process of about 700
O
C.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

DUCTILITY

A ductile material can be drawn out without fracture into rod wire or tube by a tensile force. A
ductile material must possess a fair degree of tensile strength or it will break if an attempt is
made to draw it. Copper, mild steel and aluminium are ductile metals.

PMI, NTPC 8
MALLEABILITY

A malleable material can be hammered or rolled into shape without fracture as in forging and
hot-rolling of steel sections. Wrought iron and mild steel are malleable, especially when worked
at a bright red heat. A malleable material extends in more than one direction under compressive
forces.

ELASTICITY

If an elastic material is deformed by a force it springs back to its original shape when the force is
removed. This is known as the elastic limit of the material.

PLASTICITY

This is the opposite of elasticity. A plastic material can be easily deformed in any direction
without rupture by a force and will retain its new shape when the force ceases to act Putty is an
example of a plastic material. Plasticity of metals is increased by heating and the majority of
them can be hot worked.

BRITTLENESS

A brittle material breaks easily when subject to a sudden blow. Engineers have little use for
brittle metals but it must be appreciated that hardness is often accomplished only at the
expense of brittleness, and this means that the cutting tools used in engineering must be
handled with care.

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES

HARDNESS

Hardness is the ability to withstand wear and abrasion. The harder the greater the resistance to
scratching and indentation. The hardness of two materials can be compared by finding which
PMI, NTPC 9
will scratch the other. A diamond will cut glass because it is much harder.

TOUGHNESS

A tough material can resist repeated blow without fracture. Toughness depends on both the
strength and ductility of the material. Small hand tools drifts, chisels, etc must be tough to stand
up on the rough treatment they receive in use.

NON-FERROUS ALLOYS

BRASSES
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Copper Tin Properties and Uses
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
85 15 Gilding metal-cheap jewelry
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
75 25 Brazing brass-used where parts are to be
brazed or silver soldered.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------60
40 Muntz metal-General range of articles e.g.
Water fittings, household articles, etc.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PHOSPHOR BRONZE
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Copper Tin Phosphorus Properties and Uses
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
95.7 6 0.3 Obtained as rod sheet and wire. When severely
cold worked (wire drawing) Used for springs.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
88.7 11 0.3 Castings and bearings
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PMI, NTPC 10
WHITE METAL BEARINGS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tin Antimony Copper Lead Properties and Uses
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
93 3.5 3.5 -- Motor car bearings (big ends)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
60 10 1.5 28.5 Engines, electrical machines and
ways
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
There are just a cross-section of a great many alloys and their uses.

PMI, NTPC 11
ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Metals Non-Metals
-------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------
Ferrous Non-Ferrous Plastics Miscellaneous
Copper

Wrought iron Aluminium Cellulose Rubber

Cast Irons Zinc Vinyl Resins Asbestos

Carbon Steels Lead Nylon Wood

Alloy Steels Tin Polythene Mica
Cadmium Shellac Ceramics

Brass Carbon

Bronze Stone

White Metals Bricks

Solders Concrete

PLASTICS

A plastic is a material which is capable of flowing under suitable conditions to assume a new
shape when the conditions are removed.

There are two main groups of plastics.

1. Thermoplastic materials
2. Thermo-setting plastics

1. THERMOPLASTIC MATERIALS WHICH SOFTEN AT 60
O
C.

Those can be softened and caused to flow an indefinite number of times by the application of
heat and pressure, provided that heat is not sufficient to cause chemical decomposition of the
plastics.
PMI, NTPC 12
They are available in form of sheets, rods, tubes and moulding powders; they are tough, easily
machined and have varying degrees of rigidity, they behave like ductile materials.

TYPICAL USES

Car handles, machine housings, valves, gears, hinges, bushes, kitchen ware.

Example

POLYTHENE

A wax like material that is chemically inert to most liquids. Very tough and slightly eastics. Good
insulating material used for moulded containers; tensile strength is 144.5 Mn/m
2
.

P.V.C. (POLY VINYL-CHLORIDE)

A tough rubber like material which is practically non-inflammable cheap plastic. Used as
insulating cover on electric cables.

Available in flat sheets at a thickness from about 0.005mm. (46.5-62 Mn/m
2
).

PERPEX

Good substitute for glass used for electrical insulation purposes; can be bent, cut or machined,
unaffected by dilute acids, tends to be brittle.

NYLON

Tough and has a low co-efficient or friction with itself and polished steel. Can be moulded, used
for gear wheels, bushes, and bearings.

Strength is maintained to 204
O
C melting point, at low speeds no lubrication needed, but at high
speeds lubricants can be used.
PMI, NTPC 13
POLYSTYRENE

Flow readily at 180
O
C; used for injection moulding, rather brittle, good insulating material, used
for wall tiles, light fittings, toys, T.V. components, tensile strength 46.5 Mn/m
2
.

2. THERMO-SETTING PLASTICS WHICH SOFTEN ABOVE

Undergo chemical changes during the initial process of being shaped, and thereafter further
heat and pressure do not affect the shape, provided that he temperature does not reach the
decomposition temperature. Suitable for higher temperature applications than thermo-plastic
materials.
The moulding powder or resin may be shaped by compassion moulds or may be used to bond
together layers of paper or cloth, when compressed under heat, this forms rigid flat sheets or
other required shapes, similar to wood but have a better resistance to water.

BAKELITE

The resin is mixed with a filler of non-plastic material which is added as a powder or in a
fibrous state, so called wood flour filled give more brittle mouldings which crack readily under
shock loads or impact.

Cotton or shredded fabric fillers give tougher mouldings whilst asbestos can be used to produce
heat-resistant mouldings.

Tensile strength is 46.5 Mn/m
2

Compressive strength is 154.5 Mn/m
2


LAMINATE (TUFNOL)

Sheets of fibrous material are bonded in a solid mass by the thermo-setting, resin surface is
usually polished, generally combine good electrical resistance with mechanical strength, used in
building industry, table tops. Very brittle if used in unsupported thin sections.

PMI, NTPC 14
SILICON-PLASTICS-SILICONS

Differ from many other plastics in having silicon and oxygen as their base, with carbon and
hydrogen attached.

One important use is as an additive to oils, waxes, rubbers etc. Silicons are water repellant and
can withstand high temperatures. Very good for high temperature electrical insulation
applications.

Although plastics are replacing metals in many applications, this does not mena that they have
similar physical properties. Generally they do give a neater and cheaper product.

Plastics have excellent corrosion resistance but the correct type of plastics must be used for a
specific need, e.g. chemical plant work, pipes and storage vessels. If tensile strength is
required, laminated and reinforced plastics should be used, heat resitance is poor; they will
soften at approx. 100
O
C.
Special heat resistant plastics only soften at about 230
O
C, they tend to become brittle when
cold. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity, for this reason they are used for electrical
fittings.

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS

When iron is heated for room temperature it is observed that the temperature rise, after
proceeding steadily is suddenly arrested, and for a time the metal remains at practically the
same temperature even through the metal absorbs heat, the heat brings about certain changes
in the metal instead of raising the temperature. After the change is complete further heating
causes a rise in temperature as before the temperatures at which these changes occur are
termed arrest or critical points.

Critical points also occur in steel, but the temperature at which they occur alter with the carbon
content of the steel, in mild there are four critical points.

PMI, NTPC 15

Percentage Carbon

The diagram opposite shown approximate critical points for steel of various carbon contents.
The line A.B.C. shown the UPPER CRITICAL POINTS, the line D.B.E. shown the LOWER
CRITICAL POINTS.

All plain carbon steel shave the same Lower Critical Point (700
O
C) with 0.9 carbon. The
temperature range between the Upper and Lower Critical Point for any steel is termed the
CRITICAL RANGE steel with 0.1% carbon has a wide CRITICAL RANGE steel with 0.8%
carbon has a narrow CARITICAL RANGE.

ANNEALING

Steel is annealed by heating it to slightly above the upper critical and allowing it to cool very
slowly.

The structure of steel which has been heated to slightly above the upper critical, consists of
small, unstrained crystals.

If the steel has been cold worked or deformed these internal strains will have been removed
when the upper critical is passed, further heating will only increase the size of the crystal grains
which will weaken the metal when it returns to the cold state.

After heating above the upper critical state small pieces can be immersed under hot ashes to
cool, larger pieces can be cooled by gradually lowering the furnace temperature. 48 hours is
normally needed for the cooling of very large sections.
PMI, NTPC 16
The steel is now at its softest and most ductile state and can be suitable for most types of work,
hot or cold.


Normal Structure After cold worked

NORMALISING

This condition arises after a steel has been heated to slightly above the upper critical point and
then allowed to cool at room temperature.

The steel will be stronger and harder than that of annealed steel, but it does not lend itself to be
cold worked as easily.

Hot rolled plates, sections and forgings are worked whilst the steel is in the upper critical state
and then allowed to cool in about room temperature.

The method of normalising is cheaper and quicker than that on annealing but the cooling rate
cannot be regulated as carefully.

TEMPERING

Cutting tools made from fully hardened high-carbon steel are extremely hard, but are too brittle
to be of any use. Some of this brittleness, which is due to internal stresses set up by drastic
cooling, may be removed by suitable tempering. The shock resistance of the tool will be
increased considerably, whilst the harness will be lowered very little.

Cutting tools are tempered by heating to some temperature between 220
O
C and 320
O
C, and
then cooling off. The high the temperature, the better will be the shock resistance, but the lower
PMI, NTPC 17
the hardness, the usual practice is to use the lower temperature for smoth-cutting tools so as to
retain the cutting edge as long as possible, whilst cold chisels and similar tools are tempered at
the higher temperatures to give good shock resistance.

Gauges and other precision measuring instruments are often hardened to improve their wearing
properties; unfortunately they are then liable to alter in length over a period of months or years
a process known as secular change. This change can be almost eliminated by stabilizing, which
consists of tempering several times at about 150
O
C. The processes described above are
usually termed low-temperature tempering, and are intended to retain most of the hardness of
the quenched steel, but there is another tempering range from 450
O
C to 650
O
C; this range is
used when steel are required to be tough rather than hard. Plain carbon steels from 0.3% to
0.6% carbon are often quenced and then tempered in the upper range. They are harder and
more shock resistant than the same steel in the normalized state, but are still machine able.

Many alloy steels, particularly those containing nickel and chromium with low mass effects, only
shown their best properties after hardening and tempering temperatures, the final properties can
be varied over a wide range of hardness and strength values.

It should be noted that all tempering is done below the lower critical point. Generally, it is not
advisable to hold steel at a temperature within the critical range.

HARDENING AND TEMPERING PRACTICE

In the workshop carbon-steel tools are often hardened and temperature with the aid of a small
gas-fired furnace or the block smiths hearth. They are heated to above 800
O
C (the temperature
being judged by the colour) and then partially immersed in water, the cutting point being held
downwards to ensure its being quenched. Part of the tools shark remains red hot, and on
removal from the water the heat from the shank flows back to the cutting point and tempers it.

This method is only possible due to the peculiar oxidisation of the steel. When the cold cutting
point is removed from the water it is quickly polished and watched carefully. At about 220
O
C a
faint yellow oxide film forms on the surface of the steel. This colour slowly turns to brown, then
to purple and finally to blue at about 300
O
C. In the case of an orthodox cutting tool the effect
produced in that of a band of colours, headed by yellow passing slowly down to the point of the
PMI, NTPC 18
tool. When the desired colour reaches the tool point, the whole tool is quenched out. The
following list gives the tempering colour and typical articles tempered.

The method outlined above is not suitable for parts which require hardening throughout their
length. In such cases the part may be quenched out in water, and then held over a heated iron
plate until the tempering colours and typical articles tempered.

The method outlined above is not suitable for part which require hardening throughout their
length. In such cases the part may be quenched out in water, and then held over a heated iron
plate until the tempering colour appears. By skilled manipulation an article of irregular section
can be tempered in this way. The surface temperature only is indicated by the colour, but a
good craftsman, tempering the tools and observing the results in service, can produce good
work by hot plate tempering.

By far the most accurate method of tempering is to immerse the article in liquid at the tempering
temperature. Various liquids are used, such as molten mixtures of tin and lead (solder), various
salts of low fusibility, and even hot oil.

When steel is to be tempered in the high-temperature range, colour tempering cannot be used,
and the part is either immersed in liquid or a furnace is held at the desired temperature.

Temper Colour Actual Temperature Articles
Pale Yellow 230
O
C Planing tools, brass turning tools
Deep Yellow 240
O
C Drills, milling cutters
Brown 250
O
C Taps
Brown-Purple 265
O
C Punches
Purple 275
O
C Chisels
Blue 300
O
C Springs

CASE HARDENING

As distinct from hardening of parts throughout most articles need a tough strong core and a very
hard surface to resist wear such as pins and rollers, this is obtained by case hardening.

PMI, NTPC 19
This finished component made from steel containing about 0.15% carbon is placed in a gas tight
box, surrounded by a mixture of charcoal and barium carbonate (carbon rich material). It is then
heater to 900
O
C in a furnace for a number of hours.

The low carbon steel absorbs further carbon into its surface and after six to eight hours the
surface may have a carbon content of 0.9% to a depth of 1mm and will thus respond to heat
treatment. But because we have taken the component above the upper critical point the grain
structure of the steel will be coarse and need refining. The component is cleaned and heated to
slightly above the upper critical point of the core (about 870
O
C and then quenched in oil. The
core will not have hardened but the case will have a hard but COARSE martenstic structure.

The component is slowly re-heated to 600
O
C then quickly brought up to 760
O
C just long
enough to heat the case at this temperature so bring it above its upper critical point.

After quenching the component shall have a strong core and a hard FINE grained case.
PMI, NTPC 20
2. Basic Scaffold Construction


INTRODUCTION

Many accidents are caused by the basic principles of scaffold construction not being fully
understood and by ignorance of the correct function of the various component parts of a
scaffold.

This chapter is an attempt to provide some information on basic scaffolding and to serve as a
guide to:

1. The use and function of various scaffold fittings.

2. The erection of simple scaffolds in common use.

A scaffold is defined any temporarily provided structure on or from which persons work in
connection with building operations or works of engineering construction. It is also any
temporarily provided structure which enable persons to obtain access to places of work. It will
include any working platform gangway, run, ladder, or step ladder, also any guard-rail, toe-
board, or any other safeguard and fixing.

SCAFFOLD FITTINGS AND THEIR USES

STANDARDS

Vertical tubes to which the ledgers are fixed. Standards should always be upright or very slightly
inclined towards the building. On all scaffolds over 6M in height the standards should be
staggered at the joints in increase their stability.

PMI, NTPC 21
LEDGERS

Horizontal tubes connected to the inside of the standards at right angles, to tie the standards
together. They must be attached using 90
O
load bearing fittings. The purpose of the ledgers is to
act as supports of the transoms or putlogs leadgers should also be staggered at the joints to
add strength to the scaffold.

TRANSOM

A short tube fixed at right angles to the top of the ledgers to support the working platform and
held in position by putlog fittings.

PUTLOG

A short tube fixed on top of the ledger to span between the ledger and the wall on a putlog
scaffold. It has one end completely flattened (commonly known as a fish-tail) and it is most
important that at least 56 sq.cm. be inserted between the joints in the brickwork.

DOUBLE COUPLER

The most important scaffold fitting and the
only one which should be used for load
bearing purposes. It is specially designed
for carrying loads and is used for
connecting tubes at an angle of 90
O
and
must always be used to connect the
ledgers and transoms except the working
lift to the standards. The double coupler
has a swiveled bolt attached to it above
the cup and it is essential that this bolt is
always in the uppermost position above
the ledger. Not only does this make it
easier for the scaffolder so that when he
PMI, NTPC 22
has fixed one part of the coupler to the standard the cup will support the ledger even before the
bolt has been tightened, but also should the nut become loose and perhaps even drop off, the
cup will still support the ledge.

PUTLOG COUPLER

Must only be used for securing putlog tubes to transoms to the ledgers to prevent si1deways
movement. They have no load-bearing capacity and must never be usd as a load bearing
coupler.

SWIVEL COUPLER

Used to connect bracings to a scaffold at any angle other than 90
O
. It will swivel to whatever
angle is desired. Do not confuse this coupler with the double coupler. They look very similar but
in co circumstances should the swivel coupler be used for load bearing for which a double
coupler has been designed.

BASEPLATE

This is used for distributing the load from a Standard or Raker. It is a square piece of steel at
least 150mm square to give a minimum area of 225 cm
2
to comply with the British
Specification. Baseplates help to spared the loads that area imposed on a scaffold and will also
prevent the ends of the standards from sinking into the ground or digging into the wooden sole
boards. They should be used at all times even on concrete floors or pavements and where there
are polished floors the extra area of the Baseplate will provide a friction that assists in
preventing the ends of the standards from slipping. There are also adjustable Baseplates for
taking up variation is ground level.

SOLEPLATE

A good quality timber board of adequate length, usually a scaffold board, used to distribute the
load from the baseplates to the ground. It is essential that the soleplate crosses at least two
standards. Soleplates should always be used on asphalt paths and roofs, grass ground,
PMI, NTPC 23
(pavement or earth) or on slippery surfaces such as masble. On surface liable to damage,
(marble, polished floors, etc.) it is wise precaution to place a dust sheet underneath the
soleplate.

SLEEVE COUPLER

Used for joining two tubes together. It is essential that equal lengths of each tube are separately
secured. Recommended for all joints.

PHYSICAL TIES

Extended transoms which pass through a hole or window opening and are securely tied to
another tube at right angles which bears hard on the inside wall, using load bearing couplers.
Scaffolds are required to be tied every 3.6m vertically and every 5m horizontally, and 50% of the
total number of ties required must be physical ties.

REVEAL SCREW

This fitting is inserted into the end of a short length of tube, and by turning the not on the
screw, the tube exerts a friction hold on to two opposing surfaces which as the window sills. An
anchorage point is thus provided to which the scaffolding may be secured. (If must be noted
that the regulations only allow Reveal Screw Ties to be used for 50% of the total number of ties
required on the scaffold). The other 50% must be physical ties.

RAKER

An inclined scaffold tube bearing on the ground at one end and secured to the scaffold (with a
loading bearing coupler) at the other. If over 3m in length it must supported from the scaffold.

BRIDLE

A horizontal tube secured to the underside of transoms or putlogs to support intermediate
transoms or putlogs where as window opening occurs.
PMI, NTPC 24
GUARDRAIL

Tubes fitted horizontally to the inside of the standards at a height of 1m above the working
platform. (Guardrails must be fitted to every scaffold above 2m in height).

TOE BOARDS

Boards laid horizontally on edge of the working platform and secured to the inside of the
standards by the toe board clips. The minimum width for a toe board is 6 inches and the
distance between the guardrail and top of the toe board should not exceed 0.8m (Toe boards
must be fitted on all scaffolds above 2m in height).

It is essential that all scaffolding materials and fittings should comply with the regulations.

Steel fittings must be periodically checked for serviceability, preferably before each time they
are used.

All the mechanical parts must be sound, free from loose deposits and always well lubricated.

The regulations that are in force for steel fittings also apply to aluminum tubes and fittings.

As the tensile stresses are not the same for aluminum as they are for steel, it is strongly
recommended that only like materials should be used together.

i.e. Steel to Steel Aluminum to Aluminum

GENERAL TERMS

BAY

The space between two adjacent standards along the face of a scaffold.

PMI, NTPC 25
LIFT

The height from the floor or ground to the lowest ledger, or the vertical distance between
adjacent ledgers.

BRACING

Tubes that are secured to standards with swivel couplers at an angle of 45
O
to give the scaffold
stability and prevent distortion.

SAFETY IN SCAFFOLD CONSTRUTION

BEFORE EFECTION COMMENCES

Most scaffolding material has been at some time or another and it is necessary therefore to be
satisfied that the parts are suitable before using them.

In the case of tubes make sure they are not badly corroded. Severe corrosion can be detected
by a thinning of the tube wall at the end, the tube should also be straight and cleanly cut at right
angles. All fittings should be clean and lightly oiled. Never used any fitting that is damaged or
appears mis-shapen.

Inspect the scaffold boards for splits and warping, and make sure that they are free from nails.
The steel band on each end should not be torn, or jagged, and should be securely fixed in
place.

Ladders must not be painted although they can be treated with a clear varnish or a wood
preservative. Check that the stiles are not splintered, cracked, or warped and that all the rungs
are sound and correctly wedged.

PMI, NTPC 26
ERECTION

Scaffolds should only be erected on a firm foundation. If the foundation is soil it should be well
rammed down to ensure that there are no air packets underneath the crust of the earth. Timber
soleplates should be laid flat on the prepared ground, again ensuring that there is no air space
between board and foundation.

The standards should rest on baseplates and any joints in the standards should be immediately
above a ledger, and should be staggered in adjacent standards, so that they do not occur in the
same lift.

Ledgers must be fixed inside the standards, using load bearing couplers, and they must be
horizontal. Any joints in the ledgers should be staggered so that they do not occur in the same
bay. The decking for the working platform will generally be 200mm x 40mm boards, and each
board should be supported every 1.2m. The boards should be butt jointed but if overlapping is
unavoidable then level pieces of wood should be fitted to the lap joint to eliminate any tripping
hazard. Platform boards should extend at loeas 50mm beyond their supports but no more than
four times their thickness i.e. 40mm boards x 4 = 160mm, 50mm boards x 4 = 200mm.

Always stand ladders on a firm and level base and securely tie them to the scaffold, so that
there is no movement at the top or the bottom. Ladders must extend at least 1.06m above the
stepping off point. Unless specifically designed to be free standing, all scaffolds must be
effectively anchored to the building, or plant by physical ties, to ensure the stability of the
scaffold.

CHECK LIST

1. Baseplates beneath each standard, soleplates if necessary, and standards plumb.

2. Accurate spacing of standards, and lifts, ledgers and transoms horizontal.

3. Sufficient ties effectively made. Even 3.5m vertically and 6m horizontally.

PMI, NTPC 27
4. All joints in standards and ledgers staggered.

5. Adequate bracing.

6. Correct fittings used.

7. Scaffold is not overloaded.

8. Means of access sound and secure.

9. Any incomplete scaffold properly sealed off or warning notices displayed.

SAFE WORKING LOADS

Very often a scaffold is subjected to many forms of loading, and these can occur
simultaneously.

DEAD LOAD

The weight of the materials employed in the scaffold.

WIND LOAD

The speed of the wind may impose an unusual force on a scaffold, especially if tarpaulin etc.
has been draped over the scaffold, as a means of protection from the elements, or when
sandblasting etc.

SUPERIMPOSED LOAD

The load produced on the platform by materials and equipment and the persons using the
scaffold.

PMI, NTPC 28
LIVE LOAD

The loading conditions arising from the passage of men and materials along the working
platforms.

MOBILE TOWER SCAFFOLDS

A mobile tower is any tower, where all sides are equal,
formed with standard steel scaffold tube and fittings and
mounted on wheels. The single working platform must not
project beyond the base area and must be provided with
hand-rails and toe boards. The structure must support
(in addition to its own weight and weight of boards) a
distributed load of 45 kgf/m
2
over the working
platform. The means of access may be fixed either inside or
outside the structure.

1. Should only be used on a firm and level floor.

2. Should only be moved by pushing or pulling at the base.

3. In addition to normal bracing it must also be provided with plan bracing on alternate lifts.

4. For towers used inside a building the height to the working platform must not exceed 3
times the width of the base; outside a building, 3 times the width of the base.

5. The height of the tower is measured from the ground to the top platform.

6. The height of the lifts shall not exceed 2.6m

7. The bottom lift shall be as close to the wheels as possible.

8. The base width of any mobile tower must not be less than 1.2m.
PMI, NTPC 29
9. working platforms must be at least 1.2m x 1.2m and every board at least 40mm thick.
Guard rails and toe-boards must be fixed in position.

10. The access ladder must extend at least 1.06m above the landing place and be securely
tied at the top and bottom. It must also be clear of the ground so that it will not foul any
obstruction when the scaffold is pushed along.

11. Wheels and castors must be of the swivel type and fixed in position to prevent accidental
displacement. When the tower is being used they must be braked to prevent movement.

12. The safe working load of each type of castor wheel is usually marked on the body of the
castor and must not be exceeded.

QUICK FORM SCAFFOLDING

METHOD OF ERECTION FOR MILLS LIGHT STEEL FRAMES

1. Base plates to be used on each corner of scaffold to distribute the load.

2. After placing the four base plates in position, place the first two frames parallel to each
other in the base plates.

3. It is now essential to fit a plan brace across the two opposite corners to increase the
stability and rigidity of the scaffold.


PMI, NTPC 30
4. The distance between the first and successive plan braces should not exceed.

5. Where it is not possible to fix a plan brace such as round a pillar or valve, then a Corner
Tie Bracket may be used.

6. Continue erection by placing successive frames at right angles to the preceding ones up
to the required height, ensuring that the cut out section at the top of all the frames faces
to the inside of the scaffold. (This will give the necessary self-locking effect).

7. A further plan brace or corner bracket should be placed immediately before the last two
frames are placed in position.

The distance between first and successive corner tie brackets must not be more then
3m.

8. Having reached the required height for the working platform the board bearers are now
placed into position. On every scaffold that has an area of more than 0.5m
2
at least three
board bearers must be used.

9. Place the selected boards as close as possible on the working platform and if the height
of the scaffold is more than 2.0m to the working platform then toe-boards and guard rails
must be fitted, and the boards securely lashed.

MEANS OF ACCESS

The safest and easiest method is the lashing of a ladder vertically up one side of the scaffold.
The ladder must rise at least 1.06m above the platform height. A ladder should not be placed at
an angle against the top of a free standing scaffold because the pressure applied could cause
the scaffold to fall.

PMI, NTPC 31
ERECTION OF A GIN WHEEL

If the essential that the outrigger of a Gin Wheel is always secured to two standards and never
to a ledger, transom, or guardrail.



The Gin Wheel must never be supported by a short tube fixed to the scaffolding by only one
coupler. Couplers are not designed to resist the twisting forces that are imposed. The outrigger
must be secured across two standards on an independent scaffold or to one standard and into
the wall of the building on a Putlog scaffold. This is to ensure that there is a downward pull at
one end of the outrigger and an upward pull at the opposite end. Check fittings should be used
above and below the fittings securing the outrigger, as an added precaution, should the
securing couplers slip. The distance from the Gin Wheel to the guardrail is not to exceed 0.76m
maximum.

A ring type Gin Wheel is always to be preferred, but if the Gin Wheel is the type with a
supporting hook then the hook must never be hooked into a coupler. It must be tied tightly to the
outrigger by a figure of eight wire lashing with at least five turns of the wire, and so arranged
that the hook hangs 75mm 100mm below the outrigger. The hook should also be moused to
prevent displacement. Any tendency for the hook to slide along the outrigger can be stopped by
tying the tail of the lashing to the nearest standard or by fixing a coupler to the outer end of the
outrigger.

PMI, NTPC 32
If the Gin Wheel is fitted with a swivel eye instead of a hook, the eye will slide over a 50mm dia.
Scaffold tube and couplers can be used on either side of the eye to prevent displacement. For
loads in excess of 50kg/f the support should be specialy designed.
Inspect the hoisting rope to ensure that it is sound enough for the job and is marked with a
means of identification. The rope should always be pulled from the side of the scaffold. If it is
pulled from the front it could disturb the scaffold and loosen the putlogs and ties. Winches,
whether hand or power operated, should never be used with a Gin Wheel because the wheel is
not capable of standing up to the loads that winches can impose. The rope dimensions should
be 18mm dia and its length 2 times the distance from floor to Gin Wheel.

MAIN CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS

1. Overloading the scaffold.
2. Concentrated loads at mid-span on the working platform.
3. Removal of bracings and ties.
4. Movement of scaffold boards.
5. Removal of guardrails, handrails and toe boards.
6. Insecure means of access (ladder etc.)
7. Untidy and slippery working platform.
8. Scaffolds not inspected thoroughly (every seven days).
9. Excavating in the vicinity of the standards.
10. Damage by cranes or moving vehicles.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

All the tubes must be straight and all the fittings in good sound condition. Do not mix
steel and aluminum tubes in the same scaffold, as they bend to different extents under
load.

Steel fittings, if used on aluminum tubes, must be sheradised.

Plumb standards, level ledgers and transoms, make sure all fittings are tight.

PMI, NTPC 33
Use physical ties to make the scaffold secure.

Sec that every board is properly supported.

Fix guard rails and toe boards as soon as possible.

Place material close to standards.

Inspect scaffolds thoroughly before use, and by law every seven days. Store all
scaffolding materials in a safe place when they are not being used.

Keep tubes neatly stacked, and in their respective lengths.

Lubricate all fittings.

BASIC POINTS FOR SCAFFOLD INSPECTION

1. Make sure that the scaffold is rigid, firm and stable.

2. Ensure that all tubes are in position.

3. Inspect tubes for damage. (This could be caused by vehicles bumping into the
standards, by crane loads striking against the framework or even by the scaffolding
being exposed to excessive loading).

4. Inspect physical ties for security, and ensure that any reveal ties so used are firmly in
position.

5. Examine all the couplers for security and tightness and ensure that none of the bolts
have commenced to work themselves loose.

6. Ensure that the working platform is free from rubbish or unnecessary obstructions and
that no nails are projecting from the boards.

PMI, NTPC 34
7. Have any slippery boars cleaned and sanded as soon as possible.

8. Check that the toe boards and guard rails are secure and firmly fixed in position.

9. Ascertain that the ladder access still extends 1.06m above the landing place and is
securely lashed in place.

10. Report any damage to the rungs or stiles of the ladder and warn persons of the danger.

SEVEN RULES FOR THE INSPECTION OF SCAFFOLD BOARDS

1. No knot or knothole may exceed 50mm in diameter and no cluster of knots or knotholes
may exceed 50mm in overall diameter.

2. No knot or knothole on the edge of the board may exceed 40mm across the face or
15mm across the edge.

3. The board must be flat and free from twist.

4. The width and thickness of the board must be constant though out its length.

5. The board must not be split, even part way.

6. The ends of the board must be bound with metal hoops, in a manner that wil not cause
injury.

7. The board must be free from any grain disturbance. (This appears in the form of waves
in the normally straight grain of the flat face of the board and as cross-grain on the edge
of the board. These defects can cause weakness.

PMI, NTPC 35
SOME DOS AND DONTS

1. Wear a strong pair of shoes, preferably rubber soled. Wellingtons, and training shoes,
are not suitable footwear for erecting scaffolds.


2. always wear a safety helmet when working on scaffolding, and when working at heights
make sure the chin strap is in position (under your chain).

3. Use a proper scaffolding spanners, never use an open jawed spanner.

4. Do not carry materials up or down the access ladder, use a hand line, or rig a gin wheel.

5. If possible rope off, or suitably fence off, the area around the scaffold.

6. Should the erection of the scaffold the left overnight, see that no loose material is left on
the party erected scaffold, remove any ladders, and hang a SCAFFOLD INCOMPLETE
notice in a prominent position.

7. Keep all tubing in good sound condition, make sure all the fittings are in good working
order and well lubricated. A life may depend on it, and that life COULD BE YOUR OWN!
PMI, NTPC 36
3. Slinging Methods


INTRODUCTION

Accidents which occure when lifting tackle is being employed are mainly caused by unfamiliarity
with the tackle and unfamiliarity with the correct principles.

Ignorance of the low is a contributory factor, and violation of regulations, whether inadvertent or
deliberate, must lead to unsafe practices.

This chapter is an endeavour to provide some information on the construction of lifting
equipment, the legal requirements for such equipment and some guidance as to its proper use.

The chapter is an endeavour to provide some information on the construction of lifting
equipment, the legal requirements for such equipment and some guidance as to its proper use.

The regulation demand that all lifting gear and appliances shall be:

1. Of good construction.

2. Of sound material.

3. Of adequate strength.

4. Free from patent defects.

5. Clearly marked with the Safe Working Load.

6. Tested and thoroughly examined by a competent person before being used for the first
time. (A test certificate specifying the Safe Working Load (S.W.L.) is given by the
examiner).

PMI, NTPC 37
7. Recorded in a register which must be kept available at all times.

8. Examined by a competent person at least every six months (or other period as
specified).

9. Maintained in an efficient state, in efficient working order and in good repair.

The intention behind these regulations is to ensure that only approved equipment is employed,
that, al all items, it is strong enough to do the work it is intended for, and that the person using it
is aware of its capabilities.

The use of any tackle that does not conform to all the above requirements is not only dangerous
practice, it is illegal. Regulations require that all gear and appliances be examined by a
responsible person prior to issue.

Although the gear is subject to periodic inspections, there can be no guarantee that defects will
not develop in the period between inspections, so, in the interest of safety, THE PERSON
USING THE EQUIPMENT should examine it before use to ensure it is in good condition.

IF THE CONDITION OF ANY PIECE OF EQUIPMENT GIVES THE SLIGHTEST CAUSE FOR
CONCERN, IT SHOULD NOT BE USED UNTIL IT HAS BEEN EXAMINED BY SOME
COMPETENT PERSON.

The safe use of lifting tackle demands recognition of the following points:

1. Only the right kind of gear must be employed.

2. It must be approved gear to standard specification.

3. The operator must know the strength of the tackle.

4. The equipment must be free from any defect that may reduce its S.W.L. to a dangerous
extent.
PMI, NTPC 38
5. It must not be used in any fashion which induces additional stresses which may overload
it.

Defects will occur even if tackle is used and maintained correctly, but they are aggravated by
improper use and a failure to maintain properly.

SAFE WORKING LOADS

The definition of the safe working load (S.W.L.) is the maximum load the equipment can handle
safely.

All the equipment has a margin of safety between the figure given for its use and actual
maximum capacity.

Eye-bolts, shackles, etc are Proof-loaded by the manufacturer to twice the S.W.L. figure

Chains, ropes, etc. are given a much greater margin of safety because they are more prone to
damage and subject to the possibility of greater unforeseeable stresses.

Samples are tested to Failure Load to determine their absolute capacity and given a very much
reduced figure as the S.W.L.

This margin of safety, which may very depending on the tackle and the circumstances under
which it is employed, is known as the Co-efficient of Utilisaton.

What must be realized however, is that the S.W.L. figure derived from the above, is only valid if
the equipment is in good condition, and is not being employed in any fashion or under any
circumstances that impose abnormal stress. Such abnormal stresses should, of course, be
avoided if possible, but if they are present the operator must give full consideration to such
factors when selecting equipment.

Despite the wide margin of error for safety it is easy to eliminate this safety factor if the tackle
has depreciated, or any aspect of the work enhances the load on the equipment.

PMI, NTPC 39
Extreme heat, for instance, demands the use of tackle with increased S.W.L. capacities. Usually
cordage used in such conditions is given a load factor of 8, but, even so, it may still be
necessary to use stronger equipment than would normally be employed.

The use of bights, back-hooking (snickling), or bending cordage over any small radii under load,
these procedures create stress on one particular section of the rope and there may be induced
friction. The S.W.L of the tackle is impaired, and stronger gear is necessary.

Shock loading can impart severe stress on ropes and chains. There is always a possibility of
this when a load is snatched, but it may become extreme on occasions such as a valve
suddenly coming loose from its seating. Where such possibilities exist, it pays to err on the safe
side in the selection of tackle.

Angular stress on ropes and chains influences the S.W.L. and as the distance between the sling
legs increase the S.W.L. decreases.

Manufacturers concern about this fact has resulted in multilegged slings assembled on a ring
now being tested and rated at angles of 90
O
or 120
O
and stamped accordingly.

This equipment an therefore be used to lift the stated S.W.L. up to and including the given angle
but attention is drawn to the fact that the load to be lifted or the included angle should never be
greater than those marked.

Single slings will, in the future, also be marked with the S.W.L. at various angles, but when they
are used in combination to make a multilegged sling the angle must not exceed 90
O
.
At 120
O
the S.W.L. of two single slings is only equal to that of a single sling and any additional
angle could result in extremely dangerous circumstances. At slightly above 150
O
the slings
would be stressed to failure load.

The angle is determined by the length of the sling legs compared to the distance between them
at their points of contact with the object being lifted.

If the distance between the sling legs at the points of contact with the load if half the length of
one sling leg, the angle is 30
O
.
PMI, NTPC 40
If the distance between the legs is equal to the length of one sling leg, the angle is 60
O
.

If it is one and a third times the length of one sling leg, the angle is 90
O
.

One and two third times the length of one sling leg, the angle is 120
O
.

At angles in excess of 90
O
only made-up slings of two and four legs may be employed
because this increases the stress on the rope or chain to dangerous limits.

Three-legged slings may only be used a angles up to 90
O
.

The use of long slings and care in selection of attachment points can eliminate the need for
wide angles.

This stress induced by wide angles means it is
dangerous practice to hummer bights down tight.

A reeved sling with a bight as shown in the diagram
should only be used if unavoidable and the distance from
A-D should never be less than the distance A-B or A-C.

At this point the bight is not very tight but already the angle is 120
O
. This, plus possible friction at
the bight, would impose excessive stress at this point. Any further tightening would result in a
dangerous circumstance unless due care was given in the selection of the cordage used.

In such a lift is would also be necessary to use packing at points where the load contacts the
rope.

It is common practice to use span wires to support lifting equipment when faced with an
absence of proper lifting points. Often such ropes are stretched as taut as possible and a
dangerous situation may arise.

A span wire is merely an inverted sling and when the lifting tackle is suspended from it we are
again faced with angular stress.
PMI, NTPC 41
If a span wire were subjected to a load of 1 tonne and the angle at the point of suspension was
160
O
(a very commonplace occurrence) the stress on the rope at each side of the load would be
3 tonnes. The ropes safety factor of 5 would be eliminated.

If this method of work must be adopted it is essential that full consideration is given to the
strength of the span wire and the points of attachment to ensure they cope with any angular
stresses that may be imposed.

Where there is difficulty in assessing the weight of the load it is sound practice to use tackle with
a S.W.L. in excess of what is estimated as being sufficient.

Wherever possible it is suggested that objects should have the weight stencillied on and also be
included in a register.

This removes doubt and allows the operator to work with less worry, but in the absence of such
considerations, where he must make his own assessment, there must be greater care in the
selection of tackle and any error must always be on the Safe Side.

Some guides as to weights of various materials are given here in the hone they help in this
context.
PMI, NTPC 42
WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS

Per Metre Run Rolled Average weight per m
3

Steel Joists

Size in mm kg Tonnes
(t)
With Taper ( 75 x 51 7 Loose cement 1.45
Flanges ( 152 x 89 17 Reinforced concrete 2.40
( 178 x 102 22 Wet earth or dlay 1.60
( 203 x 102 26 Wet sand 1.93
Gravel 1.77
( 254 x 102 28 Loose coal 0.90
( 305 x 120 33 Brickwork 2.01
( 356 x 127 39 Water 1.00
( 381 x 152 67 Petrol 0.68
( 406 x 178 74 Steel 7.90
( 457 x 152 82 Lead 11.45
( 610 x 229 140 Cast Iron 7.24

Per Metre Run Round Average weight per m
2

Steel Bar

Dia in mm kg kg

13 1.00 Plates 6mm thick 47
25 3.9 Plates 9mm thick 71
38 8.9 Plates 12mm thick 95
50 15.4
75 34.7
100 61.7
150 138.9

PMI, NTPC 43
Low Pressure Pipes Steel Section Bar

Bore in mm Kg Size in mm Metres per tonne
Steel 25 3 50 x 50 51
Steel 50 7 64 x 64 31
Steel 75 12 75 x 75 23
Steel 100 15 90 x 90 16
Cast Iron 100 24 100 x 100 13
Cast Iron 150 45 115 x 115 10
Cast Iron 200 66 130 x 130 8
Cast Iron 225 78 150 x 150 6
Cast Iron 300 121
Cast Iron 450 221
Cast Iron 600 331

FIBRE ROPE AND FIBRE ROPE SLINGS

Fibre ropes may be made from various natural products, Sisal, Hemp, Coir, Cotton, Manilla etc.
but is is recommended that among the natural fibres only Grade I Manilla be used for lifting.

The strength of fibre rope is determined by the ropes size (circumference) the material used in
its manufacture, and its condition.

Three values are given to the condition of fibre rope.

1. Excellent
This is rope direct from the manufacturer, or rope that has not been used and has not
been permitted to deteriorate.

The quoted S.W.L. applies only to rope in this category.

2. Good
PMI, NTPC 44
This is rope which has been used with only a slight loss in fibre strength and has a
maximum of 20% reduction in quality from new. An allowance in the S.w.L. must be
made for any deterioration.

3. Fair

This applies to rope which shows clear sign of wear and tear or interior deterioration.
This must not be used for lifting or supporting loads. It may be used for tying, etc., where
there is no possibility of damage to persons or goods, but it is suggested that rope with
over 20% deterioration should be scrapped to prevent possibility of wrong usage.

Fibre ropes are easily damaged and will deteriorate naturally even when used correctly and
cared for in proper fashion, but improper use and lock of care results in more rapid deterioration.

They are adversely affected by damp or heat and should be stored in temperatures of 10
O
-
20
O
C. Wet ropes should not be allowed to remain in damp circumstances, neither should they
be dried out too quickly. They should be permitted to dry out naturally in the temperature given,
and inspected prior to use.

They are easily contaminated by oil, chemicals, acids, or noxious fumes. If there has been any
possibility of such contamination, the rope should not be used until it has been examined by
some competent person.

Ropes must be protected from sharp corners or edges and from any rough surfaces that may
cut or chafe them. The use of packing, such as wood or Hessian, at points of contact between
rope and load, will eliminate much of the wear and tear that often occurs, as will the use of
correctly sized pulleys that permit the rope to fit and run properly.

ALL FIBRE ROPES SHOULD BE INSPECTED BEFORE USE FOR INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL
DAMAGE.

A warning sign of broken fibres is when short tufts stick out at right angles to the rope. Any
variation in the thickness of the rope should also be noted.

PMI, NTPC 45
To examine the interior, twist the rope between the hands so the inside is exposed. The fibres
should be of good colour. Any discoloration implies probable contamination.

If the rope smells musty, or if any dry dust is present, these are also sure signs of contamination
or ageing. When the rope is released it should spring back into its normal lay if the fibres are in
good condition and have retained their normal flexibility.

IF THERE IS ANY CAUSE FOR CONCERN REGARDING ANY OF THESE FACTORS, OR IF
THERE IS ANY DOUBT ABOUT THE ROPES CONDITION, IT MUST NOT BE USED.

TABLE I
Safe Working Load of Multilegged Slings with Ring Attachment. SWL calculated at 90
O
rated as
follows:

For 2 leg slings 1.40) x S.W.L. of single leg
For 3 leg slings 1.60)
For 4 leg slings 2.00)
Nominal SAFE WORKING LOAD
Diameter __________________________________________________________________
of Rope Single Part 2 Leg Sling 3 Leg Sling 4 Leg Sling
mm kg kg kg kg
8 68 95 108 136
10 89 124 142 178
12 134 187 214 268
13 158 221 252 316
14 180 252 288 360
16 254 355 406 508
18 305 427 488 610
20 406 568 649 812
22 483 676 772 966
24 571 799 913 1142
26 666 932 1065 1332
PMI, NTPC 46
This, and the following, table applies to Grade 1 Special Quality Manila Rope, plain load, of 3
strands.

TABLE II

Safe Working Loads of Single being used in pairs at angles of 0
O
90
O
.

Nominal Diameter S.W.L. of S.W.L. of Two Slings
of Rope Single Part ---------------------------------------------------------
O
O
+O
O
90
O

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
mm kg kg kg
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8 68 136 95
10 89 178 124
12 134 268 187
13 158 316 221
14 180 360 252
16 254 508 355
18 305 610 427
20 406 812 568
22 483 966 676
24 571 1142 799
26 666 1332 942

When a single sling is revved with a bight the angle at the bight should never exceed 120
O
(see
section on S.W.L.s)

At this angle (120
O
) a single sling would have a S.W.L. equal to half the figure in the first
column: e.g. 16mm rope S.W.L. 127kg. An endless sling so used would have a S.W.L.
equivalent to a single part, e.g.

16mm rope S.W.L. 254kg.

PMI, NTPC 47
WIRE ROPE AND WIRE ROPE SLINGS

Because a wire rope is made from steel this does not mean that we can treat it with a lack of
concern. It is subject to wear and tear and will depreciate naturally when in use, but again this
deterioration is accelerated by improper use and lack of care. A knowledge of its structure and
composition will help to understand why this happens.

Usually, wire rope has six strands, each composed of a varying number of wires. The number of
wires per strand, plus their size, quality, and formation, determines in ropes surround a wire
rope core which gives greater strength and longer life but with some reduction in flexibility.

The older ropes have a fibre core which adds greatly to the ropes flexibility.

ANY DEPRECIATION OF THIS CORE MAY PERMIT INTERNAL CORROSION AND
DAMAGE, AND RESULT IN A LOSS OF FLEXIBILITY, AND IF SUCH ROPES ARE STILL IN
USE A NOTICEABLY REDUCED FLEXIBILITY SHOULD BE SUSPECT.

The size of a wire rope is measured in terms of its diameter, and all wire ropes should be
marked with the S.W.L. which again is only valid if the rope is in good condition and is being
employed in a manner which does not subject it to abnormal stress.

Before use, wire rope should be examined for obvious defects such as broken wires, flats on
individual wires, dangerous kinks where flats and breaks readily occur, or any apparent
corrosion. These defects are created mainly by improper use, and observance of the following
points will reduce the possibility of damage.

1. Loads should not be snatched from the floor. The leads to excess tension on the rope
and opens out the strands. The weight of the load should be taken gradually.

2. The rope must be protected from sharp corners, edges, and rough surfaces. Again, the
use of Hessian, or wood, at points of contact between rope and load, can prevent
kinking and cutting and cordage. Rough pulleys, or the use of pulleys that do not permit
the rope to fit correctly, contact with blocks, etc., may cause serve chafing, especially if
such contact is repetitive.
PMI, NTPC 48
3. Taking a rope over a girder, or similar object, then imposing a load on it, will create kinks
and flats on wires. The use of a girder clamp can prevent such occurrences.

4. Slings should never be dragged from under a load resting on them. The load should be
set down on blocks, leaving the sling free for extraction.

5. Wire rope should not be bent over any diameter that is too small. This is certain to kink
the rope, with the other detrimental effects ensuing, and these kinks can never be
straightened out. A rough guide to pulleys is that diameter of the pulley should be at
least 24 times the diameter of the rope.

EXAMPLE
10mm Rope 240 mm Pulley

6. Wire rope should never be knotted.

7. Rope should never be allowed to remain for long periods on could concrete floors.

8. Ashies, clinker, coke breeze, even smoke of chemical fumes can have detrimental
effects on wire ropes and when any of these conditions is present, care is essential, and
regular inspections necessary.

9. Rope should be inspected regularly for any dirt or grit between the strands and cleaned
with the wire brush.

A certain amount of wear and tear is unavoidable, and, with rope in regular use, broken wires
are inevitable. However, these must always be regarded as a WARNING SIGN, and there is a
limit to the number that can be tolerated without the rope weakening and perhaps becoming
unserviceable.

The Regulations say, No rope shall be used in hoisting or lowering, if, in any 8 diameters of the
rope, the total number of wires in the rope.


PMI, NTPC 49
EXAMPLE

A 9mm rope containing 6 strands of 36 wires (6 x 36)
8 diameters = 72mm 6 x 36 216 wires.

If in any 72mm of rope there wire more than 21 broken wires, the rope should not be used.

The Regulations says No wire rope shall be used if in any length of 10 diameters of the rope,
the total number of visible broken wires exceed 5% of the total wires in the rope.

EXAMPLE

A 9mm rope containing 6 x 36 wires. 10 diameters 90mm. 6 x 36 = 216 wires. If in any 90mm
of rope there were more than 10 broken wires the rope should not be used.

Even when the number of broken wires is less than stated above, it is good practice to return
the rope for inspection by the responsible person and there is still a handling hazard to be
considered.

In the selection of wire rope slings for lifting purposes all imposed additional stresses previously
referred to (brights, angles, etc.) must be considered, as must also the lengths of slings and the
points of attachment which govern the angle of lift. It must also be remembered at this point that
not only must the slings be capable of sustaining the load, but so must all the tackle employed,
lifting points, attachments, and any part of the which is under load.

The figures in the following tables apply to wire rope 6 x 36 I.W.R.C. ordinary lay R.H.
preformed. Minimum breaking load at 180 kgf/mm
2
.
PMI, NTPC 50
TABLE I

Safe working Load of Multilegged Slings with Ring Attachment.

S.W.L. calculated at 90
O
, rated as follows:

For 2 leg slings 1.4 ) x S.W.L. of Single Leg
For 3 leg slings 1.6 )
For 4 leg slings 2.0 )

Nominal Diameter SAFE WORKING LOAD
of Rope mm ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Single Part 2 Leg Sling 3 Leg Sling 4 Leg Sling
9 900 kg 1.2t 1.4t 1.8t
13 1.9t 2.6y 3.0t 3.8t
16 2.9t 4.0t 4.6t 5.8t
19 4.1t 5.7t 6.5t 8.2t
22 5.5t 7.7t 8.8t 11.0t
26 7.7t 10.7t 12.3t 15.4t
28 8.9t 12.4t 14.2t 17.8t
32 11.7t 16.3t 18.7t 23.4t
35 14.0t 19.6t 22.4t 28.0t
38 16.5t 23.1t 26.4t 33.0t

NOTE : S.W.L.s marked on lifting tackles are in kg up to 1000kg and then in tones, to one
decimal place only, except where the figure is 1.25, which in given to two decimal places. E.g.
160kg : 1.25t : 6.9t : 26.4t.
PMI, NTPC 51
TABLE II

Safe Working Loads of Single being used in pairs at angles of 0
O
90
O
.
Nominal Diameter S.W.L. of S.W.L. of Two Slings
of Rope Single Part -----------------------------------------------------------------
mm 0
O
+0
O
90
O

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9 900 kg 1.8t 1.2t
13 1.9t 3.8t 2.6t
16 2.9t 5.8t 4.0t
19 4.1t 8.2t 5.7t
22 5.5t 11.1t 7.7t
26 7.7t 15.5t 10.7t
28 8.9t 17.9t 12.4t
32 11.7t 23.4t 16.3t
35 14.0t 28.0t 19.6t
38 16.5t 33.0t 23.1t

EYE BOLTS

Eye bolts are mainly used to lift heavy loads that have definite pre-determined lifting points.

The eye bolts should be used for the job it was designed to do and no other purpose, and
only eye bolts of a suitable manufacture should be employed.

HOME MADE EYE BOLTS SHOULD NEVER BE USED NOR SHOULD AN OFFICIAL EYE
BOLT BE MODIFIED TO SUIT SOME PARTICULAR PURPOSE. EITHER PRACTICE IS
DANGEROUS, AND IS AGAINST THE LAW. DAMAGED EYE BOLTS SHOULD BE
SCRAPPED AND NEVER REPAIRED.

The following instructions must be followed.

1. There must be a forged collar and not a welded one at the end of the shank.
PMI, NTPC 52
2. The underside of the collar must be machine accurately smooth and at right angles to
the shank. It must also be provided with a recess.

3. The portion of the shank adjacent to the collar must have a specified radius.

4. The screw threads must be clearly cut and of a Standard Specification.

5. Each eye bolt must be proof-loaded to twice its vertical S.W.L.

The reasons for such regulations are easy to realize. It would be dangerous to have welded
equipment unless this was subjected to proper tests. To use any welded tackle without
authorization is dangerous and illegal, because one does not know the strength of the weld. The
eye bolt must be seated properly. It is laid down that when the eye bol is in place, it should not
be possible to get a 0.4mm feeler gauge between the eye bolt and the job. The strength of the
eye bolt is fully dependant on the full purchase of all the threads.

To modify the eye bolt by cutting off part of the shank, or to use packing, such as washers, etc.,
between the eye bolt and the job, means that the purchase of all the threads is not being
employed, so the S.W.L. is drastically reduced. The use of packing also implies that any lateral
pull on the eye bolt could cause the shank to bend. Over tightening the eye bolt, especially by
hammering, or levering, should also be avoided. This may set up shock stresses which could
result in fractures. These may occur internally or they may occur in the shank whilst the eye bolt
is being hammered down; in both cases they will be undetectable.

Before use, eye bolts should be inspected for wear and tear of the threads, fractures, or bruising
of the collar as a result of improper use. After use, they should be stored safely, and not
permitted to be subjected to conditions where the treads may be damaged or become clogged
with dirt.

The S.W.L. on an eye bolt is only true when the pull on the eye bolt is vertical. Any lateral stress
imposed by inclined sling legs seriously effects the safe aspects of using eye-bolts, so any
angular stress should be avoided. Where an angled lift is unavoidable, then eye bolts with
integral links should be used.

PMI, NTPC 53
Safe Working Loads of Eyebolts under Vertical or Inclined Conditions of Loading
Metric Thread Safe Working load Maximum load to be lifted by to`
For single eye-bolt eyebolts when the slings are at
VERTICAL an angle
mm 0
O
30
O
30
O
60
O
60
O
90
O
12 300kg 400kg 250kg 150kg
16 600kg 800kg 500kg 300kg
18 1.0t 1.3t 800kg 500kg
20 1.25t 1.6t 1.0t 600kg
22 1.6t 2.0t 1.25t 800kg
24 2.0t 2.5t 1.6t 1.0t
27 2.5t 3.2t 2.0t 1.25t
30 3.2t 4.0t 2.5t 1.6t
33 4.0t 5.0t 3.2t 2.0t
36 5.0t 6.3t 4.0t 2.5t
39 6.3t 8.0t 5.0t 3.2t
45 8.0t 10.0t 6.3t 4.0t

mm 0
O
30
O
30
O
60
O
60
O
90
O
52 10.0t 12.5t 8.0t 5.0t
56 12.5t 16.0t 10.0t 6.3t
64 16.0t 20.0t 12.5t 8.0t
70 20.0t 25.0t 16.0t 10.0t
76 25.0t 32.0t 20.0t 12.5t

In the case of inclined loading the S.W.L.s are only applicable when the tension is applied in the
plane of the eye.

Despite the above warning on the use of washes, in the event of eye bolts being used in pairs
and being slightly out of line when screwed down to the correct degree, a special washer can be
employed to remedy this adverse circumstance.

PMI, NTPC 54
On no account should eye bolts be used a turn a load over on to its side from vertical, or vice
versa.

SHACKLES

The most important part of the shackle is the pin, because this is subjected to the greater part of
the stress from the load. It is vital that it is the correct type for the shackle and complies to the
regulations which say.

1. The pin must be forged or machined from mild steel or high tensile steel or appropriate
standard specification.

2. The diameter of the pin must not be less than the diameter of the Bow or Dee.

THE USE OF ORDINARY NUTS AND BOLTS, OR ANY OTHER MODIFICATION, IS
EXTREMELY DANGEROUS PRACTICE AND CONTRARY TO LEGAL REQUIREMENTS.

Very often shackles (or other equipment) can be used advantageously to do jobs of a special
nature, but this does not imply that deviations from standard procedure can be adopted or
unlawful modifications to the tackle permitted. In such cases it may be possible to obtain a
specially constructed piece of tackle which can be tested and approved. This will result in safer
work and comply with legal requirements.

More concern in this respect can eliminate many dangerous practices, and it is suggested that
the provision of special equipment, where this is required, is the only way to prevent the need
for dangerous modifications to existing equipment, or the use of such equipment in improper
fashion.

USE OF EYE BOLTS WITH SHACKLES

The eye of a bolt of the correct design is always too small to admit safely the hook of a crane or
block that has the same S.W.L. This means the SHCKLES MUST BE USED TO CONNECT
THE HOOK TO THE EYE BOLT.
PMI, NTPC 55
Some eye bolts that do permit the use of a hook direct are still in use, but their employment is
undesirable.

When using eye-bolt in pairs, it is common practice to take
a sling from the crane hook, through one shackle and
across to the other shackle, then back to the crane hook.
This is wrong, because it sets up two tensions, the
normal vertical tension to the crane hook, and a horizontal
tension between the eye bolts. This produces stress far is excess of what can normally be
anticipated and also induces exceptional wear and tear of the cordage where this is revved
through the shackles.

At some future date a new design of eye bolt will be available which will permit direct application
of the hook.

BULL-DOG GRIPS

When properly applied, these afford a simple and effective means of securing the ends of a
rope as an alternative to splicing or socketing.

The use of them for lifting should not be encouraged and in this capacity they should be
regarded as a TEMPORARY MEASURE ONLY. Great care in their use for such work in
imperative.

The use of bull-dog grips haphazardly as is accepted practice is extremely dangerous. The
following hints may assist in safer use of this type of equipment.

The U-bolts must never be placed in contact with the working part of the rope. This lowers the
PMI, NTPC 56
efficiency by 25% or more.

When being use in this fashion, securing to a thimble or forming a loop, bull-dog grips should be
spaced at approx. 6 rope diameters apart.

The minimum number of grips for any connections is as follows:
Rope up to 19m not less than 3 Grips
Over 19mm up to 32mm not less than 4 Grips
Over 32mm up to 38mm not less than 5 Grips
Over 38mm up to 44mm not less than 6 Grips
Over 44mm not less than 7 Grips

EXAMPLE: For 26mm rope not less than 4 Grips would be employed, spaced approx. 150mm
apart.

If a rope fitted with bull-dog grips is being used for any purpose that puts it under stress an
inspection should be made following an initial strain on the attachment. It will usually be found
that some adjustment to the nuts is needed.

Serving the rope where the grip has to seat, or wrapping with material such as canvas will
improve the efficiency of the connection.

IF ALL CORRECT MEASURES ARE TAKEN, THE CONNECTION SHOULD HOLD APPROX.
85% OF THE ACTUAL BREAKING LOAD OF THE ROPE USED.

To join two ropes using bull-dog grips the above conditions still apply, but double the number
of grips must be used.

To joint two 26mm ropes it would be
necessary to use 8 grips, and they must
be fitted in the fashion shown below.

PMI, NTPC 57
CHAINS

The size of a chain is the nominal diameter of the bar from which it is made and usually each
link is 4.5 times this diameter in length. The greater the number of links in any given length of
chain, the more flexible it is. The smaller the links, the less bending action there is at the ends.
The best quality chain has links with slightly oval sides which gives the chain increased
flexibility.

There are a large variety of chains, both as regards material and construction, and CARE
SHOULD BE TAKEN IN THE SELECTION OF CHAINS FOR SPECIFIC WORK. The S.W.L.
therefore, varies to a great extent and the Standard for the selected chain must be consulted.

As with fiber and wire ropes, chain will deteriorate when in constant use, but again many defects
are caused by ill-use and abuse. Chain should be inspected before use for any obvious
stretching of the links, any distortion or bending, and any lack of free movement at any point.

IF THE LINKS ARE WORN SO THAT THE SIZE HAS DROPPED BY 12% AT ANY POINT, OR
IF THERE IS AN AVERAGE LOSS OF 8% THE CHAIN SHOULD NOT BE USED.

If rings are used with chains, they should hang freely without any jamming of the attached links,
and the ring itself must be strong enough to carry a load equal to the combined S.W.L. of all the
attached slings.

Chain should not be used when the links are locked, stretched, or without free movements.

Chain should never be hammered to straighten a link, or force a link into position.
Worn or corroded chain should never be used.

Chain should never be crossed, twisted or knotted.

Chain should not be dragged out from under a load, or dropped from a height.

Chain must be protected from corners, sharp edges, and rough surfaces.

PMI, NTPC 58
Special care should be taken to avoid snatching or shock loading, especially in cold weather.

Multilegged chains a ring assembly will have been tested and rated as laid down in PD 6464
and can be used to lift the S.W.L. stamped on the top ring up to and including 90
O
. The S.W.L.
for angles between 90
O
and 120
O
is shown on a chain tag affixed to or adjacent to the top ring.

Single chain slings, if used in pairs, must be given the consideration regarding angular stresses
previously quoted in the sections on fiber and wire ropes.

Regulations say, A load shall not be raised, lowered, or suspended, on a chain (or a wire rope)
which has a knot in any part of the chain (or rope) under suspension. No chain which is
shortened or joined to another by means of units and bolts shall be used for raising, lowering, or
suspending a load.

Chain made from wrought iron (and other tackle made from similar material) is liable to become
embrittled due to impacts in service, and will be withdrawn from use at some time in the future.

Surface embrittlement can be removed by periodic annealing.

HOOKS

THE REGULATIONS SAY THAT EVERY HOOK FOR RAISING, LOWERING, OR AS A
MEANS OF SUSPENSION SHALL EITHER:

A. BE PROVIDED WITH AN EFFICIENT DEVICE TO PREVENT THE DISPLACEMENT
OF THE SLING OR LOAD FROM THE HOOK OR

B. BE OF SUCH A SHAPE SO AS TO REDUCE AS FAR AS POSSIBLE ANY RISK OF
SUCH DISPLACEMENT

Constant lifting from off the point of a hook may cause the hook to open out, altering the
permanent set of the hook. This not only increases the possibility of the sling being able to
become displaced, it also weakens the hook.

PMI, NTPC 59
Snickling (or back hooking) may also have this effect, but, more important here, this practice
subjects the chain or rope to great stress at the point where snickling occurs and may cause
distortion of the links or kinking of the rope. Repetitive stress may cause weakness to the extent
that a dangerous circumstance is created.

Both practices should be discouraged, and often the use of Combination Slings can be used
advantageously to prevent the need for either snickling or the use of bights.

A hook with a proper safety device should, of course, be used when the occasion demands, but
at all other times an additional precaution to prevent displacement of the sling from the hook is
to use a mousing of lashing, or wire, round the hook.

When any lifting appliance is operated without a load on the appliance the hook or any sling
attached to the appliance shall be suitably secured so as to prevent its accidentally becoming
attached to any other object.

BLOCK AND TACKLE

The sheave of the block required constant examination. It is a moving part subject to friction and
other stress factors. The S.W.L. of the block is only true when the load chain is in a vertical
position. Any dragging or lateral pull may overload the equipment and damage the pulleys or
load chain itself.

THE LOAD CHAIN SHOULD NEVER BE USED AS A SLING. Apart from the obvious danger of
dropping the load, this procedure can strain and disturb the chain links.

The drive chain should be operated by a steady motion. Any rapid or jerky movement may
cause the links to jump out of the sprockets, perhaps damaging the sprockets, or jamming the
chain.

The load chain should not be allowed to run out too far, as this imposes a dangerous load on
the slack anchorage of the chain.

PMI, NTPC 60
The gear should be inspected before use for cracked or elongated chain links, worn sheaves,
clutch and brake adjustment, or any other sign of deterioration.

Owing to modern design of chain blocks using alloy chains being of smaller design than older
blocks of equivalent capacity the user is advised to check the S.W.L. marked on the block on
every occasion of use.

BLOCK AND MECHANICAL ADVANTAGES

In considering the use of multi-sheave blocks very often the only concern is with regard to the
mechanical advantage gained, but another important aspect is the stress imposed on
supporting parts.

A 1 tonne load suspended from a hook imposes a stress on the hook and other supporting parts
of 1 tonne plus the weight of the equipment.

If a rope is passed over a single sheave block and is used to raise a 1 tonne load, a
corresponding effort of 1 tonne is required.

The implies that the stress on the hook and other parts is now 2 tonnes.

In theory the following would apply
PMI, NTPC 61
Single Two Single Double & Two Double Double &
Single Treble


---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mechanical 1-1 2-1 3-1 4-1 5-1
Advantage
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Weight 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
(tonnes)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Effort 1.0t 500kg 330kg 250kg 200kg
Required
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stress on Hook 2.0 1.5 1.33 1.25 1.20
& Support
(tonnes)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

It is estimated that the overcoming of the friction imposed by each sheave adds 10% to the
required effort.

PMI, NTPC 62
Accepting this figure we have as a result-

Single Two Single Double & Two Double Double &
Single Treble

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mechanical 1-1 2-1 3-1 4-1 5-1
Advantage
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Weight 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
(tones)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Effort 1.10.t 700kg 630kg 650kg 700kg
Required
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stress on Hook 2.10 1.7 1.63 1.65 1.7
& Support
(tones)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
With this allowance for friction any gain in mechanical advantage is almost eliminated when
more than three sheaves are employed and, of course, the tackle becomes more cumbersome.

At all times when multisheave blocks are being employed, the S.W.L. of the hook and all
supporting parts must be equal to at least twice the weight of the load to be raised.

PMI, NTPC 63
SNATCH BLOCKS

Snatch blocks should only be used when absolutely necessary and when used, should be taken
to avoid sharp changes in direction as these impose great stress on the hook and points of
attachment.

The pull on the hook and anchorage increases as the angle between the rope passing through
the block decreases.

At 120
O
the stress on the hook is equivalent to the pull on
the rope, and as the angle decreases this stress increases
until at 0
O
the stress on the hook and anchorage is doubled.

tonnes
Pull on Hauling Part 1.0
Tension at 0
O
2.0
Tension at 30
O
1.9
Tension at 60
O
1.5
Tension at 90
O
1.4
Tension at 120
O
1.0
Tension at 150
O
0.5


TYPICAL SLINGING METHODS

The following accepted slinging methods may serve as guides in the handling of various
materials.

REEVING SLING

For short lengths of tubes, bars, props, etc. In using this method is pointed out that necessary
care is essential in considering the bight and the angle where the rope is revved through it.

PMI, NTPC 64
A Stirrup fitted temporarily in the bight will minimize the stress at this
point,

CRADLE SLING

This ensures control and security, but care should be taken that packing
is used where the cutting edges may damage the sling and perhaps the
load.

HALSHING SLING

This is a method of using a single sling in place of an endless sling
when a bight is required.

Again the use of a stirrup can minimise stress at the bright.

TWO REEVING SLINGS

For longer lengths of tubes, bars, or rods.

Again care with angles at the bight and the use of a stirrup.

To facilitate handling the position of the bight is important.

DOUBLE WRAP SLINGS

The double wrap is more secure and helps to prevent the load slipping
sideways.
PMI, NTPC 65
TWO CRADLE SLINGS

For objects like boilers etc., or cases, where means of
attachment gives difficulty.

Care is required when using this method.

COMBINATION SLINGS TWO PART LIFT

For concrete beams, steel joists, girders etc.

COMBINATION SLINGS FOUR PART LIFT

For timber, steel sheets, packing cases, etc.

The use of combination slings eliminates the need for bights or snickling to be employed, so
making for safe working and less wear and tear on ropes.

Where there is wear and tear, this occurs on the smaller, cheaper tackle and the more
expensive equipment is given longer life.

In all lifts consideration must be given to the angle at the bight and protective packing of the
slings at sharp corners.

The sizing up of the job and the selection of proper tackle is of obvious importance. In some
stations it is the practice to keep a detailed account of plant parts, together with their respective
weights, which are often stenciled on specific items. This removes doubt and assists the
operator to select the correct equipment, but the absence of such considerations, forcing the
operator to make his own assessment, enforces much greater care in the selection of tackle. As
previously suggested, under these circumstances it is important that stronger tackle than is
estimated as being sufficient should be employed.

PMI, NTPC 66
The correct use of bights, and the positioning of these when turning over loads, etc., is an
important factor, as is the assessment of the objectives centre of gravity and any unbalance that
may be encountered. The correct positioning of the crane hook and proper systems of signaling
are other aspects that can assist in correct working.

1. Only tackle that has been tested, approved, and complies with regulations must be used.
This does not deter the use of specially constructed tackle for specific work, but such
tackle must conform to the above standards.

2. Tackle must not be modified to suit some specific purpose, and it must be employed in
proper fashion.

3. The equipment must be in good condition and its strength unaffected by any defect.

4. If there is any doubt about the equipment, or any aspect of the work, obtain the advice of
some person competent for the purpose.

5. In the assessment of the job, all stress factors must be considered. It can be realized
from the chapter on S.W.L. that a circumstance could arise where extreme angles were
employed, bights were being used, and shock loading was a possibility. The combined
stressed could be too great for the equipment and they should always be taken into
consideration.

6. Not only must the tackle be strong enough for the job, but so must all lifting points,
attachments, fixtures, in fact any weight bearing parts must be able to sustain the load.
PMI, NTPC 67
4. Principles of Correct Handling and Lifting


The principles are not gimmicks. They are based on common sense plus the application of the
laws governing Kinesiology (the science of human motion) and the can, in whole or in part, be
applied to every conceivable action at work, at play, and in the home. The methods must, of
course, e learned, just as accepted methods and to be learned, but once learned, the actual
application should not present any great difficulty. Lack of proper consideration and an
ignorance of the way the human machine works and should be operated, has resulted in
incorrect methods being universally adopted and accepted.

Initially, because of the deep-rooted indoctrination to faulty methods, the hardest test is to think.
It is necessary, if people are to think to get them to believe. It is not sufficient to lay down rules
and expect people to automatically accept them as being necessary. It is essential that one
believes in the theories given, that one is fully aware of all relevant facts that inspired the need
for this instruction. Once the belief in what has to be done is present, the application becomes
so much easier, so much more likely to receive proper consideration.

All the principles cannot be applied to every movement. All apply to some movements. Some
apply to every movement. Through they are rules, this does not mean they may be dogmatically
applied as laid down. One cannot prescribe any teaching of physical behaviour to large groups
of people. Each individual has his own mental and physical idiosyncrasies and he must adapt
rules to meet his individuality, without departing from basic fundamentals. This is one
reason for the first two principles. An awareness of what has to be done as a whole, permits as
assessment of what needs to be done in part. This allows the remaining laws to be applied to
best advantage. Proper consideration of the whole work involved in any tast, thinking of the
body as a machine, subject to the laws of mechanics and of living matter, and working in
as such, will do must to lessen fatigue and eliminate many of the factors that lead to injury. This
applies not only to heavy manual handling but to every action one performs, no matter how
simple or in what connection.

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THE PRINCIPLES

1. Sum up the Task.

2. Assess the Work Load.

3. Close to the Object.

4. Feet hip-breadth apart

5. One foot forward.

6a. To side of Object and

6b. Point in direction of Movement

7. Bend the Knees

8. Keep the Back Flat.

9. Arms close to the Body.

10. Chin In.

11. Proper Grip.

12. Use the Legs.

13. Use the Body Weight.

1. Sum up the Task

Every job should be envisaged as a whole. If lifting plus movement is required, or if the object is
to be moved to a specific place, or lifted and stacked, the job should be planned as a complete
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effort and not done in a series of disjointed movements. As has been static work is extremely
tiring and leads to cumulative strain. The same applies when movements is limited. If during any
action, the weight has to be held, some static work must be taking place.

Take a simple job such as lifting an object from the floor on to a bench, say a motor which is
due for maintenance. Almost without exception one of two methods will be employed. The
worker will either.

1. Lift the motor from whatever position he happens to be in, which probably involves
flexion and lateral flexion of the spine or

2. Lift it, hold it, turn with it, walk with it, then lift if again. This involves static muscle work,
excess holding, and look at the time the weight has to be supported.

These are examples of uneconomic work, leading to early fatigue and cumulative strain. In a job
as given, all the actions can be incorporated into one movement. By correct body positioning,
behind the object, using the principles of flat back and employing the leg muscles, directing the
object in a direct line to its final position, doing the movement ballistically and using the body
weight, all unnecessary work is eliminated, and the result is easier, safer, quicker and more
pleasurable labour. It is important then, that full consideration is given, prior to the action
commencing, as to correct procedure from start to finish, and that the body is positioned to
give greatest advantage, both as regards effort and movement.

2. Assess the Work Load

The bulk, weight and composition of the object should be evaluated. This is important, even with
relatively light object. It should be decided what effort is required to complete the whole task
and enough manpower (or mechanical means) should be employed on the job from start to
finish.

It is uneconomical and unsafe for one man to begin a job that may, at some stage, develop into
a two man job. It is better if the object which have to be manually handled are marked with the
weight. The body, being a machine, should receive the considerations given to man-made
machines such as cranes and lifts. The importance of correct assessment is vital. As can be
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seen, it is essential, not only from an injury point of view, but also to ensure maximum results
are obtained from effort expended.

The worker may feel that the usual tentative trial effort upon an unfamiliar object is sufficient to
give an idea as to necessary effort. A study will shown that this type of assessment may not
give much assistance and that the brain requires more details if the work is to be done correctly.
If more than one person is employed on task, it is vital that unison in handling is obtained.
Injuries are caused by mistiming of efforts, inequality of load and lack of supervised co-
ordination. One man should give the orders, the ideal is for a non-participant to do this, but
where the man is a member of the working party it is best for the weakest or slowest to be
responsible.

Circumstances may throw together two men of completely different temperaments, one a little
reticent, the other the Hey-lads-hey-lets-get-it-done type. The latter usually takes the initiative
and will probably have completed his part of the job (usually in wrong fashion) before the other
chap gets the message, leaving the slower man with all the remaining work and resultant
injurious implications. Both man are doing excess work, better unison would result if one shower
man gave the order, and the overall effort would be lessened.

Perhaps there is a four-man job, but with access for only two people. In such cases a
modification of the conditions is called for, or mechanical means need to be adopted. Different
sized objects, objects of various shapes, solid objects, or things like sacks, etc. and what has to
be done with them, calls for changes in the approach to the work. If the assessment is
reasonably correct, sufficient effort employed, and the job envisaged as a whole, the handling
of materials can be done in much safer and more economical fashion than present methods
permit.

3. Close to the Object

When picking up on object from the floor it may not appear to be of great consequence whether
one is close up to it or a foot away. But it can be appreciated that the forward position can
tremendously increase the amount of muscular effort required to move a given weight.

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With the object away in front, the body is forced into forward displacement with the resultant risk
of rupture and back injury, plus the fact that the bodys weight has also got to be contended
with. When the full implications attached to this method of picking up objects are realized (the
injurious effects, plus the mechanical disadvantages), the adoption of this procedure becomes
almost criminal.

4. Feet Hip Breadth Apart

With the feet together it is impossible to lower the body vertically even if the legs are bent in the
proposed manner. This means there will again always be forward displacement and this will
lead to the potential injurious effects and mechanical disadvantages. Because of the small base
and the displacement forward, the body will always to off-balance.

The brains first concern is self-preservation. Because one is off balance, the brain will be more
concerned with maintaining balance than with the job to be done. Mental effort will thus the
limited and the work will suffer. The more forward the movement and the heavier the resistance,
the greater the detraction from the work. In an endeavour to preserve the balance, the muscles
in front of the legs and those of the buttocks will tense and work statically to hold the position.

Muscles, remember, are able to move and hold, but they cannot perform both jobs
simultaneously. In this case, the muscles being used to balance cannot be used in the action.
Physical effort will then be limited and the work will suffer even more.

A state of tension and insecurity is invoked and the work becomes very fatiguing and
dangerous. This condition also makes one accident prone, at this stage, anything can happen
because the body is completely out of control.

If any movement is to follow the initial action, it is difficult in this position as it is limited to knee
and ankle joints. These are hinge joints, permitting movement in only forward and backward
directions and within a very limited range. With the feet together, the leg position means great
stress may be placed on these joints and, if lateral movement is enforced, upon the spinal discs.

All these factors are also brought about if the feet are too wide apart. Most people adopt a wide-
footed stance if called upon to push some object. The position usually favoured is a splay-footed
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posture, legs straight, leaning forward from the waist. In this attitude it is impossible to push, one
merely leans on the object with relatively little material result. The matter of balance becomes
even more important, because if the object happens to move faster than anticipated, accident or
injury is probable. In both these positions then, you have a tendency to rupture and back injury,
disadvantageous leverage means that effort expended far outweights what is really necessary
to accomplish the task, you multiply the actual resistance, when lifting, by adding the body
weight to the load, you are off-balance and movement is restricted.

The only position which guarantees avoidance of these detrimental factors is to have the feet
hip breadth apart. This permits the body to be lowered, raised, and maintained, in a vertical
position. Any tendency towards rupture is eliminated and, providing there is no deviation from
this position, it would be impossible to injure the spine, no matter how great the effort or how
heavy the resistance to be overcome. There is little displacement forward except in certain
circumstances. So only the resistance offered by the object need be dealt with. Now further
action is possible in a greater range because the hips, being ball and socket joints, permit all
round movement. Because the position is balanced the base being sufficiently wide, mind and
muscles have no distractions and full concentration can be given to the job.

5. One foot Forward

Even if the feet are placed in the position advised, it is possible that some individuals, because
of certain physical characteristics, will be unable to lower and raise vertically. People who have
long legs, for instance, will find that the lower down they go, the more the knees bend that is,
the more forward displacement occurs. If one foot is placed forward this tendency is curtailed.
Because it gives a better balance and facilitates in any additional movement, this position is
recommended for everyone wherever possible. Actually one loses a little leg-power by adopting
this position, but for our purpose, where lifting is confined to limits imposed by the fact such
efforts are not expected to be maximal, it is better to sacrifice a little power for better balance
and less stress.

The commencing position then, when upright, is similar to the one adopted by a boxer. Feet
balanced at hip breadth apart, one foot forward, knees slightly flexed, so, as in boxing,
permitting free movement in any direction, and allowing the body to be lowered vertically if lifting
has to be done. This is also the ideal stance for pushing. Movement is free, the legs may be
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bent to the extent determined by the size f the object to be pushed (and used fully) and the
body is balanced so that recovery or further movement is assisted.

6a. Front foot to side of Object and

6b. Point in direction of Movement

Obliviously, to put one foot forward to raise an object from the floor, it will be necessary to put
this foot to the side of the object if disadvantageous leverage is not to be enforced.

A long object for instance could, if the stated position were adopted, impose upon the worker a
lateral displacement with, perhaps, greater detrimental effects. It the one foot forward were
insisted upon, and a balanced position adopted to eliminate the bending to the side, it would
actually imply putting one foot back so it will be seen that the adoption of this principle is
determined by the object to be lifted, hence may use of the term wherever possible.
Of course, to apply to principles correctly, if the object did not permit this rule to be applied
because of its length, it would be necessary to use two men, one at each end, even if the
resistance offered were negligible. This position allows all the other principles to be put into
force. If movement following the lift as required, full power can be made by the legs, with the
rear leg exerting a forward thrust. This is in full keeping with ballistic movement. In facilitate this
ensuring movement, the Front foot should point in the direction of movement. This eliminates
broken action, saves a hot of unnecessary holding and carrying and, more important still,
discourages any need for twisting or turning of the spine. Naturally, movement in a sideways
direction means that the foot of that side is placed forward and pointed in that direction. In this
position, as the object leaves the floor, by following the natural movement of the body it will
move in the right direction, so that a smooth, single action ensues, and the whole is done
without any twisting, violent action or static work.

Remember a true ballistic movement is where the movement is initiated by muscular
contraction, but then the muscles relax and permit momentum to complete the movement. This,
then, is a good example of this type of movement, the body being positioned to allow correct
action, the object moving in the right direction and the body weight assisting its momentum.
There is, of course, a limit in manual handling as to how far this type of movement can be
pursued, but there are no circumstances in which it cannot be employed to some degree.
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7. Bend the Knees

It will be realized that to raise weights from the floor, this is a necessity. Its inclusion here is to
emphasise that it is important to bend the knees to some extent when any action is to take
place.

The references to the boxer keeping his knees slightly flexed, and to pushing an object,
illustrate how the legs may be used properly to exert effort and how bent knees facilitate
movement. It the knees are braced one can never be prepared, it is so easy to be taken, or
caught, off-balance, and jerky action will invariably result. There is always present the possibility
of injury to the knee joint as will be seen later.

The nature of the action and the object to be handled determines the extent to which the knees
must be bent, but the position should be such as permits proper balance and maximum use of
leg muscles. The body can by maintained in a vertical position; the body weight is not displaced
forward and added to the weight of the object. There is no resultant tension, balance is
preserved and full concentration can be given to the job. Possibility of hernia and spinal injury is
eliminated, the object may be kept close and leverage be most advantageous.

Flat back does not necessarily mean vertical back.

If a forward position must be adopted or if the action demands this position, the back must still
be kept flat and not allowed to flex as shown by the dotted line.

The more forward the position the more important the flat back principle is necessary to prevent
stress on muscles, ligaments and discs.

8. Keep the Back Flat

There is little more the add here to what has already been written, except to emphasise that this
is the most important point to remember and put into practice. Flat does not necessarily mean
vertical. Even if conditions enforce a displacement of the body forward, the back must still be
kept flat. The more upright the position the less stress on ligaments and muscles, the less
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tendency to round the back, the less risk of departing from the correct position, but, if a forward
position has to be adopted, keeping the back flat will decrease the possibility of injury.

The need for the adoption of correct methods is even more necessary as one ages. The
carlilageous tissue (of which the discs are composed) has a poor blood supply. As age
increases the water content diminishes, the discs become less flexible, and waste matter
accumulates. In early life the blood vessels begin to contract and there is a gradual lessening of
nutrition. All these circumstances mean that correct methods of handling with a flat back should
begging as early as possible, but if bad practices have been engaged in over long periods, the
need for great care is even more essential as one ages.

9. Arms close to the Body

All the other principles having been observed, the arms will be
close to the body with raising an object from the floor. The
impotance of this rule must be stressed, however, in any form of
holding and carrying, Normally, carrying is done by holding the
front of an object and keeping it held against the stomach or
lower chest. This implies having the elbow joints at right angles,
forearms parallel to the ground as in Figure. This is a faulty
position, both from an injury point of view and from an effort
point of view also. The whole weight is being supported on the
relatively small muscles of the arms and shoulders. The muscles
are working statically, and even light loads cause them to tire
very quickly. In the position given, they are being called upon to
excel effort completely out of proportion to the actual work done.

With the forearm at this angle, a third order lever is being used; the below joint is the fulcrum,
the biceps muscle provides the effort, the weight is being held in a dis-advantageous position at
a ratio of at least W.F. 12 to E.F,1. to hold a 15kg weight in this manner could mean that the
arms are being asked to make a 180kg effort, which is ridiculous. Keeping the arms straight
exempts the muscles from having to do any work at all. The object is then being supported by
the framework of the body and this is capable of handling heavy resistances without any stress
whatsoever. It is possible to support hundreds of pounds at arms length overhead, or any
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similar position, providing all the joints are locked. As soon as a joint is bent, all the weight is
then thrown upon the muscles that operate that joint. The closer the centre of gravity of the
object to a line running down the centre of the body, the less effort needed to carry and hold.
Keeping the arms straight means this can best be accomplished, and also throws the work on to
the skeleton instead of the muscles.

Carrying in this bent arm position involves the use of a third order leaver with a
disadvantageous effort arm.

The ratio could conceivably be W.f. 12 to E.F.1 which means the relatively weak biceps muscles
would have to exert a force of 180kg to hold a 15kg weight.

The muscles are working statically and will tire very quickly. The effort is out of proportion for the
work required.

10. Chain In

This does not imply the adoption of an exaggerated Sergeant Marjor position. It merely means
taking the head back slightly and lengthening the neck. In this position the head is properly
balanced and there is no strain on the shoulder and back muscles. The is no strain on the
shoulder and back muscles. The chest is raised, and the back automatically straightens,
eliminating muscular contraction. It prevents the possibility of injury in the cervical region by
locking the neck in a proper position. Another advantage here is an improvement in body
position and contribution to a ballistic effort.

Most people look down at an object they are being called upon to lift. This means that the head
is forward, so again there is forward displacement. As the lift is made, this displacement
increases, and eventually there is again the position where the body if off-balance forward, with
the resultant tension and diverted concentration from the real effort. The position of the head at
the beginning of any effort determines where the movement is going to end. This fact is well
realized in sorts-like gymnastics, where position is vital and great pains are taken to ensure
head and body are in proper commencing attitudes.

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A further important factor is in relation to breathing. Any form of effort brings on a need for
oxygen. This is because energy is being used and new supplies of energy food require a
process of Oxygenisation. Normal breathing is accomplished by certain muscles, the diaphragm
and abdominals being mainly responsible. Deep breathing demands a greater space for the
lungs to expand in Auxiliary muscles are brought into play, those of the shoulders, chest and
back being used to raise and expand the rib-box to provide the extra room. Again these muscles
may either hold or move, they cannot do both jobs at one time. With the head out of line, they
must be used to stabilize it in that position, so cannot be used to move the rib-box. With the
head in a proper balanced position they are free to perform the required action. Having the head
in a faulty position can have really adverse consequences it the effort is severe or of long
duration.

11. Proper Grip

Obviously an improper grip may lead to the object being dropped, with resultant possibility of
injury, or at least wasted efforts. What is not so obvious, is that a finger tip grip leads to
uneconomical, injury provoking work. When holding an object in this fashion it is impossible to
keep the arms straight. If carrying in front of the body, the use of this grip would mean a
definite bending of the arms, throwing all the weight on to the arm muscles.

Due to the tension invoked, the body would retract position, holding a 15kg object, could result
in the arm muscles being forced to lay out well in excess of 300kg of effort. A full palm grip
makes it almost impossible to bend the arms, so this type of hold ensures that previous rules
may be applied without deliberation.

The application of the grip is also of great importance. Lifting a sack for example. It may seem
natural to hold so that a direct upward pull is possible, but this may inspire bending towards
the bag. The hold should be taken from below, so that the tendency is towards straight arm
action and thus to full use of the legs.

12. Use the Legs

It may seem incongruous to include a special section for this when it is dealt with so much in
preceding pages. The emphasis here is on the word use Most people do not use the legs at all,
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and even when they attempt to do so they adopt wrong body positions and employ wrong
actions which prevent the legs being used correctly and fully.

Effort is always associated with violent movement. In picking up a heavy object from the floor it
is common practice to make a violent heave by bending the arms and raising the buttocks. Both
these actions are detrimental. Bending the arms means that these are now bearing the bulk of
the weight. Raising the buttocks means that the legs are straightening without moving the
object at all.

In actual fact, if one adopts the recommended starting position, legs bent, back flat, then lifts in
the above fashion, one automatically comes into the wrong position, before the lift actually
commences. The injury provoking, hyper flexed position is arrived at, and the back muscles
must now do the work. All the disadvantageous facets are now present, both injurious and
mechanical. Muscles should be employed in fluid, rhythmical fashion, controlled power is
required, not vicious, jerky movements. As the legs straighten the weight must move; if this
does not happen, the action is faulty. The knee is easily subject to injury, and faulty position of
the legs can be then main contributory factor. The joint is weak, it is only a hollow capsule and
depends upon the strong muscles, tendons, and ligaments of the leg for its support. When using
the legs, for any purpose, t is imperative that the thigh and shin bones are in line. The permits
the joint to function correctly, allows the muscle to support fully, eliminates stress, and is
conducive the proper action.

Any deviation from this position would incur stress at the joint, even if no resistance was to be
overcome, because the body weight itself requires support. Experiments with the angle the feet
are placed in can given the correct position.

13. Use the Body Weight

Too much emphasis is placed on muscle power when physical work has to be undertaken. Use
of muscle is very uneconomical, fatiguing work, even if the muscles are used in correct fashion.
Used incorrectly, it is both a tiring and dangerous practice. The application of ballistic
movement, plus advantageous leverage, plus full use of the body weight, will curtail and need
for much of the wasteful use of muscle-power present methods incur.

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Some men delight in strength and proudly exhibit it. Because he is strong, a man invariably
ignores techniques and so never reaches his potential. A strong man never makes a good
weight-lifter because he relies on strength and does not trouble to learn techniques. The same
applies to work; the strong man is the one who really labours and does not get value for effort
expended. Another man may be reticent because he feels physically inferior. He is afraid to
tackle any sort of manual work, Adoption of correct techniques can bring them nearer together
and both can benefit.

By using body weight in advantageous circumstances the inferior type can perform safely,
tasks that he may not consider beyond him. The Strong man can save himself a lot of
unnecessary muscle work and where the use of muscles is necessary, employ them to much
better advantage. Kinesiology is the science of human motion. It incorporates all the facets that
go into simple and complex body movements. Not the least aspect to be considered is the full
use of body weight to supplement efforts.

NATURE AND CASUES OF INJURIES

Rupture

A rupture is the protrusion of one of the internal organs through a gap in the walls of the cavity
in which it is contained. It is caused by compression of the abdominal contents towards any
weak or weakened area.

The abdominal muscles perform various tasks. They are
responsible for movement, they are used in breathing, and some act
as protection and support for the internal organs. It these supporting
muscles lose tone the possibilities of hernia is naturally enhanced,
but even if the muscles are fully capable of sufficient protection, the
possibility of injury is still present. There are five danger sports in
the abdomen where protection and support is limited; our main
concern is with two of these areas. In the region of the groin there
are two canals through which pass the tendons and ligaments which
attach the muscles to the bones of the pelvis. These areas are
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covered only by loose tissue; there is little or no muscular support. (See Figure).

The most common point at which a hernia occurs in males is at the lower part of the abdominal
wall, immediately above the inner part of the inguinal ligament. This is a natural weak region
with no muscular support or protection.

Any compressional forcing of the abdominal contents towards these weakly reinforced areas
may result in rupture. The force done not have to be extreme; coughing, sneezing, or any light
effort may be sufficient to incur an injury, if the body position is faulty, especially if the act is
repeatedly performed, resulting in cumulative strain. When making an effort, lifting, pushing,
pulling etc. with the feet together, legs straight, one is forced to bend forward from the waist.
This reduces the space occupied by the abdominal contents and is certain to involve
compression of these parts, even if no other action takes place. Any additional stress, of
course, enhances the possibilities of an injury. With the feet together, even if one bends the
knees to use the leg muscles in proper fashion, there is still some displacement of the body in a
forward direction.

The rule to minimize the changes of developing a hernia is to place the feet about hip-breadth
apart, so that the body can be lowered vertically and forward displacement is eliminated.
Compression of the abdominal contents is kept to a minimum, possible there may be no
compression whatsoever.

Muscular Injuries

Apart from tearing and rupturing of muscles, injuries like firbrositis and lumbag cause great
distress and mean periods of absence from work. This direct result of wrong use of muscles is,
of course, of supreme importance, but another factor that has a bearing on the subject also
emerges. A muscle will work only as it is trained to work. Faulty use of muscle will tend to rob
the muscle of its natural elasticity, leaving it subject to tears, strains and other injuries, but is will
also leave the person accident prone.

Body action will be more limited, co-ordination suffers, the muscle does not respond will to
messages from the brain and movement is not as free or flexible as one would desire. The
responsibility for all these things can be accredited to static contraction of muscle. The
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elimination of any form of static use of muscle in holding and carrying will reduce the tendency
towards injuries of this nature and mean freedom from many of the universal aches and pains

Back Injuries

These injuries may be of varied kinds. Injuries to the ligaments, injuries to the muscles and
most serious of all, injuries to the intervertebral discs. In an endeavour to evade back injures
people avoid heavy lifting movements, yet because of ignorance as to actual cause and effects,
they perform dozens of ordinary actions daily, which eventually may lead to such injuries.

Again, the cumulative effect of wrong posture and wrong action leads to these injuries and
makes for more arduous, fatiguing work. Using the spine as a lever in a hyper flexed position
leads to disc injuries. Movement beyond the natural limited range may mean overstretched
ligaments. The back muscles may also suffer in the respect, or may be affected by holding static
positions.

It is just as important to maintain a flat back when picking up a pencil and when carrying any
object, as when raising a heavy weight up from the floor. The cumulative effect of merely
bending into a hyper-flexed position respectively each day may eventually have the same
disastrous effect as attempting to raise a really heavy weight from the floor using a similar
method.

MUSCULAR ACTION

What exactly happens when we have to perform an action like lifting or moving an object? First
the eyes see and appraise the object, transmitting and image to the brain of its approximate
weight, size, structure, etc. The brain then sends a message to the muscles, involving the
necessary action, the amount of effort required the speed of the movement and all other
necessary details.

It is obvious therefore that the more information the brain has above the task to be done the
better the resultant action will be. The message from the brain is transferred to the muscles
by nerves (called motor nerves) which transmit impulses to the muscle fibers, causing them to
contract and so produce movement. Each muscle is composed of thousands of fibers enclosed
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in bundles or sheathes. These form the belly of the muscle. The amount of effort produced is
determined by the number of fibers activated not by the whole muscle working strongly or
weakly. Each fiber works on an all or nothing principle working to maximum or not at all.
According to the picture the brain receives, the presumed amount of effort is impulse. If the
effort inspired in insufficient, or is too strong, it can be appreciated that an accident could
possibly occur. Even if this does not result, effort has been wasted, either because the work was
not accomplished, or because over-expenditure of effort was made.

From this point of view if can be seen that the first principle necessary if efficient work is to be
performed is to sum up the job. The muscle works best when it is at its longest, i.e. from its
normal position at resting length. As it contracts or shortens, the effort it gives out gradually
lessens until fully contracted, when effort ceases. This implies that sufficient initial effort is
necessary if one is to obtain full value from the muscles. It the effort made is too small, the work
fails, in which case effort is wasted, or, upon realizing that the task is within his capabilities, the
performer makes additional efforts, gradually bringing more fibers into play, until eventually the
muscular effort is sufficient to do the job. This kind of work is uneconomical because the fibers
are not being employed to best advantage, some being introduced when in a weakened
position.

The muscle is being used in a series of disjointed contractions, each of lessening intensity,
instead of power being expended at a point when maximum results can be obtained from
whatever output is exerted. This again means that advantages are gained from a proper
appreciation of the tasks involved and also implies that sufficient effort is introduced at the
commencement of the work to deter additional efforts being necessary. Muscles used to move
the skeleton are called voluntary muscles because they are under voluntary control of the will.
Each end of the muscles is affected to bony structures, either by the fibers themselves or by a
strong tissue called a tendon. These tendons make possible the concentration of powerful
muscular force on small areas and enable muscles to act from a distance. The latter fact is
important as it enables muscles to be kept near the source of blood supply and also to be away
from parts of the body they would hinder on action, if situated directly at those points.

The muscle is attached to a bone that a moves by a tendon and this is called the insertion. At
the opposite end it is attached to a bone or other structure either by a tendor or direct by the
fibres. This is known as the origin. Often it has more than one attachment here. The biceps
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has two, hence the name bi meaning two. Although the biceps is a relatively unimportant
muscle, it is generally used in illustrations of anatomical actions because it is well know. It
originates at the scapula (this being the fixed point) and is inserted into the radius of the
forearm. A muscle is like elastic, it will stretch to one and a half times its normal length and
return to this normal resting length. Unlike elastic it will also shorten to half its resting length by
drawing both ends towards the centre. This act is known as contractility and this is what
happens to produce skeletal movement. In the action of the biceps, the fibers contract and draw
the radius towards the shoulder, thus bending the arm.

Muscles can only pull they cannot push, so the straightening of
the arm is done the another muscle, the triceps, which lies at the
back of the arm. This is inserted into the elbow joint and
originates at three points in the upper arm and shoulder girdle.
Though these muscles have opposite actions, they actually assist
each other in their movements. In bending the arm, the biceps
shortens, and this is known as concentric action, shortening
against a resistance. If this were all that happened it can be
realized that the arm would snap shut like a spring-highed lid, so
some control is required. This control is provided by the triceps,
which acts as a brake. In the return action, straightening the arm
the triceps work concentrically, the biceps acts as a brake. The
return form the flexed position is known as eccentric action, lengthening against a resistance.

Muscles of the arm and shoulder

A) Deltoid Shoulder muscle.

B) Biceps. Responsible for flexion (bending)

C) Triceps. Responsible for extension (straightening)

In the position shown, all muscle would be employed in static contraction to hold this fixed
position.

PMI, NTPC 84
The muscle performing the action (flexion-biceps, extension-triceps) is known as the prime
mover or agonist. The opposing muscle is called the antagonist. Working the muscles in the
fashion, shortening and lengthening through the normal range, makes them healthy. The natural
elasticity is maintained, in fact it can be increased by proper use; a trained athletes muscles
should be healthier than an untrained mans.

It is very difficult to injure a health muscle under normal circumstances and muscles used
correctly are not as prone to develop complaints like fibro sits, etc. A further important point is
that the type of muscular action does not leads to immediate fatigue. This is due to the nutrition
demand and supply.

Energy for the muscle is supplied by glycogen which is manufactured in the body and stored in
the liver and muscles. As the muscle is worked, the glycogen is used up and is converted into a
substance called lactic acid.

Any accumulation of the latter in the muscle causes early fatigue. Movement increases
circulation; the blood, flowing through the muscles, clears away the lactice acid, this preventing
large accumulations. The conversion of energy foods and the reconversion of lactic acid back
into glycogen requires the presence of oxygen. This is carried through the body by the blood
stream, so the result of muscular action is that though the energy food (glycogen) is being used
up there is a supply available and though loctic acid is formed in the muscle, it is being
removed. Both these circumstances permit effort of be sustained eventually, of course,
dependent of a amount of energy expended, the demand will supercede the supply and the
muscle will tire.

It can be seen that muscular movement does not lead to injuries or early fatigue and that the
body will be even better for proper use of muscles. When bending or straightening the arm, as
discussed previously, if the movement is arrested at any point, the muscle is then being used to
hold a fixed position. This is known as static contraction. This form of work is very tiring and
leads to early fatigue. The causes of this rapid thiring of the muscles when being used to hold
fixed position are.

1. Shortage of energy food

PMI, NTPC 85
2. Accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle.

When muscles are being used statically the blood vessels are compressed and the flow of blood
to the muscles is limited perhaps stopped completely. Working in this fashion, even though not
being called upon to move, the muscles are still using up glycogen and it is being converted
into lactic acid. Because the blood supply cannot get to the muscles the lactic acid is left to
accumulate and there is no possibility of replenishing the glycogen supply. The result of this is a
rapid condition of fatigue and the muscles begin to ache. If this type of work is persisted in over
long periods it will certainly leave the muscles in a condition where they are not only subject to
complaints like fibrositis, but are prone to tears, ruptures, or other injuries.

The muscles will function and develop in the way they are trained. Training is not confined to
athletic endeavor. Whenever the body is being used, it is
being trained to do a certain thing. If you train a muscle to
perform a lot of repetitive actions against little resistance it
develops the property of being able to do repetitive actions,
but it will not be able to function against heavy resistance. If
you train it do single attempts against a heavy resistance it
can function in this fashion, but it will be unable to perform
repetitive work properly because it lacks stamina capacity.
Similarly, in the present context, if you train a muscle to act in
a fixed position it will gradually lose the power of movement
and the natural elasticity will be destroyed. This leaves the
muscle prone to injury when it is called upon to do movement.

BACK INJURIES
The strong man may feel that his muscular power are
sufficient for him to indulge in reasonably heavy activities. The
man who has an inferiority complex about his muscular
capabilities avoids effort, even when this is demanded.

It is not effort that produces injuries, insufficient effort may
have a more detrimental effect. Neither is it strength that
PMI, NTPC 86
prevents injuries, over-confidence may have an injurious result, if the method of application
is wrong. This is the main reason for so many injuries to the back wrong methods of lifting,
holding, carrying; not necessarily against heavy resistance but in everyday activities, at work, at
play and in the home.

The vertebral column consists of 33 bones, 9 of which in the sacral and coccygeal regions are
fused together.

The remaining 24 bones are separated by pads of fibrous tissue known as intervertebral discs.

These discs perform many functions; they maintain the shape of the column, assist in
movement and act as cushions between the vertebrae.
They, along with the bones, very in size, the smallest in the cervical region, the largest in the
lumbar.

When called upon to make any effort in excess of what is normally encountered, the thinking
man will give some consideration to it. But, because of a lack of knowledge as to proper use of
the body, he performs perhaps dozens of injurious action each day, without any throught as to
the consequences, because they require negligible effort.

Very few people use the legs. In everyday movements like picking up fallen objects, pencils, etc.
feeding the dog, and the hundreds of other actions which involve reaching down to the floor,
everyone, almost without exception, will keep the legs straight and bend from the waist. The
cumulation effects of these actions, over verying periods of time will have the same effect on
the spine as single, heavy movements of a similar nature.

To explain how this occurs it is necessary to look at the construction of the spine, its purpose,
and the mechanics involved when movement takes place. The vertebral column consists of 33
bones, or vertebrae of which there are 7 in the cervical (neck), 12 in the dorsal, 5 in the
lumber, 5 in the sacral and 4 in the coccygeal regions. The 5 in the sacral and 4 in the
coccygeal are fused together, the latter being the remnants of the tail, a constant reminder of
our humble beginnings. The remaining 24 permit movements. This column is the structure
through which the weight of the upper body is transmitted to the lower limbs. It has two curves,
both convex forward, in the cervical and lumber regions. Between the 24 vertebrae there are
PMI, NTPC 87
thick pads of fibrous, elastic tissue, known is intervertebral discs. These discs have a hard
outer cover and a soft gelatins core. Their main purpose is to act as shock absorbers to
cushion the effect of compressional stress. The also assist in maintaining the shape of the
column and assist in movement. The vertebrae and discs are united into a versatile, functioning
unit by tough ligaments and muscles.

Mans evolution to the upright position has, of course, may
advantages, but, from a physical point of view, some disadvantages
also. An animal on all fours is supported as the dorsal and lumber
regions by two pillars, like the span of a bridge. The supporting
muscles and ligaments are attached to long lever arms. Any strain on
the discs is slight and uniform being distributed through the whole
column. Mans evolution has meant that the capacity for lifting loads
with the body inclined is now reduced, because the power-lever arms
have become very short. The column is now meant to hold the body
erect and support the head and trunk. It has naturally adopted to an
erect posture. When bending forward (flexion), movement is freest in
the lumber region. Although the bones and discs are biggest and
strongest in this region, it is naturally the part which suffers the
greatest stress and where most back injuries are found.

This illustration shown the sacral and coccygeal regions (the bones
here are fused together), and the five lumber vertebrae and the five
lumber vertebrae and intervertebral discs. These are the biggest and strongest in the whole
column, but because movement is most free in the region it is naturally the point of greatest
stress and where most injuries occur.

With the back flat, stress, stress as shown by the arrows is evenly distributed throughout the
whole length of the column and there is no undue stress at any single point.

Look at the illustration showing the vertebrae and discs with the back flat. If can be seen that
any compressional force is distributed evenly through out the whole column. There is no point
receiving any undue stress. In this position, the column is capable of withstanding great
compression, and even attempts to lift objects beyone the physical powers would not have any
PMI, NTPC 88
injurious effects, providing this position were maintained. The second illustration shows the
effect bending the back has on the discs. Most of the stress incurred falls on the 4
th
and 5
th

lumbar vertebrae. On one side the discs in this region are pinched between and one the other
side they are under tension, the more forward the position the greater the stresses created. Due
to the compression on one side, the soft centre is forced to the opposite side, which is being
pulled apart. On this side, the discs tend to become weakened due to the constant cumulative
stress and at some stage is possible that the soft centre may force a bulge in the disc at this
point and there may be contact between the hard outer cover and sensitive never and
ligaments, resulting in extreme pain. On the side being subjected to compression, this causes
the discs to become scarred, worn and weakened; cracks begin to appear into which the soft
nucleus can eventually ooze. Under severe stress, or following long periods of cumulative
stress, the disc may even burst, the soft centre then being forced out of the resultant tear. This
is known as a prolapsed disc lesion and may mean a prolonged incapacity necessitating
treatment that is long and painful.

With the back bent, as shown here, the discs are under tension on
one side and being compressed on the other.

The discs become weakened under tension and constant pinching
between the vertebrae causes scarring and wear and tear of the
tissues.

Naturally, such movements performed using a heavy resistance will have a greater tendency
toward the promotion of a prolapsed disc but it can easily be seen that moving in this fashion,
without having to overcome any additional resistance, will cumulatively bring about similar
results. The upper body will present a resistance of a hundred pounds or so and constantly
bending the spine doing the ordinary simple tasks already mentioned, imposes severe stress on
the intertabral discs.

Hyper flexion may also result in over-stretching the ligaments, which have a limited angel, and
the back muscles themselves could be subject in injury. The primary function of the spinal
muscles is to stabilize the spine. In straight-back fitting these muscles support the spine from all
quarters, leaving it subject only to compressional stress and not imposing too severe a task for
the muscles either. In bent-back lifting, with the spine bent in an arc, the muscles are subject to
PMI, NTPC 89
tensile stress and are being called upon to perform two
conflicting tasks stabilisation and movement.

In can be realized then, that keeping the back flat at all
times, and especially when any effort has to be made, is the
preventative for back injuries.

SOME ASPECTS OF WORK

Levers

When producing movements, the body uses levers to the
best possible advantage. A lever is a rigid bar moving around
a fixed point, or fulcrum, to overcome a resistance and move
it over a distance.

The body will always have the best lever available for the job.
If the lever is disadvantageous, it is the fault of body
positioning. Let us take the example of picking up on object
from the floor into a position at arms length in front of the
thighs. With the object away from the body as disregarding
any injurious factors, the lever used (F.E.W.) would be the
best possible under the circumstances.

In this particular case we do not necessarily have to move
weight over a distance of this extent. We can bring the weight
closer, or move closer to it, and we can also change the lever
order by bending the legs. Using the leg muscles instead of
the back, we now employ a first order lever, E.F.W. with a
distinct effort arm advantage. The object final position is the
same, it has merely been moved over a shorter distance.
Body positioning has made possible a more advantageous
lever to be employed. Further advantages are the use of the
PMI, NTPC 90
stronger leg muscles and, of course, the employment of the flat back.

Remember also, the lever should be a rigid rod. In bending the back, one uses the spine as a
lever. The spine is a Flexible bar and it is rather like using a coiled spring for similar type work.
It can be seen then, that the adoption of the suggested method, keeping the back flat, using the
legs, is not only safer from the point of view of rupture, slipped discs and other injures, but also
gives a tremendous mechanical advantage, thus making work easier and less tiring.
PMI, NTPC 91
5. Measuring Instruments


THE DIAL TEST INDICATOR

If one uses the scribing block for tests of parallelism. (1) The
accuracy depends upon the sensitiveness of our feel with
the bent end of the scriber on the work. (2) If the heights
differ at each of the faces being tested, our test does not
give an accurate measure of the difference. These
objections are overcome by the user of a dial gauge which
is better known as a Dial Test Indicator. The instrument is
shown in the figure and the plunger slides in and out of the
body, and the motion is recorded by the pointer on the dial.
Usually the dial scale is marked from zero on each half of
the circle, and the dial can be rotated relative to the pointer,
so that a zero setting can be made for any position of the
plunger. The total plunger movement can be as much as
50mm according to the division of the dial. The dial gauge has a lug at the back of the body, so
that it can be mounted on a stand or other fixture.

A very important feature of this indicator is that the contact
pressure of the plunger is maintained by a light spring,
and is quite independent of the feel of the operator. The
sliding plunger of the dial gauge is supported by two
bearings which are integral with the gauge body; two
splines on the plunger prevent its rotation. The helical
tension spring to the left is the contact spring which
provides the pressure on the work. The plunger has a
rack which engages with a small pinion. On the pinion shaft, a large gear-wheel is mounted.
This meshes with a small pinion mounted on the pointer spindle, thus providing a magnifying
movement. The hair spring keeps the gears in contact in one direction at all times, thus
eliminating errors due to backlash.
PMI, NTPC 92
USES OF THE DIAL INDICATOR

It has already been mentioned that the dial indicator can be used as a comparator for checking
rollers for oversize or undersize measurements. The dial indicator can also be used on the lathe
for setting shafts running true in chucks and steadies. Another use of the dial indicator is
checking a surface for flatness. In this case the indicator must be mounted on a stand with a flat
base, and the stand placed on a good surface plate. The surface under examination can then
be explored with the tip of the indicator plunger. The accuracy of the check depends on that of
the surface plate used, and in fact the dial-gauge is used to compare the relative flatness of the
two surfaces.

CARE OF DIAL GAUGES

These instruments are about the same size as a large pocket watch, and should be treated in a
similar manner. They must be kept away from dust and damp and put away in a clean box or a
chamois leather bag. Occasional cleaning is required, but they should not be oiled, otherwise
dust and fluff may clog the internal gears.

MICROMETER AND VERNIER MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

PMI, NTPC 93
MICROMETER

This instrument is capable of taking measurements to an accuracy of .025 mm (or even less).
There are three types of micrometer (i.e. Internal, External and Depth Gauge). The principles of
each being the same though the form varies to suit the purpose for which the instruments are
intended.

MAIN COMPONENTS

1. Frame
This is made of steel and is usually U-shaped. The anvil being mounted on one arm and
the spindle passing through the other.

2. Anvil
The anvil is the fixed point against which the article to be measured rests and the
readings of the scale shows the distance between the forward end of the spindle and
that the anvil.

3. Thimble
This is attached to the spindle and its beveled edge is divided into fifty parts each
division representing 1/100 part of mm.

4. Spindle
This spindle is attached to the inside of the thimble, being suitably threaded at one end
to fit an internally screwed sleeve fixed to the frame. The pitch of the screw thread on the
spindle is 0.5mm and one complete turn of the spindle moves it through a distance equal
to a longitudinal measurement 0.5 mm.

5. Barrel of Sleeve
The stationary barrel, through which the spindle passes, is marked with 100 lines to a
mm which corresponds to the number of threads/mm of the spindle. When the
micrometer is closed, and the end of the spindle is in contact with the anvil, the beveled
PMI, NTPC 94
edge of the thimble coincides with the zero line (0) on the barrel, and the zero line on the
thimble agrees with the horizontal line on the barrel.

METRIC
Sleeve + Thimble
14.5 0.30

14.80 mm

Pitch of thimble screw = 1/2 mm
One complete turn of thimble jaws open = 1/2 mm
PMI, NTPC 95
PMI, NTPC 96
Sleeve is graduated in 1mm & 1/2 mm spaces
Rim of thimble is graduated into 50 part;
Which gives a reading of 1/2 50


INSIDE MICROMETERS

The measurement of bores may be done with the inside micrometer shown opposite. This has a
micrometer head, and is extended at the opposite end by a bar. Adjustable inside micrometers
are often used.

These consist of a micrometer head similar to the
barrel and thimble of the ordinary micrometer,
and a set of lengthening bars to increase the
range. The movement obtained on the head is
12mm and the bars are inserted up to the size
required.

The manipulation of this instrument is similar to that for inside calipers. With the outside
micrometer the anvil faces are flat and parallel. With the inside micrometer it is necessary to
have radiuses end faces; the radius used must be less than that of the smallest hole to be
measured. The inside micrometer is, of course, much Stiffer than the outside micrometer, and
is thus much more sensitive as regards feel.

CARE OF MICROMETERS

Micrometers, particularly the larger sizes, are expensive, and should be treated with care. The
accuracy of a micrometer is often taken for grated, and in the workshop this attitude should be
encouraged, otherwise a great deal of time may be wasted; but the maintenance of confidence
requires systematic checking and correcting of the micrometers. Micrometers should be
numbered and log-book maintained. Weekly checking should be a routine matter for some
appointed person, but workers should be encouraged to return a micrometer at any Lime if they
PMI, NTPC 97
doubt its accuracy. If damage has occurred, the micrometer should either be repaired or
returned to the makers immediately.

Wear of the measuring faces and the screw-thread are the normal signs of old age in a
micrometer, but by far the greatest number of micrometers are damaged by minor accidents in
the workshop. Small micrometers can be checked quickly with slip gauges. This method gives a
check in various thimble positions, and the type of error can be determined.

VERNIER CALIPERS

With a micrometer we take an end measurement
between two jaws, the opening of which is controlled by a
very accurate screw. The vernier also gives an end
measurement, but the position of the jaws is controlled by
a line scale, accurate transference being made possible
by a vernier scale.

The Vernier is named after the French mathematician, Pierre Vernier. It consists of an auxilliary
scale sliding along the main scale of a measuring instrument, thus enabling sub-divisions of the
parts of that scale into divisions too fine to be read by the eye if graduated on the main scale
itself.

Adjustment

To gauge an article between the jaws of the caliper, the sliding jaw is moved by hand until both
jaws are in light contact with the diameter of faces to be measured. The rear locking screw is
then screwed down to prevent any movement of that part of the carriage, while leaving the front
part containing the vernier scale free to move when actuated by the fine adjustment screw. After
this screw has been manipulated until the jaws are correctly gauging the size of the article, the
forward locking screw is tightened. The Vernier caliper may also be used to take internal
measurements. The extremities of the jaws (nibs) are rounded on the outer surface for this
purpose.


PMI, NTPC 98
Height and Depth Gauges

The figure shows the vernier height and depth gauge to which the same scale has been applied.

METRIC VERNIER

Rule Scale is divided into centimeters.
i.e. 1 cent/m = 10 mm 4 cent/m = 40 mm

Further it is sub-divided into millimeters. (Rule scale can also be further sub-divided into 1/2
millimeters.)

Rule scale

PMI, NTPC 99
Vernier scale

The vernier scale is formed by taking the same length as 12mm on the rule and dividing into 25
equal divisions. The length of the bottom division is:
12 = 0.48 mm
------
25

Since the top divisions are 1/2 (.05mm) the difference is:
0.5 0.48 = 0.02 mm which represents the accuracy to which the readings may be taken.

Another form of metric vernier is obtained by taking 49mm on the rule scale and dividing it into
50 divisions.

1st Stage
Read off whole cent/metres : 40.00 mm
4 x 10 mm

2nd Stage
Read off whole mm : 7.00 mm
7 x 1 mm

3rd Stage
Read off value of line on vernier scale, Which coincides with line on main scale,
Is the number of 1
---- mm
50 33 x 1 (0.02 mm) : 0.66 mm
----- -------------
50 Total 47.66 mm
----------------
PMI, NTPC 100
FEELER GAUGES

These form a useful accessory not only
on bench, but also in connection with
many other jobns. They consist of a series
of blades or leaves having thickness
ranging from about 0.05 mm-1.0 mm.

Feelers may be used to gauge small
distances e.g. in flatness testing and may
be used in conjunction with other gauges. For example; the width of a slot 25.25 mm could be
measured by using a 25mm standard slip gauge together with a feeler of 0.25 mm thickness.

COMBINATION SQUARE

This tool may be used for measuring or marking angles of any degree within the range of 180
degrees. The blade of the tool which is in the form of a graduated rule or straight edge, has a
groove cut along the middle of one face which enables it to be accurately located and clamped
in any of its three heads. These three heads are:



1. The square head

2. The centre square head

PMI, NTPC 101
3. The protractor head

The Square Head
This head makes the tool exactly similar in use to an engineers square.

The Centre Square Head
This head is used for finding the centre or round stock of almost any diameter.

The Protractor Head
The blade in this head may be set to any angle up to 90
O
and parallel to the base. A graduated
scale is provided on the protractor head to facilitate easy reading of the settings.

By means of the groove in the blade and the setting and clamping device on the heads, the
blade can be extended or withdrawn as required by the work in hand without disturbing the
setting of the angle. As the blade is graduated for measurement, the tool can be used as a
depth gauge for spacing the centres of holes from a finished edge or for scribing parallel lines.

MEASURING

The Correct Choice of Measuring Instrument

Instrument
or
Measurement
Type of
Measurement
Range Value of
Smallest
Graduation
(Resolution)
Suggested
Reliability

Steel rule direct 150-600m
6-24 in
.5 mm
.02 in
+ .5 mm
+ .02 in.
Depth gauge direct 150mm
6 in
.5 mm
.02 in
+ .5 mm
+ .02 in
Calipers transfer 150mm
6 in
None +.5 mm
+ .02 in.
Vernier Calipers direct 600 mm
24 in
.01 mm
.001in
+.5 mm
+ .002 in.
PMI, NTPC 102
Instrument
or
Measurement
Type of
Measurement
Range Value of
Smallest
Graduation
(Resolution)
Suggested
Reliability

Vernier depth
gauge
direct 300 mm
12 in
.01 mm
.001in
+.5 mm
+ .002 in.
Vernier height
gauge
Direct 300 mm
24 in
.01 mm
.001in
+.5 mm
+ .002 in.
Micrometgers
0.25 mm plain
0-1 in
Direct 0-25 mm
0-1 in
.01 mm
.001in
+.5 mm
+ .001 in.
25-50 mm
1-2 in plain
Direct 25-50 mm
1-2 in
.01 mm
.001in
+.5 mm
+ .001 in.
Upto 150mm plain
Upto 6in plain
direct Upto150mm
Upto 6 in
.01 mm
.001in
+.5 mm
+ .001 in.
150-300 mm plain
6-12 in plain
direct 150-300m
6-12 in
.01 mm
.001 in
+ .02 mm
+ .002 in.
Inside Micrometer direct .01 mm
.001 in
+ .01 mm
+ .001 in
Depth Micrometer transfer .01 mm
.001 in
+.01 mm
+ .001 in.
Slip gauges End standard Upto 100mm
Upto 4 in
.001 mm
.0001in
.0005 mm
.00001 in.
Dial test Indicator comparison 5 mm
20 in
.01 mm
.001in
.01 mm

Dial test Indicator comparison 1.0 mm
0.4 in
.001 mm
.0001in
.0001 in








PMI, NTPC 103
GAUGES

Difination and Purpose

There are many different shapes and size of quage, but they can also be defined as accurately
dimensioned pieces of metal used to save time and the employment of unnecessarily highly
skilled labour in checking the dimensions of work pieces or of other less precisely made gauges.
When repetition work has to be produced quickly and accurately to dimensions, for example, it
is essential to obviate the need for taking repeated measurements with precision instruments
such as micrometers and venires-especially if the measuring will have to be done by unskilled
or semi-skilled labour. Something accurate enough, but much quicker to use, is required.

Another important use for gauges is in securing the interchangeability of machine parts of the
lowest possible cost. This is done by setting limits of accuracy within which the particular piece
under going manufacture must fall, so allowing any component whose dimensions when
finished fall within these limits to the made cheaply and to be assembled within these limits to
be made cheaply and to be assembled without difficulty into a more complex piece of
equipment.

Take, for instance, the plug gauge illustrated in Fig. Say that a hole has to be drilled or bored in
a large number of components whose diameter, it has been determined, will serve the purpose
if it falls within the limits of 20 and 20.25mm. the plug gauge has one of its ends made to an
accurate diameter of 20.25mm. If the hole produced allows the 20mm end to enter, but not the
20.25mm end a test which can be quickly applied anybody its diameter must of necessity fall
within the limits of acceptability.

The difference of 0.25mm between its two ends is called the tolerance of the plug gauge.

Fig. 1 Simple Plug Gauge

PMI, NTPC 104
Limits

The question of limits and the methods of fixing them is the subject of much controversy, and
almost every firm practices a different system. Generally, the fixing of correct limits and the
choice of gauging methods is made by the chief inspector in consultant with the designer of the
article being produced.

Since in the building of jigs and fixtures, however, some system of limits is necessary to secure
interchangeability and the correct fit, it is recommended that choice be limited to the wide range
of greads, or tolerance limits, laid down in BS 1916. Depending on the class of fit required
between mating parts, it will be possible to choose from this British Standard publication suitable
grades for both the shaft member and the hole member of the jig or fixture required.

Fits

When a particular pair of components is assembled, the fit between them will be either a
clearance fit (when the shaft is smaller than the hole it is to go into), or an interference fit (when
the shaft is larger than the hole). When the tolerances allowed are such that shafts selected at
random from a large batch enter some holes but not others, the class of fit is called transitional.

Common workshop terms used to describe classes of fit laying between clearance and
interference are running fit, push fit, and drive fit. The meaning of each is obvious, and
examples of all of them can be selected from the Standard.

Plug Gauges

Fig. 1 showed a simple type of plug gauge. The body is knurled to facilitate handling, and
provision is made on it for engraving a reference number an the works G0 and either No GO or
NOT GO. The NOT O end is made appreciable the shorter of the two so as to ensure quick
identification.

PMI, NTPC 105



Fig.2 AnotherType of Plug Gauge

Another simple type of plug gauge having a limited application is illustrated in Fig. 2. In it the
NOT G0 portion in located immediately behind the Go portion, and the gauge can only be used
with safety if the GO end can pass right through the work. Concentricity must obviously be
perfect, but as a time saver the type has advantages.

Heavy or bulky gauges are difficult to handle with accuracy, and should be avoided. It they are
over 50mm or so in diameter, they can be lightened by having drilled through them a hole with a
diameter of about half that of the gauge itself. Or the two end-pieces can be made separate and
hollow, as shown in Fig. 3 so that they can be replaced. When worn without scrapping the entire
gauge.


Fig.3 A Plug Gaug with Hollow Replaceable Ends

Sometimes, if the hole to be gauged exceeds 80mm in diameter, a plate gauge of the form
shown at Fig. 4 is used. When the limit con so large a hole is close, it is difficult to hold a heavy
gauges sufficiently square for it to be able to enter the hole. A light gauge which is at the same
time robust enough not to be easily distorted is required, both to save time and to achieve
accuracy. The gauge shown in fig. would typically be made form sheet steel about 10mm thick.
The diameter is removed or relieved as indicated at C leaving a lad at A which makes it
necessary for the inspector to test any hold in two positions to ensure that it is perfectly round.
The handle B is often made of steel tube for lightness, and the plate can also be hold as at d to
achieve the same purpose. A blank ground on the holder will have the number of the gauge and
the limits it will indicate marked on it.
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Fig.4 A Plate Plug Gauge for Checking Fig. 5 Pin Gauges for Checking Large-
Diameter Bores Small-Diameter Holes

For very fine holes of about 3mm diameter or less, a useful and cheap form of gauge is
illustrated in Fig. 5. It consists of two pieces of silver steel wire linked together, one on the high
and the other on the low limit, each having a steel or celluloid disk attached marked with the
details.

Pilot Plug Gauges

All mechanics understand the care that is needed to insert a plug gauge properly into a hole,
particularly when the limit is very fine. The dangers are that the gauge may become wedged,
that the work may be damaged or loosened in the machine chuck, and that much time will in
one way or another be wasted. A simple device has been developed top minimize these
dangers, consisting of a vee groove machined round the gauge itself leaving a land 3mm from
the bottom whose diameter is slightly reduced so that it acts as a pilot to the gauge itself. Within
the device, the gauge can be entered in perfect alignment without difficulty, the lip left by the
groove providing a lead.

In a blind hole, however, the use of such a gauge would not be satisfactory because the
diameter at the bottom of the hole, for a distance equal to the groove width plus the pilot length,
could not be checked. A modified type of gauge known as the Semi-Pilot is therefore used
instead. In it the groove does not extend completely round the gauge, but two portions of the full
diameter situated diametrically opposite one another are left blank. When such a gauge is being
used, note that it must enter square with the hole lest the gauge jams as would an ordinary plug.

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Note also that the semi-pilot gauge is the subject of a British patent, and that a license is
necessary before is can be used.

Caliper Gauges

Often known as gap gauges or snap gauges, gauges of the caliper type are used for measuring
external diameters and thicknesses. An example is shown in Fig. 6.

Since there is always a tendency for the jaws of a caliper gauge to spring slightly open, part A in
Fig. 6 must be strong enough and of sufficiently broad section to withstand it. The thickness B
will depend on the article being checked. If tit has a shoulder, as at C on Fig. 7 a thin section of
about 6mm will suffice. The stem D, however, would call for a gauge of wider section, less for
strengthening purposes than to enable the inspection to check over the length of spindle more
quickly.


Fig.6 A Typical Calliper Gauge Fig.7 Considerations affecting Correct width of
Calliper Gauges

It is always best to err on the wide side with all gauges of the caliper type so as to secure a
good seating, as at A in Fig. 7. Compare the small area of seat at B where there is obvious risk
of the operator not holding the gauge square and so obtaining as false result.

Designers nowadays seldom make caliper gauges of sheel material unless a very special from
is wanted. Steel forgings of very strong section car new be bough quite cheaply in lieu.
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Screw Thread Gauges

Used for checking the accuracy of pieces threaded either internally of externally, these are
among the most expensive gauges to produce, the final hardening process calling for much
care. If a suitable grade of steel is used, however, the risk of spoiling is greatly reduced.

Ring gauges are used to check external threads and should always be externally knurled to
assist release of the gauge in case it should become fixed on the component.

The theoretically ideal method of checking a thread is to use an optical comparator in
conjunction with a ring gauge for male threads, and with a threaded plug for tapped holes. The
comparator projects an image of the thread from of the piece to be checked on to a screen
which also carries an accurate image of the same thread magnified up to 80 times. The profile
of the thread to be checked can be superimposed on that of the model thread by manual
adjustment, and any defects in its from are clearly exposed. In production work, however, this
method is seldom possible, and the usual method of inspection is to use a plug gauge for the
core diameter of a tapped hole and a threaded plug for the fit; while for checking screws a
threaded ring gauge is used for the fit, and a form of caliper gauge to check the effective
diameter.

Fig. 8 Male and Female Screw Gauges

This latter diameter controls the flanks of a thread the portion which takes the hard work when in
use. The gauge for the effective diameter looks not unlike that illustrated at E in Fig. 11 which it
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will be seen provides a GO and a Not GO. Gauges involving the three-wire principle are also in
use, but require careful handling.

The design and making of gauges for threaded work forms a specialized class of tool work. In
Fig. 8 for instance, the groove A is not a standard device but has been introduced to help clear
the thread of any dust or congealed oil. Ring gauges, too, are sometimes split axially and given
a tangential screw to provide a fine adjustment.

Profile Gauges

This type of gauge, as its name suggests is used to check the shape of a component or part of
a component. One such is shown at C in Fig. 11 end again in outline in Fig. 9 where it is used
for checking the form and position f the grooves in the component B.

This gauge would be improved by mounting it on two small blacks so that its profiled edge was
raised off the surface plate by an amount equal to the diameter of the component, as at E, thus
facilitating accurate checking.




Fig. 9 A Typical Profile Gauge


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Another type of profile gauge which is also used as a position gauge to check the relative
positions of two different components is shown at D in Fig. 11.

Combination Gauges

Fig.10 illustrates a type of gauge in witch the functions of two or more of the gauges already
described are combined. The component is an automobile engine valve, usually made from an
alloy steel forging and straightness of the stem A, the diameter of the seat B and its angle to,
and concentricity with, the stem, and lastly the position of the slot C.

Fig. 10 A combination Gauge, with Component to be Checked

The gauge fails in only one respect. It cannot check the stem should its shape be oval rate then
truly circular.

Variety

In addition to those already mentioned, Fig. 11 illustrates a number of other gauges of different
sizes and shapes designed to serve a number of different purposes. They represent only a few
of the many and various type of gauges used in a modern engineering workshop.

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Shown at F, for instance, is a plate bearing three pegs whose purpose is to test the smooth
running and correct centering of three gear wheels. If the gears are rotated slowly on the pages,
any irregularity in the size or form of their teeth is immediately noticeable. The pags can also be
used to check the bore diameters of the gear wheels. The base of the fixture is of cast iron, the
pags of hardened steel.



Fig. 11 An Assortment of Gauges used in different applications

The three gauges shown at H are used for checking the relative positioning to one another of
the crank pins of a four-throw crankshaft. The thin stem is of steel tube with a knife-edged roller
in hardened steel at B. The base is of aluminum, with a thin steel sole to lessen wear. This sole
locates on the flange at the end of the crank shaft, and a gauge fitted to each crank-pin or
journal ensures their correct relation.

Illustrates a plate length gauge made from 6mm sheet steel, with the high and low limits
projecting on either side.

The small caliper gauge at K is made from a piece cut from a bar of round section, and can be
economically used for measuring small diameters up to about 5mm.

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The gauge L is used for checking the thickness of the rim of a gear wheel. The long upper edge
is made to slide across the face of the work, thus eliminating any possibility of the gauge tilting
and so giving a false result; while the high and low limits are stepped on the short arm of the
gauge.

A is a gap gauge either made from a steel forging or cut from steel plate capable of being later
hardened. Alternatively, the gauge can be heavily chromium-plated to give a very hard wear-
resisting surface a method which can also be used to build up gauges that have become worn.

E has already been mentioned as an adjustable gap gauge. The pages or anvils can be
screwed in or out to provide the desired limits, and are then locked by means of side-screws.
This type of gauge frequently has a thread from cut in the anvils so that it can be used for
checking the effective diameters of threads.

T shows a position gauge having two sliding plugs for checking the bores of connecting rods.

At M and N are illustrated two designs of gauges for checking bores. N would be better used if
the bore is very shallow, but it would not check for roundness. It has the advantage of being
very light, its stem being a piece of steel tube.

The gauge pictured at 0 is used for checking a tapered bore, the step ground into its upper face
providing the required limits. Its knurled handle, which is made separate from the body, can
alternatively be made tubular.

All gauges whatever the purpose for which they are to be used, should be made as light as
possible. This helps the operator to get a more accurate feel of the work, and is also less
tiring.

Materials

Since gauges are generally expensive tools (the greater the degree of accuracy required, the
greater normally being their cost), the material of which they are made should be such that the
danger of wear and of resulting inaccuracy is reduced to a minimum. Tool or carbon steel gives
the best hardness and anti-ware properties, but there is always the risk that it may crack in the
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hardening process and so ruin an expensive gauge. This danger can be partly overcome by
using mild or case-hardening steel, and then hardening to instructions supplied by the makers.

In the case of plate gauges, of course, only those parts on which wear is liable to take place
need to be hardened at all. For thread gauges, steel should be selected that will harden at a low
heat, to reduce the risk of the threads warping or otherwise becoming distorted.
Although gauges of above average size can be usefully lightened by making parts of them in
aluminum, this should be only done with caution lest the correct relationship of the more
important parts of the gauge be thrown out of true by an accidental blow or strain. Aluminum is a
relatively soft metal, and cannot be appreciably hardened by heat treatment.

Gauge Accuracy

For National Standard or laboratory work, flat-ended length standards can be produced to an
accuracy of one part in a million, but such accuracy as this is fortunately not required for
everyday production. Reference bars and standard end-measuring blocks or slip gauges can be
made accurate to within 2.5 millionths of their own length; but for general shop use, bars and
gauges accurate to within 5 millionths of their length are normally adequate for the purpose and
can be bought at lower cast.

Cylindrical gauges up to 25mm in diameter can be made to within + 0.0006 mm, but such
accuracy as this is not normally required. A generally acceptable level of accuracy would be
around +0.001mm for a lapped gauge. Larger sizes, of course, will be proportionately less
accurate in their actual dimensions.

Snap gauges (the fixed of external-limit gauge) cannot be made closer than +0.00025mm
because of the whip inherent in their structures; and gauges for taper holes and shafts are not
likely to be produced nearer than +0.0025mm at any diameter along the length. Position or
receiver gauges having perhaps several points of location and more than one position on the
work to be controlled are not likely to be accurate to better than +0.025mm of the required
dimensions, and any greater accuracy required would involve considerable cost.

When greater than normal accuracy is required, it is the practice to check the work with the aid
of special instruments called comparators, of which several patented arrangements exist. In
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principle, the comparator measures the small difference between the size of the work and that
of a standard end-measuring block or slip gauge nearly equal to it is size, and then magnifies
the difference so that it can be easily corrected.

Details and illustrations of available comparators are given from time to time in the technical
press. They fall outside the comparatively limited scope of this book.

Allowances for Wear

Allowances for wear must always be kept as small as possible. It is true that the larger the
allowance, the longer can the gauge wear without producing scrap work. But it is also true that
until the gauge has worn considerably, work will have to be produced to a smaller tolerance
than is necessary for adequate functioning and the cost of such work will be higher than it head
be because of the replacement and re-setting of the sizing tools that will be required. When the
work tolerance is as large as (say) 0.10mm, it would be safe to design in 0.005 mm for wear; but
for smaller tolerance 0.0025mm is as much as should be allowed.

It is generally true that the harder the gauging surface, the longer time will elapse before wear is
apparent (or, alternatively, the less will be the amount that has to be filched from the work
tolerance for chromium, which gives them from two to four times the life of the more usual
carbon-steel gauge, hardened and lapped.

It has been estimated that standard slip gauges wear approximately 0.00025mm for every 1,000
times they are wrong together. The high quality of their surface finish causes them to hold
together by means of a form of physical adhesion between their surfaces which in its effects
resembles magnetic attraction.


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6. Couplings


INTRODUCTION

Couplings provide a means of linking shafts or transmitting drive from a driver unit (e.g. electric
motor) or a driven unit (e.g. a pump). They also may have other functions some of which are
listed below.

To take up misalignment of the shafts.
To allow for expansion of the shafts caused by heating.
To permit disengagement of the shafts at low speeds or at rest.
To slip when overload occurs to protect both driven and driver units.
To prevent overloading of the driver unit during start up.
To prevent of reduce vibrations in a shaft system.
To allow machinery or sections of shafting to be removed for maintenance.

There are three classifications of coupling

1. Rigid
2. Semi-Flexible
3. Flexible

1. RIGID COUPLINGS

These are used when the purpose of the coupling is to connect two shafts as if they were one,
as is the case with large turbines where the high loads to be transmitted renders the use of
flexible couplings impracticable.

a) Flange coupling
b) Sleeve or muff coupling

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A) FLANCE COUPLING

These couplings consist of two flanged hubs, keyed to their respective shafts and bolted
together (fig. 1). On large couplings for the transmission of high loads the two half-couplings
would be located by a spigot or register and the flanges joined by numbered bolts in reamed
bolt holes.



Fig. 1 Rigid Coupling with mating Flanges centered by a register

B) SLEEVE OR MUFF COUPLING

In light drives the couplings often formed by mounting a close fitting sleeve over the two shafts
as shown in fig. 2. The sleeve is secured by means of dowel pins.

For heavier drives a split sleeve is used. The sleeve is clamped to the shafts using fixing bolts
as illustrated in fig. 3.

This type of sleeve coupling is sometimes used when lack of space prohibits the use of a flange
coupling, e.g. when it is necessary during maintenance to slide a shaft through a clearance fit
hole.
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Rigid couplings are simple and inexpensive and can be used for drives of all sizes.

If either of the coupled shafts is supported in more than one bearing then, unless the shaft
system itself is very flexible, considerable loading and wear will take place in the bearings and
shaft in response to quite small amounts of misalignment.

It is essential to employ a common bedplate or housing for the two shafts, and to ensure that
the tolerances and accuracy of fitting are such as to achieve the necessary precise alignment.


Fig.3 Split Sleeve Coupling Fig.4 Semi Flexible Coupling (Bellows)

Consideration must also be given to the effects of deflection of the shaft and bearing supports
under load.

The difficulties, dangers and hidden costs of employing rigid couplings in all but the most
straight forward applications have led to the development of the present wide range of flexible
couplings.




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2. SEMI FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS

A) BELLOWS COUPLING

These couplings will allow shall changes in the relative positions of two shafts. They are to be
found between the turbine and the generator of some units, and consist of a bellows piece
having one or more convolutions (Fig. 4).

3. FLEXIBLE COUPLING

The term flexible may be taken to mean that the coupling is capable of tolerating at least some
misalignment between the shafts without causing vibration, and wear on the bearings and
coupling members. The ability of couplings to do this varies widely according to type and
application. Another properly of some flexible couplings is torsional flexibility, that is the ability
to permit one flange of the coupling to rotate a few degrees in advance or retard of the other
during periods of start up or of changing load. Such a flexible coupling may not have the ability
to tolerate misalignment.

The following sections, listed below are a guide as to the principle types of coupling which may
be found in power station plant, the classification is not a complete one.

a) Universal coupling (Hooks joint)

b) Spider coupling

c) Pin and bush coupling

d) Rubber tyre coupling

e) Linkage coupling

f) Disc coupling

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g) Claw coupling

h) Gear coupling

i) Spring coupling (Bibby type)

k) Fluid coupling

l) Centrifugal clutch coupling

A) UNIVERSAL COUPLING

This type of joint illustrated in fig. 5 is used to couple valve
operating shafts. At the end of each shaft is a yoke. Each
yoke fits onto the opposite journals of a central spider,
each journal being free to move in a roller race. The spider
and races are held in position by retaining plates or
circlips. Fig. 5 Universal Joint

B) SPIDER COUPLING

This coupling which is illustrated in fig. 6 is suitable for light drives. It accommodates
misalignment and provides for shock loads, impulses and vibrations, ensuring smooth power
transmission.

The coupling has an oil resistant rubber spider inserted between two metal jaws. If the coupling
rotates only in one direction, half the spider arms are in compression during power transmission,
and when wear takes place the spider can be rotated on space so that the remaining arms are
under compression, thus extending the life of the spider. This cannot be done if the direction of
coupling rotation is reversible; in this case half the arms are under compression when rotation is
in one direction and the other half under compression in the opposite direction.
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Fig. 6 Spider Coupling

C) PIN AND BUSH COUPLING

A typical pin type coupling is shown in fig. 7.

It consists of two flanges keyed to their respective shafts, one flange carrying sleeved driving
pins and the other being drilled to receive the sleeved pins.

Fig.7 Pin and Bush Coupling

The driving pins, which may number three to twelve or more, are invariably secured by nuts to
enable the flexible washers or bushes to be replaced should these become worn or stretched.
These traditionally took the form of a pack of leather washers, but most modern couplings use
rubber or fabric reinforced rubber either as packed washers or in one-piece bushes. They
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permit a degree of axial float, but require relatively careful adjustment for parallel and angular
alignment.

The slight backlash which inevitably exists or develops makes this type undesirable where
sudden changes of rotation may occur.

When fitting this type of coupling check the manufacturers instructions as to which half of the
coupling is fitted to the driving shaft and which half to the driven shaft.

D) RUBBER TYRE COUPLING

Fig. 8 illustrates a rubber tyre coupling

It consists of two flanges keyed to their respective shafts between which is fitted a rubber tyre.
The coupling depends on the natural properties of rubber for its flexibility.

If the coupling operates at high temperatures the rubber will soften, become more flexible and
may stretch. If the temperature is low the flexibility is reduced and this may result in cracking of
the rubber. These points should be looked for when the coupling is inspected.

Another type of tyre coupling called a Barrel coupling is shown in fig. 9. This is suitable for every
light drives (e.g. instruments), and consists of a flexible tyre moulded between and to the
coupling sleeves. These are fixed to their respective shafts by dowel pins.


Fig. 8 Rubber Type Coupling
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Fig. 9 Barrel Coupling


E) LINKAGE COUPLING

Linkage coupling (Fig. 10) are designed to provide for moderate misalignment. They are
torsionally relatively stiff, and have a small number of wearing parts. They are suitable for high
speeds and can transmit power in either direction of rotation. Power is transmitted through a
number of high duty compressed rubber bushings with connecting linkages.












Fig. 10 Linkage Coupling
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F) DISC COUPLING

The coupling consists of two flanges with a flexible centre disc of rubber impregnated fabric (fig.
11). The flanges can be keyed or fixed to the shafts using a taper lock bush. Each flange is
fitted with an equal number of steel pins. The driver and driven pins engage alternately with the
holes in the centre disc.


Fig. 11 Disc Coupling
G) CLAW COUPLING

This type of coupling illustrated in Fig. 12 is found in use on many turbines, although preference
is now given to the slid coupling on turbines. It has a series of claws or dogs on the shaft which
engage in recesses in the coupling. When expansion of the rotor takes place the claws slide in
the coupling and thus the turbine rotors are relatively free to move one to the other. In practice,
however, they slide easily when transmitting light loads, but when transmitting heavy loads
friction causes them to stick or become axially rigid. This is known as coupling lock.

Fig. 12 Claw Coupling
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H) GEAR COUPLING

A form of toothed coupling which is not prone to coupling lock is the gear coupling. It transmits
power by means of external and internal gear teeth of involutes form. The teeth are also curved
along their length to accommodate angular misalignment. This special tooth form is provided in
an attempt to maintain good tooth contact with misaligned shafts so that wear is minimized.

Fig. 13 Gear Coupling Single Engagement

The single engagement type having one
toothed member and one rigid members
and a floating central body. The two
identical externally geared hubs are
keyed respectively to the driving and
driven shafts. These hubs are connected
and enclosed by covers internally geared
which engage the hub teeth. The two
identical externally geared hubs are
keyed respectively to the driving and
driven shafts. These hubs are connected
and enclosed by covers internally geared
which engage the hub teeth. The two
piece cover functioned as a single rigid
unit being bolted at the centre providing
an enclosed and dust-proof element.


Fig.14 Gear Coupling. Double Arrangement



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The gear teeth make contact through a constant semi-fluid film. The positive lubrication of all the
teeth is assured by the action of centrifugal force on the grease. This is created by the speed of
the rotating coupling.

Fig. 15 illustrates the build up of the double engagement flexible gear coupling.

Both gear and claw coupling require continuous lubrication, normally obtained form a jet of oil
feeding into an annular recess from which it is led centrifugally to the coupling teeth through
drilled passage ways.

Fig.15 Double engagement gear coupling (exploded view)

J) SPRING COUPLING (BIBBY)

One of the earliest, and still one of the leading types of metal
spring couplings, is the BIBBY spring grid coupling. The
spring coupling is universally recognized by engineers as one
of the most effective shock absorbing and detuning couplings
in existence.
(1) Bibby couple under normal load

(2) Bibby coupling under normal overload

(3) Bibby coupling under severe shock overload
Fig. 16 Operation of Bibby Coupling
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The principle which was originated and developed into the Bibby coupling is that of connecting
two grooved discs, or hubs, one the driving and the other on the driven shaft, by a grid spring.
The grooves are cut axially around the peripheries of the hubs, and the spring, which is
specially designed to suit the particular characteristics of the system runs through the grooves
to form a series of resilient bridges.

The grooves are flared to give the spring members long flexible spans at normal loads and
increasing support by the sides of the grooves when overload occur.

Since the stiffness of the spring (and therefore the coupling) mainly depends on the
unsupported length of each flexible span, and since this varies with every variation in torque, the
coupling stiffness changes at every instant during a vibration cycle. The principle is illustrated in
the diagram.

Bibby coupling parts are interchangeable so that any half-coupling can be matched to one of a
similar type. Spare machines fitted with half-couplings can therefore be interchanged quickly
with a minimum loss of production time.

On smaller type couplings the grid spring is in one piece, on larger sizes it is in segments and
may be in two or more layers.


Fig. 17 Coupling parts
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K) CHAIN COUPLING

A chain coupling is illustrated in fig. 18. It consists of two sprockets keyed to their respective
shafts and joined by a duplex roller chain through which power is transmitted. These couplings
provide a simple and inexpensive method of connecting shafts which allows a useful amount of
end float and angular deflection of the shaft. A small amount of parallel misalignment can also
be tolerated. The small amount of backlash present tenders them unsuitable for sudden load
reversals or heavy vibration. The outstanding advantage of this form of coupling is the ease with
which it can be disconnected by the simply removing the chain. The coupling has a cover bolted
around it which must be kept filled with grease. Couplings for use in oil-free situations can be
fitted with nylon chains.

Fig. 18 Chain coupling

L) FLUID COUPLING

A fluid coupling is a simple power transmission unit to couple the driven unit to the driver unit. It
consists of two rotating assemblies. One is driven by the motor and the other drives the driven
machine. The casing is filled with light oil and it is this oil that passes the power from the motor
to the machine it is driving.

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Fig. 19 Traction type fluid coupling

The coupling components are the impeller, the runner and shaft and the casing. The prime
mover (e.g. motor) rotates the impeller, oil is carried round by the impeller vanes and moves
rapidly outwards. The oil is deflected, by the shape of casing, across the gap between impeller
and runner and down to impinge on the vanes of the runner.

On start up the prime moved is virtually unloaded and therefore rapidly increases speed when
the input power is sufficient to overcome the starting load of the driven machine, the runner
commences to rotate and there is smooth, swift acceleration to fill load speed. Full speed for the
driven machine is approximately 95% of the prime mover full speed.

Acting at all times as a resilient cushion between driving and driven machinery, the hydraulic
drive is automatically adjustable with the load.

The slip (difference between the driver and driven speed and usually 5% at normal full load
speed) is always present and is essential to the couplings operation. It is due to this condition of
slip that the oil circulates outwards in the impeller and inwards between the vanes of the runner,
describing the path like a coil spring bent in a circle.


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When running, the fluid coupling acts as a flexible safety the motor. Advantage is taken of its
slip characteristics to balance multi-motor drives in long coal conveyors.

The total weight to the fluid coupling unit is supported by the motor (or engine) bearings and the
driven machine bearings, being distributed in the ratio of approximately two-thirds on the former
and one-third on the latter. Fig. 20 illustrates.



Fig. 20

The part weight on the input side is taken to the motor (or engine) bearings via a hardened steel
spherical spigot ring which registers in the bore of the driving boss. The steel resilient driving
spider or disc on the input side allows a small degree of angular flexibility, while the spherical
spigot ensures concentric running.

The part weight on the output side is transferred to the driven shaft via the steel multi-disc
flexible coupling, which permits a small degree of angular flexibility while being rigid in a radial
sense. This method of mounting is not intended to cater for careless lining up of driving and
driven machines, but merely to allow for factors such as wear of bearings and slight distortion of
the base plate, which may arise when in service.

The coupling described so far is he traction type which operates with a constant quantity of oil in
it. Therefore the speed of the driven machine is fixed. If the quantity of oil in the coupling is
reduced the amount of slip is increased and the speed of the driven unit is reduced.
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In the variable speed fluids coupling, the speed of the driven shaft is controlled by varying the
amount of oil in the working circuit between the impeller and the runner. Therefore, with an
electric motor giving a constant input speed, the speed of the driven unit can be infinitely
variable. The amount of oil in working circuit is controlled by altering the position of a scoop tube
as illustrated (Fig. 21).



(i) OIL IN RESERVOIR (II) CIRCIT PARTLY FILLED (III) OIL CIRCUIT DRIVE
DRIVE DISENGAGED INTERMECIATE TORQUE ENGAGED FULL
AND SPEED TORQUE

Fig. 21 Principle of operation os scoop control fluid coupling

M) CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCH COUPLING

These all depend for the transmission of power on the frictional contact between a set of lined
shoes thrown out under centrifugal action against the inside surface of a drum connected to the
driven shaft. The shoes are mounted on a hub attached to the driving shaft.

A point of variation between the designs is the manner of mounting the shoes to the driving hub.

One design of coupling is illustrated in fig. 22.
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Fig. 22 Centrifugal Clutch Coupling

The shoes are connected to the hubs through links, both pivots of which are rubber bushed.
This arrangement has the advantage of eliminating all wearing parts, (other than the friction
linings) and of providing a measure of flexibility both torsion ally and to enable some
misalignment to be tolerated (parallel misalignment up to 0.001 in per in. of coupling diameter).

The bonded rubber bushes in the hub may also be pre-set to enable higher engaging speeds to
be obtained.

The coupling shoes have a leading and trailing shoe effect according to the direction of rotation.
There is and also a unidirectional type which usually consists of four shoes, two of which drive
one way, and the other two in the opposite direction..

Shoes of different weight are available which give these couplings a wide useful speed range.

N) DISENGAGABLE CLUTCH COUPLING

A disengageable coupling or clutch may be used where it is necessary to disconnect the prime
mover so as to provide a choice of drives. Examples of the former are gas turbine generators
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used as synchronous compensators, and automatically engaging turning gear; examples of the
latter are turbine/motor drives for gas circulators associated with nuclear reactors, and double-
ended gas turbine generators.

The connecting or disconnecting operation can be achieved automatically by using a clutch
which can sense zero relative speed of the two shafts, ensure zero angular displacement of the
mating clutch teeth, and sense the direction in which torque is being transmitted.

One clutch which can do this is the synchro-self-shifting clutch, shown in Fig. 23. At standstill
when the driving shaft begins to provide torque the clutch will engage; but if after this the torque
ceases, the clutch will disengage. It will re-engage if the speed of the driving shaft begins to
overtake that of the driven shaft, whether at full speed or at any lesser speed.

Spring-loaded pawls acting on a ratchet sense the relative speeds of the input and output
shafts; when the input shaft is about to overtake the other, the pawls bite and reactive torque
is applied to the helically splined sleeve which moves axially and slides the clutch teeth into
engagement. The position of the pawls and ratchet teeth ensure that the clutch teeth pass
between each other exactly, without making contact until almost full engagement is reached; at
this point the pawls leave the ratchet teeth, and the flanks of the clutch teeth butt and take up
the drive.

It is important to note that the pawls merely sense zero relative speed and angular location and
do not carry the main torque. To prevent ratcheting and consequent wear when the relative
speed is high, the pawls can be designed to skim on a ring of oil if internal, or to centrifugally
disengage.
PMI, NTPC 133

Fig. 23 Synchro-Self-Shifting Clutch
PMI, NTPC 134
COUPLING FITTING

1. FLANGE COUPLING

When making this type of coupling, ensure that the bolts are undamaged, and that the coupling
faces are free from burrs. If fitted bolts are used they should be a light drive fit. Each bolt should
be located in the hole it is fitted to.

If the coupling is part of a new assembly and fitted bolts are to be used, drill the coupling bolts
holes 1/64 smaller than the finished size and finish to size with a reamer.

2. SLEEVE COUPLING

Small sleeve couplings are located by taper or parallel pins fitted or reamed holes.

3. UNIVERSAL COUPLING

To work on a universal joint it is normally necessary to remove the shaft from the equipment so
that the joint can be reached easily. The shaft ends and couplings should be checked for
location marks so that the shaft can be reassembled in the correct position. (Fig. 24).
Dismantling the joint (Fig. 25).

Fig. 24 Location Marks Fig. 25 Universal Joints-Section

a) Remove the roller bearing retaining covers and the bearing seal.

PMI, NTPC 135
Fig. 26 Spider Assembly
b) Remove one of the roller bearing races either by tapping the yoke or using a soft drift,
tapping the top race down thereby pushing out the bottom race.

c) Remove the opposite race in the same way. The journal of the spider must be kept in the
race until the race can be lifted out, so that the rollers do not fall out of the bearings.

d) Take the free yoke off of the spider.

e) Repeat the process to remove the two races of the remaining yoke and disengage it.

When reassembling (Fig. 26).

a) Ensure that all parts are free from burrs,
are clean and lubricated.

b) Place the spider in the shaft yoke with
the grease nipple positioned according
to manufacturers instructions.

c) Take great care to prevent rollers from
being dislodged from their races. Place
a race onto a journal of the spider and then tap the
race into its housing. Turn the joint over and place the second race onto the spider and
tap into housing.

d) Fit seals and retaining covers or circlips.

e) Repeat process to fit the other yoke.

4. FENNER TAPER-LOCK BUSH

When Fenner Taper-Lock bushes are used for mounting half-couplings on the driven and driver
shafts, follow these instructions:

PMI, NTPC 136
a) Thoroughly clean the shaft, the bush and the bore of the half-coupling.

b) Put the bush into the half-coupling and line up the holes on the end face. Oil the two
socket head screws and screw them loosely into the threaded holes in the half-coupling
(See Fig. 27).,

c) They key for the shaft should be side-fitting and plenty of clearance should be allowed at
the top. Where the keyway on the shaft is opened, the key should not be put in at this
stage. For shafts with a keyway having a closed end, the key will need to be of such a
width that the bush, when tightened, will not nip the key before gripping the shaft. This is
most important.

d) Slide the half-coupling together with the bush on the shaft and place it in the position
required. Note that when tightening up the half-coupling will be drawn slightly on to the
bush, which nips the shaft first. Allowance must be made for this when setting the
position of the half-coupling on the shaft.

e) Put the end of the key in the keyways to bring these into line.

f) Tighten the two screws gradually and alternately until they are pulled up very tightly.
With shafts with open-ended keyways, remove the key at the point when the bush just
nips the shaft, so that the bush will not be prevented from gripping the shaft properly.

g) When the two screws are fully tightened up, drive in the key, adjusting its fit if necessary.

h) Using a clock gauge, check at the following points:

a) Driving boss-concentricity of the register and the sequareness of the flange to the
shaft.

b) Concentricity of the outside diameter of the flange of the output half-coupling and
the squareness of its face to the shaft.
PMI, NTPC 137
At each of these four points, the total variation in the readings of the gauge should be not more
than 0.05mm. If outside these limits it is probable that the screws have not been tightened down
evenly. In this case remove the half-coupling and re-fit.

Fill the empty jacking-off hole with grease to keep out dirt. To remove the half-coupling, slacken
off the two screws, remove one of them, oil it and screw it into the jacking of hole. Tighten this
screw until the bush is loose in the half-coupling.




Fig. 27 Fenner Taper-Lock bush

5. GEAR GOUPLINGS

When fitting and assembling this type of coupling, place the flanged sleeves, with seal rings, on
the shafts before mounting the hubs. The hubs are then expanded by heating in an oil bath or
oven not more than 135
O
C and placed on their respective shafts so that each hub face is flush
with the end of the shaft.

Carry out alignment checks taking readings between the hub faces and on the hob periphery.
The gap between the hubs should conform to the manufacturers instructions.

PMI, NTPC 138
When alignment has been satisfactorily completed lubricate the hub teeth with approved grease
and join the flange sleeves. To do this remove all lubrication plugs from the flanges, insert a
gasket between the flange sleeves. To do this remove all lubrication plugs from the flanges,
insert a gasket between the flanges and draw the flanges into position with coupling bolts.
Tighten each bolt to the torque specified by the manufacturer.

Finally fully fill the coupling housing with grease and replace the plugs.

6. SPRING COUPLINGS (BIBBY)

Assembly of coupling (fig. 28a-f). Care is necessary in the assembly of couplings, particularly in
checking for both parallel and angular alignment and in setting the correct gap between the hub
faces. The coupling grooves must be completely packed with grease before the spring is
inserted and a further liberal application of grease after its insertion is essential.


Fig. 28 Spring Coupling Assemble Sequence

PMI, NTPC 139
The Full sequence of operations is described in detail below:

a) Bibby couplings are supplied with various types of spring cover according to
requirements. Covers must be fitted over the shafts before fitting the hubs. The face of
each hub must normally be flush with the end of its shaft.

b) Check the parallel alignment of driven and driver units. Make final check after holding
down bolts are tightened down.

c) Check gap between hub faces to ensure that it is as specified. (Normally one-third to two
thirds the thickness of the spring material) Check angular alignment.

d) After thoroughly packing the grooves with as much grease as possible, aprs all the
springs into position. Where there are two layer of spring, if both to fill the grooves
completely.

e) Apply a further liberal application of grease.

f) Draw covers into position and fasten with the bolts provided. Complete the lubrication by
injecting maximum possible amount of grease through the greasing nipples.

7. FLUID COUPLING

A type of fluid coupling that is common in power stations is the Vulcan-Sinclair fluid rive. Below
is the procedure for fitting and maintaining the coupling.

Detach the driving boss with driving spider, and flexible coupling assembly from the fluid
coupling as shown in Fig. 9. In the case of a Fluid Coupling unit directly connected to an engine
crankshaft or flywheel an adaptor flange is fitted in place of a driving boss and is usually riveted
to that driving spider or disc.

Mount the driving boss on the motor shaft and the output half coupling on the driven machine
shaft, in each case using a rectangular parallel key, making a good fit at the sides. The use of
PMI, NTPC 140
taper keys is not recommended. The bores are carefully machined to give a light interference fit
on the shafts and the boss and the half coupling should be drawn on to ensure a good fit.

Do not risk damaging the bearings by the use of a hammer.

IMPORTANT: Check the centre spigot register in the driving boss the outside diameter of the
driven half coupling for concentricity, using a clock gauge. (see sketch). If these readings are
not correct to within 0.05mm or less, the case of the discrepancy must be found and corrected.
Machining of the driving boss or output half coupling to correct any eccentricity is not
permissible.

Having checked the mounting of the driving boss and output half coupling for concentricity, as
described, attach the resilient driving spider or disc to the driving boss and secure by bolts. Lock
the nuts by means provided.

Set the motor and driven machine in line and with the distance between driving spider and
output half coupling face equal to the overall length of fluid coupling and multi-disc assembly.

Lower the fluid coupling into position between the driving spider and output half coupling and
engage the centre spigot in the driving boss register, at the same time supporting the weight of
the fluid coupling either on slings or by wooden blocks.

Attach driving spider to fluid coupling impeller bosses or flange by bolts. Secure by lock washers
or split pins as provided.

Insert multi-disc plate assembly between runner half coupling and output half coupling and
secure by coupling bolts. Three of these bolts have spherical heads which register in the large
holes in the runner half coupling.

Proceed to check the alignment as follows: Attach a long stud to the tapped hole (9mm. or
12mm. Whit thread) in the driving boss and clamp to this stud a clock gauge or pointer resting
against a point on the outer diameter of the driving spider or disc (see Fig. 30).

PMI, NTPC 141
When the fluid coupling is rotated on complete revolution by hand, the gauge reading should
remain constant throughout within plus or minus 0.12mm.

On the output side, check the gap between the half couplings by measuring carefully at top,
bottom and sides. This distance should also be correct within 0.12mm.

If these figures are exceeded, the motor and/or driven machine position should be adjusted until
the readings are within the limits given.
PMI, NTPC 142

Fig. 31 Fluid Coupling Aligment Wrong

Clock gauge reading at A (or distance between pointer and a marked position on or next to a
bolt head) is consistent to within 0.12mm when input rotated and measured at top, bottom and
sides.
PMI, NTPC 143
Gap between half coupling B is consistent to within 0.12mm. When measured at top, bottom
and sides.

To correct, shim up driven machine shaft or lower motor until reading A and B are consistent as
above. This condition of misalignment can occur also in plan view and required similar
correction by moving motor or driven machine sideways.

The coupling should be filled with thin mineral oil of low viscosity so that the level of oil when
cold is up the filling plug hole when this is set at the correct angel from the top dead centre or
vertical position, and the coupling will then function correctly provided this level is maintained.
(Fig. 32).

In large fluid couplings fitted to electric motor drives a fusible plug is incorporated in the impeller
casing. The purpose of this plug is to provide an additional safeguard to the motor and prevent
over-heating in the rare event of a prolonged stall and failure of the motor overload trip.
The plug contains a fusible alloy which melts at a set figure and allows the oil in the fluid
coupling to escape, thus removing the load from the motor and allowing it to run free.

A spare fusible plug is provided, being screwed into the flange of the driving boss so it is readily
available for replacing in the impeller. When used another spare should be obtained.












Fig. 32 Fluid Coupling Oil Level
PMI, NTPC 144

8. CENTRIFUGAL CLUTCH COUPLING

Fitting and maintenance

Make sure that direction of rotation is correct Leading shoe couplings rotate with links pointing
in the direction of rotation and Trailing shoe couplings with the links pointing away from the
direction of rotation. (See Fig. 33).

Fig. 33 Clutch Coupling Shoe Positioning

Setting

One of the following three methods of engaging speed setting should be used, first find out
which model is being worked on and check with manufacturers instructions as to setting.

High Speed or Permanent Drive

a) Loosely assemble links on the driving unit, making sure serrated ends are on the hub
bushes. Do not fit shoe and leave hub bolts loose.

b) Connect the shoe ends of the link with a shoe bolt and nut to hold them parallel.

c) Rotate links until the correct X dimension can be measured and tighten hub bolt
securely.
PMI, NTPC 145
d) Remove the shoe bolt and nut and replace the shoe in position.

e) Place feeler gauge of thickness Y under both ends of shoe as shown on fig. 33 and
tighten shoe bolt, holding the show towards coupling centre.

Normally Engaging Speed

a) Loosely assemble complete driving unit with shoes in place.

b) With each shoe held tight against the hub, tighten hub and shoe bolts.

Low or Zero Engaging Speed

a) Loosely assemble as above and tighten hub and shoe bolts with shoes held against hub
but with feeler gauge thickness Y interposed as shown in diagram.

Fitting

a) Take care that shoe linings and inside of drum are perfectly free from oil or grease.

b) When fitting driving unit to its shaft, exert pressure ONLY on the hub and not on links or
rubber bushes.

c) When mating up the driving and driven machines, make sure that the shoes are far
enough inside the drum to clear the drum chamfer but not so far as to hit the back of the
drum. Allowance should be made for thermal shaft expansion.

d) NEVER run the driving unit at speed without the drum in place.

Maintenance

On normal application, the shoe linings have a very long life and do not require periodic
attention. Where very heavy load are started at frequent intervals, occasional examination of
linings is advisable.
PMI, NTPC 146
If the linings require changing proceed as follows:

a) Check that the new linings are the correct size and type, and free of oil or grease.

b) Take off the old linings by removing the rivets. Take care not to damage the shoes.

c) Thoroughly clean the shoes and remove burrs from around the rivet holes.

d) Position the liner on the shoe and fit the rivets through the lining into the shoe (Fig. 34).

e) Place the heads of the rivets square on a dolly and tap them down with a riveting punch
(Fig. 35). The rivets must clamp the lining tight against the whole surface of the slipper.

Fig. 34 Clutch Coupling shoe Fig.35 Clutch Coupling Shoe
Fitting Rivetting
PMI, NTPC 147
7. Alignment


To obtain accurate results from the use of the straight-edge and taper wedge in checking the
alignment of couplings, the face and the periphery of each coupling must be dead true. Small
irregularities of either the face or the periphery, which in no way affect the satisfactory running of
a set, may be enough to make it impracticable to check alignment with the necessary accuracy.
A further difficulty in the say of obtaining correct results using a straight-edge and taper wedge
is the possibility of a slight bend on one or both of the shafts of the pump and the driving unit.

The method described below, using clock gauges, is completely independent of the truth of the
couplings of the truth of the couplings of the truth of the shafts, provided that the amount by
which a shaft may be bent is insufficient to cause fouling of the internal clearances, which would
lift the shaft from its journals at certain points of a revolution. It is, however, important that the
shafts should be truly circular in the journals, i.e. without may ovality which may be the result of
previous service.

In using the clock gauges it is essential that both shafts rotate together between successive
readings. This can generally be accomplished by linking the couplings of the pump and its
driving unit by at least one coupling pin. Alternatively, where special couplings using pins or
springs are too tight to allow free movement between the two half-couplings pins should not be
fitted, but the rims of the couplings should be marked and readings taken only when the marks
are in line.

It must be remembered that the shafts of both the pump and the driving unit will deflect under
their own weight. The methods outlined below will automatically take such deflection, with its
consequent effect on the coupling halves, into account, and indicate what action must be taken
to allow for it. Instead of adjusting the bedplates of both units, it is advisable to set the driving
unit bedplate dead level before the tests are made, adjusting the outboard end of the pump
bedplate as may be necessary.

PMI, NTPC 148
TO CHECK THE PARALLELISM OF AXES (ANGULAR ALIGNMENT)

Figure I shows the method of using clock gauges to obtain parallel axes or rotation of coupling
halves.

Two gauges are clamped in diametrically opposite coupling pin holes of the driving or driven
half-coupling, the plunger ends of the del indicators resting on the back of the driven or driving
half-coupling respectively. With one gauge at the top and the other at the bottom of the
couplings, set both gauges to read zero. Turn the couplings through half a revolution. If the
alignment of the pump and its driving unit is correct, the readings of both gauges should be the
same, though not necessarily zero. Either positive or negative readings are acceptable, so long
as the readings are equally positive or equally negative. If the variations of the gauge readings
are not alike, the outboard end of the pump bedplate must be raised or lowered until the
readings on the gauges show that the angular alignment is correct.

To complete the check, advance the position of the couplings through 90
O
, i.e. with gauges at
each side. Set the gauge readings at zero, and rotate the couplings through 180
O
. The
variations in readings should again be the same, and any dissimilarity shows that the lateral
position of the unit must be adjusted.

It should be noted that this method does not require axial location of either rotor.

The adjustment of the level of the pump end only of the bedplate is especially advantageous
when the driving unit is an electric motor with bush bearings. By leaving the motor end of the
bedplate level, no trouble will be caused by the motor shaft running against its thrust collars, or
against the pump coupling when the motor is run without coupling pins for motor test purposes.

TO CHECK INTERSECTION OF AXES (SHAFTS IN LINE AT COUPLING
END)

Figure 2 shows the method of using the clock gauge to check that the shafts of the pump and its
driving unit are in line at the couplined ends.

PMI, NTPC 149
The clock gauge is clamped into one of the coupling pin holes in the driving or driven half-
coupling, the plunger end of the dial indicator seating on the rim of the driven or driving half
coupling respectively. Note the reading on the gauge.

Rotate the couplings together and note the gauge reading at each quarter revolution. Any
variation in the readings shows a deviation of the shafts from center, and until a uniform clock
reading is obtained in any position of rotation, adjustments must be made to the position and
height of the units.

Thee the working temperature of a unit has the effect of lifting the centre line of one machine in
relation to the other allowance in the height of the appropriate machine must be made at the
time of lining up if this work is done with the unit cold. The amount of any such allowance is
indicated on the general arrangement drawing.

TOLERANCES

It is difficult to lay down limits of accuracy within which adjustments should be made because of
the differences in the size and speed of units, but as a rough guide it is suggested that when
checking angular alignment readings (Figure 1) the following variations can be tolerated:

Couplings upto 12 diameter .0.002 (2 thous. Of an inch)
Couplings over 12 diameter .003 (3 thous. Of an inch)

In checking the radial alignment of shafts (Figure 2) readings varying by more than .00411 on
gauge (4 thous. of an inch, i.e. 2 tous. of an inch eccentricity) call for adjustments.

These figures are suggested for speeds of 1500 r.p.m. For speeds of 3000 r.p.m. or over a
somewhat greater degree of accuracy should be observed.

METHOD OF WORKING OUT CONNECTION

Using Figure 3 the following method is used to obtain the formula for correcting angular mis-
alignment vertical & horizontal. The pivot point in both cases being the front feet of the motor.
PMI, NTPC 150
X being the amount of smim to be inserted or removed from the rear feet of the motor.

x a sin Y b sin b sin
--- = ---------- --- = --------- y = z ---------
y b sin Z sin sin

. a sin b sin
. . x = y ---------- but y = z -----------
b sin sin

. b sin a sin
. . x = y Z ---------- . -----------
sin b sin

Z.a
x = -----------


For peripheral alignment the correction is half the clock reading either up or down depending
upon the clock readings (+ OR -)



a = Distance between front bolt and rear bolt

b = Distance between front bolt and wedge of coupling

PMI, NTPC 151
= Distance between centre of shaft and D.T.I.

y = Misalignment of shaft at coupling and = b sin.

x = Misalignment of shaft at N.D.E. (correction reqd.) = a sin.

z = Misalignment at coupling (1/2 clock reading) = sin
=Angle caused by misalignment

c = b-bCos + sin (where bCosO &Cos0.000)

COUPLING ALIGNMENT (GRAPHICAL METHOD)

When torque has to be transmitted between two shafts attention taken at the alignment stage
will be amply rewarded by an improvement in bearing and coupling life. The PLEXIBOX
alignment graph is a simple way of achieving good alignment. The following procedure should
be adopted.

1. Assemble the machinery on its bed
plates as accurately as possible paying
particular attention to the DBSE
(distance between shaft ends) and the
horizontal alignment of the two shafts.

2. Set the two dial indicators as shown in
figure 1 ensuring that the supports are
sufficiently rigid to eliminate any sag
which might give rise to spurious
readings.

Line up clock as near as possible
axially 90 Deg intervals




PMI, NTPC 152
3. Zero both indicators and rotate
both hubs together through 180
O

record the readings.

All clock reading to
be taken viewing
driving unit
Coupling hubs
held in the same
relative position to each
other when shafts are
rotated together

4. Measure the distance C
between the two indicators anvil
as shown in figure 2.

5. Measure the distance F1 from
the driven machine indicator
anvil to the centre line of the
motor front foot.


6. Measure the distance F2 from the driven machine indicator anvil to the centre line of the
motor backfoot.

7. On the horizontal scale A measure off the distances C, F1 and F2 and draw three
vertical lines on the graph.

8. On the extreme right vertical scale B measure off the driven machinery hub eccentricity
this is half the total indicator reading. Minus values go below the graph centre line.

9. On the vertical line C measure off the motor hub eccentricity this is half the total indicator
reading. Positive valves go below the graph centre line.

10. Join the two plotted points and extend the line to cut the verticals at F1 and F2. This line
now represents the relationships between the motor shaft and the driven machinery
shaft and the difference between this line and the centre line indicators the correction at
the motor feet in the same units as the vertical scale.

Example
In the example shown on the top sheet of the paid readings are:
PMI, NTPC 153
Driven Machinery hub TIR = - 0.056 inch
Motor hub TIR = + 0.042 inch
Dimension C = 6.75 inch
Dimension F1 = 13.75 inch
Dimension F2 = 23.75 inch
Correction required at the motor front = + 0.015 inch
foot
Correction required at the motor back = + 0.005 inch
foot

11. Having corrected the vertical alignment it is now necessary to correct the horizontal
alignment and to do this TIR readings should be taken at 270
O
with the dial indicators
having been zeroed at 90
O
.

12. Correct by moving the motor sideways. Side jacking bolts make this adjustment
comparatively easy and their addition to the motor bed plate is to be recommended.

Note: The scope of the graph may be extended by multiplying both the horizontal and
vertical scale by a suitable factor.


PMI, NTPC 154



PMI, NTPC 155








PMI, NTPC 156
8. Reliability Analysis


INTRODUCTION

Let us take the example of the ordinary household electric light. The average household may tell
you form his observations that he might make that one bulb from a certain manufacturer burns
out in a relatively short period whereas another bulb from the same manufacturer which has
been subjected to approximately the same sort of use appears to last almost indefinitely. On the
other hand, two similar bulbs from different manufacturers may have very different life times.

It may make the observation that a bulb that a frequently switched on and off has comparatively
shorter life time. He may find that enclosed bulbs have to be replaced more often than exposed
bulbs or a bulb mounted inside unusually shaky elevator has to be replaced more frequently.

Let us imagine now a very unusual householder who is determined to do something about it
seriously. He has listed all light bulb locations in his house, recording all failure and
replacements and a running log of the on and off time at each location. He has ever recorded
unusual conditions at some locations very frequent switching, uncommon vibrations or shock
environment, bulbs hanging out in the varying weather conditions.

After a years observations, he then sits down with his figures and tries to make an estimate of
the probability that a given bulb will perform satisfactorily for a chosen length of time and under
specified conditions of use. If he is successful and this implies that the is acquainted with some
of the rudiments of statistics, he will have obtained an estimate of the Reliability of his light
bulbs. From this example we arrive at the following:

i) Relibility is an estimate of the probability that a given component or an assembly of
several components will perform satisfactorily for a chosen length of time and under
specified conditions of use.

ii) Relibility is a probability, so that we must have a knowledge about the mathematical
manipulations of probabilities to give a quantitativbe meaning to our definition.
PMI, NTPC 157
iii) Relibility is a function of time. We could not except that a light bulb which has already
been used for two years will be as reliable as a new one.

iv) Relibility is a function of the conditions of use or environment. Ina service environment
we except to encounter more equipment failures than in usual environment.

v) To know the worth of our figures regarding reliability estimates, we have to use
Statistical Methods.

Let us consider now a string of ornamental lights that are used for decoration purposes.
Suppose all bulbs in the string are in series. When one bulb fails the entire string goes out
because of the resulting open circuit. It we use two strings in parallel, we could increase our
assurance that it least one string was operating all the time. Finally, if we used one long string in
which all bulbs were paralleled across the common voltage, the failure of one bulb would have
little effect on the operation of the rest and further more, the failed bulb could be easily detected.

We have thus increased the reliability of the lighting system by introducing a redundancy of
strings in the second case and the reliability is increased still more by introducing a redundancy
of bulbs.

The light bulb is a simple example. Automobiles, Power, plants, Aircrafts, spacecrafts, missiles,
process industries and numerous other implements and equipments are of increasing
complexities and the consequences of an equipment failure are becoming increasingly serious.
An intricate apparatus costing millions of rupees may become a total loss simply because a
solder joint fails. This example provides use with two possible points of attack. Either we make
the solder joint so good that its failure of the solder joint is not catastrophic for the entire system.
The latter scheme may be accomplished by introducing redundancy. Actually, these two
methods are used simultaneously-using the best components and the best workmanship under
reasonable cost constraints and at the same time, we make allowance for the inadvertent failure
of vital parts by paralleling one or more identical parts with them. Parallel components may also
be used as Standby in which the standby components are not taking part in operation fill one of
the working components fails and then the system switches over to the standby component,
thereby the availability for the whole system resulting in less breakdown time.

PMI, NTPC 158
As we have already seen, in the case of light bulbs, the quantitative estimates regarding
component or system reliability can be obtained by observing hundreds of failures of the
equipment over long periods of time. But light bulbs are cheap and complex equipments may be
extremely expensive. On the other hand, the time taken for failure may be very long (for several
hours to several years) and it may not be possible to wait that long.

One way is to test components or a group of them under given environments and find reliability
data before putting them together. But how are these separate number to be combined into a
estimate of overall reliability. This problem is not so difficult if we are assured that the individual
segments that go to make upon our system act independently of each other. But usually the
exact opposite is the case-malfunction of one component throws as additional strain on the
operation of others.

In the present chapter we will try to highlight such problems as pointed above concerning
reliability of engineering systems.

EXPONETIAL CASE OF CHANCE FAILURES

A very useful term in reliability is the Failure rate. The failure rate of a system is defined as the
number of failures per unit time. In other words the failure rate is the frequency at which
malfunctions and the failures occur. Failure rates, time curves have been plotted from empirical
data on actual system and many of them resemble the hypothetical curve.

This curve can be divided into three distinct regions:

I. Region of early failures or infant mortality. At T=O, we place in peration a very large
number of new components of one kind. This population will initially exhibit a high failure
rate if it contains some proportion of substandard, weak specimens. As these weak
components fail one by one, the failure rate decreased rapidly during the so called burn
in or debugging period. The failure rate stabilizes to a fairly constant value at the time
T
B
when the weak components have died out.



PMI, NTPC 159


II. After having been debugged, the component population reaches its lowest failure rate
level which is approximately constant for a time till T
W
= (T

W
- T
B
) is called useful life
period, because it is in this period that the components can be utilized to the greatest
advantage. The failure is mainly due to chance and not generally due to any a
assignable cause.

III. when the components reach the life T
W
, wear out starts to be noticeable. From this time
on the failure rate increases rather rapidly. If up to T
W
only a small percentage of
components has failed, about half will fail in the time period (M-T
W
). The time M is called
the Mean Wear out Life of the population.

If the chance failure rate is very small in the useful life period the mean time between failures
(MTBF) Defined as m = 1/ will be quite large and vice-versa. The MTBF(m) tells us how
reliable the component is in its useful life period.


PMI, NTPC 160
Reliability as a general problem, is concerned with all three of these regions. Again, if the design
and application of the equipment are correct, and, the proper replacement and maintenance
procedures are followed soon after T is reached, one will be able to forestall the incidence of
region III for long. Region I can also be made short by proper design, fabrication and assembly,
quality control and, sometimes by deliberate burning-in periods.

Let us address cur selves to the study of region II for the present. If the failure rate () in this
region is constant, the mathematical formulation is quite easy. But there are cases where a
variety of factors cause the failure rate in this region to fluctuate quite rapidly and erratically. Let
us take the ideal case of region II where can be taken to be constant. There are several
methods of deriving the reliability function R(t). The method given below requires only an
elementary knowledge of calculus and probability.

Let a fixed number N
O
of components be repeatedly tested. After a time t N
f
components fail
and Ns components service the test. Thus,

N
O
= (N
S
+ N
f
) (1)

Remains constant throughout the test. As the test proceeds N
f
increase and N
S
decreases. At
any time t during the test, the Reliability, defined as a fraction by the probability of survival,
expressed as a fraction by the probability definition, is given by

R(t) = N
S
/N
S
+N
f
) = N
S
/N
O
... (2)

N
f


=
1 - -----
N
O
Differentiating, we get
dR/dt = - 1 N
O
* dN
f
/dt .(3)

dN
f
can be regarded as the number of components failed in infinitesimal time interval (t, t+dt).
dN
f
/dt is then equivalent to the rate at which the component population still in test at time t is
PMI, NTPC 161
failing. At time t we still have N component in test. Thus, 1/N
S
dN
f
/dt is the instate
instantaneous probability of failure per one component, which we call the failure rate,
1 dNf = (- dR) N
O
(4)
(t) = --x ---- (------) -----
N
S
dt ( dt ) N
S


Substituting from (2) for N
O
/N
S

t
(t) = -1 dR or R(t) = exp [- (t) dt] .(5)
R dt

This is the most general expression for the failure rate because it applies to both exponential
and non exponential reliabilities. In general, is a faction is time t. Only in the ideal case, when in
region II, the failure rate is regarded as content with respect to time, we obtain.

R
dR = dt
1 R


or l n R = - t [at t = o R = 1]
R (t) = e
-

t
(6)

This is called the exponential failure distribution. The use of equation (6) is justified only if the
failure rate is constant over the period of time being considered and if the failures that do
occur are random and independent. It is very seldom, if ever, that these conditions are exactly
fulfilled in practice. However, their is a large amount of experimental evidence available
indicating that these conditions are closely enough simulated in practice to validate the use of
equation (6) in many cases.

PMI, NTPC 162
As an example of the use of equation (6), suppose we wish to estimate the reliability of a
particular type of component if we know that 22 such components have failed over an operating
period of 5,000 hours. The MTBE (m) can be calculated as hours between failures.

1 = m =500 = 227.3
22

It must be emphasized that this is an estimate of m based on the experimental data at hand.
The quality of estimate will improve as we test more and more components over longer and
longer intervals of time.

Substituting in equation (6)

R (t) = e
- t/227.3


Suppose now that in practice the components are operated for 10 hours, so that we are
interested in evaluating the reliability for a 10 hour period.

-10/227.3
R = e = 0.957 (or 95.7%)

This means that is a group of N such components is operated under prescribed conditions, we
would expect that on average, at the end of 10 hours of operating time 0.957 N of the times
would still be performing satisfactorily whereas 0.043 N would have failed.

The failure density function or the probability density function of the failure is given by

f(t) = 1 dN
f
= - dR ..(7)
---- ------ -----
N
O
dt dt

or = -1 dR(t) f(t) .(8)
------ ------- = -----
PMI, NTPC 163
R(t) dt R(t)

In other words, the failure rate (also sometimes called hazard rate) at any time to equals the f(t)
value divided by the reliability. If is constant, the distribution is

F(t) = - dR(t) - t..(9)
------ = .e
dt

The plot of f(t) for constant hazard-rate loods like the following.


WEAROUT AND RELIABILTY

Component replacement is essential if reliable operation is required beyond the wear out time
T
W
. Such replacement restore the equipment or system to an operational condition of low
probability of failure. Thus, when good preventive maintenance is possible, reliable system
operation for very long periods becomes practical. A system which is regularly overhauled at
appropriate overhaul times almost never ages. When components are not allowed to operate
beyond T
W
the system will not fail due to wear out. Although it may still exhibit some chance
failure rate, it will in general be very reliable.

The MTBF is a very convenient parameter to express and calculate reliability in the useful life
period. When MTBF of an equipment is known its reliability for an operating period of a given
length can be calculated immediately by means of the exponential formula. The MTBF is an
PMI, NTPC 164
average time for which a failure-free operation is expected. But this is only an average, we must
expect that there will be instances when a failure occurs in much shorter period of operation the
given MTBF. On the other hand, there will e instances when failures occur only after much
longer operating times. Therefore it is not admissible to conclude from a given MTBF of M
hours that the equipment or system will surely operate without failure for m hours.
Usually, the wear out phenomena is approximated by normal or Gaussian failure distribution.
The normal density function is given by

f(t) = 1
----- . e
- (T-M)
2/26
2

6 2

Where T is the component age or accumulated operating time since new, M is mean wear out
life, and 6 is standard deviation of the life times from the mean M defined as













Any partial area under this curve from T
1
and T
2
represents the percentage of the original N
components which fail in the time interval T
2
T
1
. This area also represents the a prior
probability of any individual component of the original population to fail in the interval (T
2
-T
1
)
when put into the operation at time T=0. (when new). The reliability function is then given by.


R (T) = F (T) dT
To
PMI, NTPC 165
Let us determine now the age T
W
at which is a component has to be pulled out of service and
replaced to prevent wear out failures in operation. The replacement time T
W
has to be chosen
so as to keep the cumulative probability of wear out failure by


Q (T) = 1 F (T) dT
T

at a minimum acceptable level. The following table gives some idea is the connection,

-------------------------------------------------------------------------
T Q
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. M-2 0.0228
2. M-2 0.00135
3. M-4 0.0000317
4. M-5 0.000000287
-------------------------------------------------------------------------

If we now consider an electronic system with 10,000 equal or similar components is series, we
may find that at T = M 4m Q = 0.0000317 and r = 0.9999683 for each component. The
reliability of the whole system (in series) is then (RW) which is ridiculously low the system
would almost certainly fail of wear out during operation between each two scheduled overhauls.
If we choose the components replacement time T = M-5 or M-6, the system may be
reasonably immune to wear out failures in operation.

The following graphs show the trends in R (probability of surviving wear out) and r(t)
(Standardized failure rate) with respect to the age of components.

PMI, NTPC 166













This shows that the failure rate of a component rapidly increases once the component has
ended its useful life. In other words, the probability of wear out failure increases with age-
extremely slowly at first, but as the age approaches the mean wear out life M, this increase
becomes very rapid.

From an economic point of view one might ask the question: What advantage is gained by
removing a component from service before it has failed: Would it not be more economical to let
it operate until it, wears and fails.

Such an approach can be ver deceptive. A preventive replacement can be made when the
system in which the component operates is temporarily not in service, such as during a regular
overhaul or during a regular overhaul or during any scheduled break in the systems operation.
Thus, a preventive replacement normally does not involve any extra loss of time which would
otherwise be incurred by having to stop the system during its regular operational time when
some components fail. Obviously, component failures during operation may result in the
complete loss of the infinitely more costly system such as in the case of space flights or in
aircraft operations, perhaps even loss of lives. Therefore, whenever components are involved
which can cause system break-downs, complete loss of system of loss of lives, a preventive
maintenance of such components is a better economic proposition, than waiting until they fail an
operation. Preventive replacement is a must for reliable operation of long life system.

PMI, NTPC 167
SYSTEM RELIABILITY

So far we have studied regarding the reliability of single component. But reliability is not
confined to single components. In actual practice, we what to evaluate the reliability of a system
which is an assembly of various components working together.

System reliability calculations are based on two important operations.

a) a precise measurement of the reliability of the components used in the system
environment.

b) the calculation of the reliability of some complex combination of these components.

The following basic rules of the probability calculus are used in system reliability calculations.

i) If A and B are two independent events with probabilities P(A) and P(B), then the
probability that the both events will occur is the product.

P(AB) = P(A) x P(B)

ii) If the two event can occur simultaneously the probability that either A or B or both A and
B occur is

P (A or B or A and B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A) x P(B)

iii) If the two events are mutually exclusive so that when one occurs the other does then

P (A or B or A and B) = P(A) + P(B)

iv) If the two components are completely in addition to being mutually exclusive, that is, if A
does not occur B must occur and vice-versa we have
P (A) + P(B) = 1


PMI, NTPC 168
A SYSTEM WITH SERIES COMPONENTS

The figure shows components in series each have reliabilities R
1
, R
2
, R
3
, R
4

. R
n
respectively


.

If any one of the components fails the system also fails completely. Using the above
fundamental theorems of probability, it can be shown that the reliability of the series system is
given by

R = R . R . R . R. . R = n
-----
R
i


When all the R is in the system are exponential,

R = e
-

lt e
-

2t
e
-

nt

n
= e
(

l+

2 . +

n)t
= exp (it)
i = 1

Thus all we need to do is add. Up the constant failure rates of all series components, multiply
this sum this the operating, period t and obtain the value of R from exponential tables.

Let us take the following example. Let 4 Silicon Transistors, 20 resistors and 10 circuit,
capacitors be in a series circuit, with the following data with individual component failure rate.

t = 0.00001, r = 0.000001, c = 0.000002 each respectively.
(I = 10 d + + 4 t + 20 v + 10c = 0.0001

-0.000lt
Hence Rs (t) = e

1
MTBF = --- = 10,000 hrs.


R1 R2 R3 R
n

PMI, NTPC 169
The important aspect to be noted here is that since the reliability of a series system is a direct
product of the component reliability the system reliability will, in this case,

a) Decrease rapidly as the number of components in series are increased

b) Always be less than or almost equal to the individual reliabilities of the components in
use.

We not that for series components system,

1
MTBF = -------
i

SYSTEM WITH PARALLED COMPONENTS

If we assume that the system will still be working even if only one of the components is working,
the reliability of a parallel system will be given by

R = 1 (1-R
1
) (1-R
2
) (1-R
n
)

To find the MTBF for the parallel component system we take for example the following the
parallel units having failure rates 1 and 2 respectively.

The system reliability is



PMI, NTPC 170
In general of any n units in parallel having the same failure rate the MTBF is given by


MTFB = 1 1 1
--- + ---- +..+ ----
2 n

PARALLES SYSTEM WITH MORE THEN ONE UNIT NECESSARY FOR
SUCCESS

In many situations, we have say n number of units working in parallel and for the successful
operation at least m of these units to work. A typical example of this could be found in heating of
a reactor. To maintain a certain high temperature a desirable burning trate is required. If is
possible for us to design a burner that will take care of this problem. Considering the problem of
maintenance failure and other malfunctions, many experienced engineers would agree that this
is poor design. On the contrary, one would design n-burners, so that if at least m of these work,
the desired heat rate could be maintained, and hence the system works. If less than m work,
the system is considered to be a failure. A similar situation exists in the case of booster rockets
where we have a large number of small burners, and even if few of them fail, the mission is not
a failure.

In the above diagram of n parallel components, let the probability of successes of each unit be
p and all units are independent of each other. Thus the probability of k units working and (n-k)
units failing is given by Binomial probability distribution

p
k
x q
n-k
( n )
---- where q = 1-P
( k)

For the success of the mission we want at least m to be active, i.e. k=m,
PMI, NTPC 171
m+1, m+2, .. n. then the total probability of success is

n
Ps = ( n ) p
k
q
n-k

k=m ( k )
Example

Consider the following block diagram

Unit C is successful is any two of the four units work.

Reliability of unit B = 1-Unreliabilty of B
= 1-(1-0.0x0.0) (1-0.9x0.9)
= 0.962

Reliability of unit C

4
= (4 ) (0.8)
k
(0.2)
4-k

k=2 ( k )

= 1- (4)(0.8)
k
(0.2)
4-k

k=2 ( k )

= 0.973

PMI, NTPC 172
Reliability of the complete system is

R = 0.96 x 0.962 x 0.973 = 0.895

SYSTEM WITH STAND BY COMPONENTS

In Stand-by arrangements, when a component or units are standing by to take over the
operation when first fails. Whereas in a parallel operation all units operate simultaneously, in the
standby case the supporting units are standing-by idly and begin to operate only when the
preceding unit fails.

Stand-by arrangements normally require failure sensing and switch over devices to put the next
unit in operation. Here we assume that sensing and switching over devices are 100% reliable
and that the operating and standby components have the same constant failure rate.

We can regard such a group of standby components as being a single unit or system which is
allowed to fail a number of times before it definitely stops functioning. E
-

t
represents the
probability that no failure has occurred. E
-

t
(t)2 represents that exactly one failure has
occurred.

PMI, NTPC 173


Thus, an operating system with n components in standby has the

n
MTBF= ----


For 2 components having different failure rates 1, 2 they system



Above, the assumption was made that standby components have zero failure rate when
standby. This in general may not be true. Let us take the case of one standby component which
has a failure rate when in operation. The reliability is given by
PMI, NTPC 174


BAYs THEOREM IN RELIABILITY PREDICTION

The block diagram that we have discussed so far,, it was implied that they could reduce to an
equivalent series parallel combination. Unfortunately more often than not, then system will
neither be parallel nor series nor a combination of the two. As an example consider the following
block diagram.

Each of the blocks may represent a power plant having different generating capacity. The total
system may represent a particular power distribution grid network. As can be seen from this
diagram that it cannot be reduced to a combination of a series and parallel system. Here,
Bayes Rule provides a very power tools.

Bayes Rule is If A is an event which depends on one of two mutually exclusive events B
i
and B
j

of which one must necessarily occur, then probability of occurrence of a is given by
(P(A) = P (A, given B
i
) x P (B
i
) P(A, given B
i
) x P (B
j
)

PMI, NTPC 175
Translating this theorem into the language of reliability and denoting by a the event of a
systems failure and by B
i
and B
j
the survival and failure of a component or unit on whose
operation the system reliability depends, we can write the following rule:

The probability of system failure equals the probability of system failure given that a specified
component in the system is good, times the probability of system failure given that the said
component is bad, times the probability that the component is bad. In other work.

P (system failure ) = P (system failure given that X is good) x P (Xis good)
- P (system failure given that X is bad) x P (X is bad)

or Q
S
=Q
S
(if x is good) R
X
-Q
S
(if X is bad) Q
X


R
S
= 1 Q
S


PMI, NTPC 176
Let us now solve the problem given in the figure. To apply this theorem, the crucial point is in
obtaining a critical element such that it will reduce the diagram with remaining blocks as a
combinating of series and parallel systems. Let us choose B as the critical element.

SYSTEM MAINTENANCE AND AVAILIBILITY

Systems can be classified in two types: (i) recoverable and (ii) non-recoverable. Some of the
non-recoverable systems are missiles, Space probes such as Lunar-modules etc. Recoverable
systems are many from passenger care to big power plants. For recoverable systems
maintenance action can be provided to keep the reliability up. Maintenance action can be
classified in two categories:

I. Off-Schedule Maintenance-To restore system operation as soon as possible by
replacing, repairing of adjusting the components which cause interruption of service.
Also called corrective maintenance.

II. Schedule Maintenance-done at regular intervals: its purpose is to keep the system in a
condition consistent with its built in levels of performance, reliability and safely.

Schedule maintenance fulfills this purpose by servicing, inspections and minor or major
overhauls during which

a) Regular care is provided to normally operating sub systems and components
which require attention such as lubrication, refueling, cleaning, adjustment,
alignment etc.

b) Failed redundant components are checked, replaced, or repaired if the system
contains redundancy.

c) Components which are nearing a wear out condition are replaced or overhauled.

These actions are performed to prevent component and system failure rates from increasing
over and above the design levels. Hence scheduled maintenance is also called preventive
maintenance.
PMI, NTPC 177
The frequency at which maintenance action of type(a) must be performed depends on the
physical characteristics of the components. For type(c), it depends on the wearout statistics
(such as T
W
, M etc.) of the components and their number in a system. The frequency of type (b)
maintenance actions is governed by probabilities since it depends on the failure rate of the
components in a redundant system and reliability requirement at which such a system must
operate.

A very useful concept in reliability is the availability Function A(t). It can be interpreted as the
probability that at any time t the system is in an operating state. In many cases we are
interested in the average up-time for a definite period of time. Failed equipments are assumed
to be restored to operation in a finite time. It is also assumed, for mathematical modeling that
the mean repair rate is (Mean-time-to-repair MTTR = 1/) and the equipment repair distribution
is exponential G(t) = 1 e
-

t
). The probability of completing a repair in the time interval (t, t + dt)
given that the repair was not completed at time t is given by dt.

Without going into details of derivations, we just quote that the availability function for single
equipment systems with failure rate is given by


A (t) --------- ----------- exp (-) ( +)t)
+ +

For long term availability of the system we let t ------> and this leads us to the famous equation
(this availability is also know as uptime ratio UTR):

MTSF
Availability = ---------------- = ------------------ UTR
MTBF + MTTR +

For two equipments in series, the system
2
Availability = ---------------------------

2
+ 2 + 2
2

The down-time ratio (DTR) is defined as
MTTR
PMI, NTPC 178
DTR = (1 UTR) = ------------------
MTTR + MTBF

There are some of the useful model for one unit system with efficient repair facilities. Another
example is that of a system with n components such that the system will still be operating even
if only a minimum m of the components are working, and also given that we have a total number
of r repair facilities. We have calculated that for m = 1, n = 2.

( + 2)
UTR = ---------------------- for r =1

2
+ 2 +2
2


( + 2)
= ---------------------- for r =2

2
+ 2 +
2


Thus the uptime rate in this case is increased by 50% by increasing the repair facilities from 1 to
2, If we compare the numerical value of a two-equipment-in-series system when for each
equipment =0.05 per hour (each equipment fails on the average of once every 20 hours) and
=1.0 per hour (it takes on the average one hour for single repairman to repair a failed
equipment) then we have for each repair policy:
PMI, NTPC 179

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Repair Policy System Accumulated down time in a
Availability 10,000 hr. period.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
One repairman 0.9050 950 hrs.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Two repairmen

a) Independent Servicing 0.9070 930 hrs.
b) Joint Servicing 0.9360 640 hrs.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


This graph brings out some very interesting aspects about reliability. It can be seen that the
Fabrication Cost of an equipment goes up sharply as we try to achieve a 100% reliability
whereas this cost is low for low reliability. On the contrary, the maintenance Cost is quite high
for low reliability equipments and decreases as we use more and more reliable components. If
we look at the total cost-curve, it has a minima. This tells us that we can seek an fabrication cost
and maintenance cost over a long period of time will be the lowest.
PMI, NTPC 180
9. Permit to Work System


A permit to work is a printed form and issued to employees before they may work on specified
items of plant. The objective of this practice is to make it safe for employee to work and the
permit is his guarantee of safety.

However the following must be made clear time and again to the person obtaining permits.

-- For his own safety he must ensure that he does not work on equipment for which a
permit is necessary until it has been issued.

-- If he is drawing permit himself, he should read carefully to make sure that he knows just
which plant is declared safe. If he has any doubt he must ask the engineer issuing the
permit.

-- Sometimes he will be expected to work with a number of other people on an item of
plant. In such case, one person will draw the permit for the whole job. The permit to work
will be kept available for inspection in workshop as long as it remains in force. He must
read the permit before starting the work and if it is a long job taking more than one day
or shift, he must check it at the start of each succeeding day or shift.

-- All copies of a permit to work (PTW) must be signed when they are issued or cancelled.

-- PTW must not be signed except in the presence of the engineer issuing or canceling it.

-- On PTW, recipient will be required to sign a statement that he has completed the work
before PTW is cancelled.

-- PTW must be cleared by the person signing for recipt. Only in case of mechanical
permits to work, it is permissible for a person to clear permit, other than the person who
received the permit; but in this case the person signing for clearance must at least be a
supervisor.
PMI, NTPC 181

All competent persons (notified as such) give their clearance in a very important
statement while returning the PTW. This statement certifies the completion of work and
that the work area has been cleared of tools/tackles and men and all safety guards
replaced. These persons will then be responsible for any lapses in this regard.

STEPS/ARRANGEMENTS WHILE ISSUING PTW

Except in case of emergency, permits to work should be issued only against the presentation of
an isolation request, describing the isolation required, from maintenance department. Person
presenting him selves to collect PTW, should be fully familiar with the job and details of works to
be done so that isolation requests and permits can be matched.

All copies of PTW must be signed both at receipt and at clearance.

Receipt and clearance signatures must be made only in presence of S.C.E./unit incharge.

Permits to work should be issued between specified hours for overnight requests and at 2 hrs.
notice should be given at all other times. For convenience in clearing PTWs an engineer should
be available in the permit office during later part of the day.

PTWs should be signed for clearance by the person who signed for receipt. Where this is not
possible and in case of mechanical permits only, person signing for clearance must at least be a
supervisor.

Whenever a job is permanently transferred from one person to another, the permit should be
cancelled and reissued. The amendment of a PTW is prohibited.

When change in isolation becomes necessary, the permit should be cancelled and reissued.
Work on medium/low voltage equipments should be done when they are dead. A least two
isolations should be in service in case of electrical permit.

PMI, NTPC 182
In case of emergency, when shift Charge Engineer initiates the action, an emergency job card
should be made available from within the operation department giving details of the work to be
done to avoid breaking down of record system.

Do not operate-Caution boards should be put on items under PTW.

RECEIPT OF PERMIT OF WORK

It is the responsibility of all persons on site to ensure that they do not start work on equipments
for which a PTW is necessary until the PTW has been issued. While drawing the PTW, the
recipient should read the PTW carefully and make sure that he knows just what plant is
declared safe. If in doubt it should be clarified. All employees to work on job just check that a
permit to work is in force before commencing work on any job for which permit is necessary.
This check must be made at the start of each day or shift and before starting of any new job.

As for as possible, an individual will draw the PTW for specified jobs in which they have been
allotted. It is the responsibility of shift Charge Engineer issuing the PTW to ensure that the
person is familiar with the nature and extent of the work to the done.

When it is unavoidable, a person of higher rank can also draw the permit; but it will be the
responsibility of this person to ensure that the men under his charge are acquainted with the
plant to be worked on, the work to be done and limitations imposed by safety requirements.

When a person is required to work along with a number of other individuals, the PTW for the
whole job should be read personally be everyone before they start the work.

In case of electrical permits, it is not permissible for supervisors to draw permits unless they
perform the work themselves or supervise it continuously and directly.
PMI, NTPC 183
10. Improving Power Plant Availability with
Special Reference to Maintenance


INTRODUCTION

It a capital-scarce economy like ours, maintenance of power plants aiming at optimizing power
plant availability which in turn results in optimum power generation, has emerged as a vital
management function. While in the past, emphasis had been laid increasingly on planning new
power projects in tackle the problem of power shortages, difficulties has been faced in ensuring
optimum generation form the already existing power plants, Although several power plants have
reached high plant availability of their critical equipments, many other plants have not been
successful in achieving such availability figures and have to be frequently stopped for
unexpected breakdowns and major repairs.

During the course of a survey conducted by NPC in the fertilizer sector, it has been found out
that about 10% of the production loss is these units is owing to the power cuts. Hence it is
imperative that the power stations should improve their maintenance systems and practices and
achieve availability to the extent of 90% or more.

NORMS OF PLANT AVAILABILITY, DOWNTIME & MAINTENANCE
COST

Plant Availability

During the plant visits, it has been realized that the boiler plant is the major cause of low plant
availability of thermal stations. The following percentage contribution by various equipments
towards plant availability has been shown:

i) Boiler Plant and Equipment - 65%

ii) Turbines and Accessories - 15%
PMI, NTPC 184
iii) Turbogenerators and Auxiliaries - 4%

iv) Electricals (Including switchyard equipment) - 15%

v) Miscellaneous - 1%

It was also realized that the availability in the thermal plants could not be further improved
because of the longer boiler and turbine overhaul periods required presently. The power
stations today are requiring 39 days for boiler overhaul once a year and 67 dys for a turbine
overhaul every 2 years. The boiler overhauls should be however completed within a period of
four weeks and the turbine overhauls should be completed within 45 days.

Improvement in existing maintenance systems and practices would go a long way in reducing
planned and forced outages and ensuring higher availability. Measures should be taken for
effective maintenance planning, adequate availability of spare parts in time, use of on-line
condition monitoring instruments, utilization of sufficient number of skilled craftsmen on contract
during turnaround, employment of techniques such as PERT/CPM, delegation of authority and
co-ordination among concerned departments, improvements in skills and maintenance training.

One of the units surveyed was found to have achieved average availability of 89%. It should be
possible for all other thermal power stations to improve the present average availability of 74%
to 90%. The norms of plant availability in thermal power stations was thus recommended to the
90%.

Loss of Capacity Due to Maintenance Reasons (Downtime)

The availability of thermal power stations depends upon the extent of outages or downtime on
account of different reasons. In the course of plant visits, it was realized that the majority of the
outages fall in the category of forced outages which pertain to unexpected failures of equipment
and result in the partial or complete loss of production.

The average loss of capacity due to maintenance reasons, i.e., downtime was found to be 26%.
In some power stations, the forced outages were found to be more than those of planned ones.
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This points out to the necessity of the power stations to adopt improvements in existing
maintenance systems and practices.

Downtime in power stations can be greatly controlled if certain measures are adopted. Most of
the outages have to be planned to take care of boiler inspection once a year, scheduled
maintenance and overhauls.

It was recommended that the norms of average loss of capacity due to maintenance reasons or
the average plant outage should not be more than 10%. This recommendation has been made
on the basis 90% norms of average plant availability. Based on this, the average outage
duration time or downtime should not be more than 876 hours in a years.

Cost Implications

Power stations do not separately record the maintenance labout costs. The survey, therefore,
considered only the maintenance material costs and derived conclusions in relation to plant
maintenance on this basis.
The average cost of maintenance materials to capital expenditure on plant and machinery was
found to be 1.81%, varying from 0.54% to 5.33%. The average cost of operation per KWH of
energy generated was calculated as 5.43 paise, varying from 2.84 paise to 10.00 paise. The
average cost of maintenance materials per KWH of energy generated was calculated as 0.46
paise; verying from 0.19 paise to 0.92 paise.

One of the units was found to have incurred the ratios of maintenance materials expenditure to
capital expenditure as 3.55%, 4.95% and 5.33% during the three consecutive years, more than
the average ratio as 1.81%, yet the unit had incurred operational expenditure per KWH as 3.36
paise, 13.98 paise and 4.66 paise which were less than the average value of 5.43 paise. During
the three years, the unit achieved plant availability respectively as 85.57%, 87.58% and 94.28%
and the corresponding plant capacity utilization was 79.27%, 81.13% and 87.66%. Due to high
plant capacity utilization achieved by the unit, lower fixed costs per KWH were ensured.
Because of this and some other factors such as sufficient stand-by reserve capacity in respect
of certain critical equipments like, ID Fans, Feed water Pumps, etc., the unit was able to achieve
lower operational cost per KWH. This unit was in operation for the last ten years.

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It was recommended that the norms of maintenance materials expenditure on plant &
machinery in thermal power stations should be sustained between 3 to 5%. This
recommendation was based mainly on the performance of the unit discussed in the last para,
which had a consistently good performance during the period of three years.

Survey Findings Maintenance System and Practices

It has been seen, during the course of the survey, that most of the maintenance in the power
station is done as breakdown maintenance. System inspection are not methodically done. The
units have not developed any methods for detecting and preventing incipient failures. Overhauls
have to be frequently postponed. Corrective maintenance techniques have been followed, but
doe to poor quality of spares lack of skills, lack of suffice supervision, non-availability of proper
tools, etc., these corrective steps have not been able to produce desired results. Few units were
found to cave implemented regular preventive maintenance programme to a varying degree.

But, in general, it can be side that not much of preventive maintenance has been implemented
in the power stations so far, except for regular lubrication.

Immediate action should be taken to introduced preventive maintenance technique in a scientific
manner.

The overall performance of Thermal Power Plants is affected by poor maintenance systems and
practices, resulting in lower thermal efficiency and higher cost of operation per KWH. The
following problem areas in maintenance of thermal power stations have become apparent:

i) Management Problems
Manpower development, Delegation of Powers, work planning and scheduling, inventory
and budgetary control, etc.

ii) Problems of Techniques and System
All engineering aspects of maintenance problems such as Feed Water Control, Ash
Handling, Erosion, Pollution Control, etc.


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iii) Problems of Infrastructure
Manufacturers, assistance, contract maintenance, Procurements of Spares &
Consumables, Use of Condition monitoring instruments, etc.

iv) Problems of Maintenance Information Systems
Storing of feed back data and analysis of the same.

A maintenance engineer should be included in the project team right from the early project
stage, when plans are being worked out for design of equipments and their installation. This will
ensure proper lubrication and maintenance of the equipment in the long run.

MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION

Most managements in different power stations in the country give greater importance to
generation, design and other functional areas and not enough to maintenance and repair. As a
result of this, maintenance requirements are often not fully assessed and quality of repair of
machinery suffers. Maintenance engineers have repeatedly complained of the lack of
recognition and support.
It is recommended that maintenance responsibility in a power station of normal rating should be
given more importance then now. A person of the rank of Dy. General Manager should be
responsible for the total maintenance work in the field of mechanical equipments, electrical
machineries, instrumentation and control, civil work and for co-ordination with operation,
materials, personnel and other departments. The Dy. General Manager should be given proper
staff support. He should establish a centralized planning cell. The cell would draw up
maintenance plans and forecast spare parts requirements. The cell would also record and
monitor maintenance jobs and investigate and analyse failures/breakdowns. It would set
maintenance theme standards and utilize them in planning and execution of maintenance work.

MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL & TRAINING

Operation and maintenance in a power plant are complementary to each other. These functions
should not be considered as two water-right compartments. Since the objective of a power
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station is to run the generating equipment maximum availability, the management should see to
it that both these function help achieve corporate objective.

Because of the large number of smaller capacity sets in thermal power stations, the
requirements for maintenance personnel is large. Average ratio of maintenance personnel to
operational personnel has been found to be 1.05:1, ranging from 0.92:2 to 1.05:1, The average
ratio of maintenance personnel to total working force has been found as 40%.

The power stations have not utilized their maintenance personnel effectively, because of lack of
proper planning. Quite often when a breakdown occurs, evaluation and guidance by supervisors
is missing; proper tools and skilled workers are not available, number of maintenance men do
not match the requirement of the job and lack of proper records and information retrieval system
results in longer waiting time.

Plant equipment and machinery today is becoming more and more complex. New processes,
ideas, methods techniques and materials are being introduced faster then ever before. To keep
pace with these developments, effective maintenance demands, the application of new skills
and techniques, many of which are in areas previously considered beyond the scope of
maintenance personnel. If the maintenance department is to fulfil its proper function in a
progressive industrial society, then its personnel must be trained to meet current needs and
future requirements.

Training should not be a once only event but a continuous and progressive process designed
to increase the individual potential of maintenance craftsmen and to form then into a technically
qualified, well-organised, efficient team. Training need not always be of a purely technical or
specialized nature. Subjects such as maintenance techniques, maintenance organization,
method study which enable a person to understand the reason for and the purpose of effective
maintenance give an added dimension to his job. There is a vital need for refresher training at
all levels.

MAINTENANCE PLANNING

For effective maintenance planning, three aspects should be considered: past performance
data, effective use of maintenance personnel and spare parts.
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In a number of power plants, maintenance records are not being kept. Hence decisions are
taken based on experience rather than on recorded data. Planning procedures are required to
the improved in the power.

It has been seen that whenever a unit has been careful in planning maintenance work through a
centralized cell, its performance has considerably improved.

Plant History records are not properly updated and reference is seldom made to them. Some
units keep history records in the form of Log Books/Registers maintained in chronological order,
which basically do not provide any useful information for planning purposes. Equipment-wise
history cards provide the best method for recording maintenance history. In order for these
history records to be effective, they have to be analysed on a regular basis. The regular analysis
of plant history records is an essential part of operating preventive and planned maintenance.
This factual data will enable the management to take necessary action for raising maintenance
standards and improving cost effectiveness.

If is recommended that in order to achieve effectiveness in maintenance work, management
should create a centralized planning cell at plant level. This cell should be responsible for
drawing up maintenance plans and spare parts planning based on factual data in order to
ensure the optimum utilization of all resources coming under the purview of maintenance. There
is also need for the other activities like, material inspection, important substitution, modification
projects, vibration analysis and condition monitoring, etc. to be kept centralized at plant level but
necessarily not under this planning cell.

It is also recommended that preventive maintenance groups should be formed at plant level for
effective accomplishment of these activities. The personnel belonging to such PM group would
not normally be utilized for repair and breakdown jobs except on emergency. They would be
utilized for preventive maintenance inspection, adjustments and reporting.

SPARE PARTS MANAGEMENT

The availability of spares is very vital for ensuring higher availability and utilization of thermal
power stations.

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It is noted that a significant number of power stations are not aware of the importance of
maintaining proper records on spare parts inventories. Some of the SEB units have indicated
that major spare parts are being purchased by the central purchasing committee of the
Headquarters. Such procedures affect planning at plant level. For effective spare parts planning,
a record of consumption and inventory of spares and stores should be maintained by the units.

Some units have indicated 40-42% as spare parts inventory in respect of total inventory. Other
units could not provide percentage figures of spares parts in relation to either spares and stores
or total inventory.

A few units had no plans for reducing maintenance spares inventories. Others had claimed that
they had taken steps to reduce maintenance spares inventory by proper planning.

Several units had stated slow moving/nonmoving spares as 30% and insurance spares as 20%
of total spares. Others did not provide data regarding percentage slow moving and insurance
spares.

Spare parts planning has not been centralized in some of the units. Each section of the
maintenance departments plans its own spares requirements. Rigorous analysis of stock-in and
stock-out costs is of importance while planning to procure spare parts. This is not done in a
number of power stations. There is a greater tendency to depend on manufacturers instructions,
since in-plant data could not be collected due to lack of resources. As the maintenance
personnel have not been associated right from the project planning stage, there is often a
haphazard ordering of spare parts without determining the fast moving or slow-moving items.

Considerable work has been done in may power stations in indigenous substitution of imported
spare parts. The plants have modified specifications in order to suit the capabilities of the local
ancillary industries. The limitation has been the availability of raw materials such as special alloy
steels, etc. Indigenous development of spare parts require considerable research, trial and tests
and feedback from the power stations. Adequate test facilities have to be built for this purpose.
The SEBs should be aware of this need of power stations and provide adequate test facilities for
indigenous substitution of imported spare parts.

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Presently there is lack of co-ordination and flow of information among the various power stations
regarding their import substitution measures. There are numerous commendable examples of
import substitution achieved by the thermal power station in operation with local industries, but
such information is, however, not reaching other power stations for their benefit. These should
be collected, categories and published by Central Organisation(s) periodically. The Department
of Power, Govt. of India, should take necessary steeps for establishing a Data Bank which
would collect all successful maintenance repair data and import substitution details and bring
out a monthly publication.

It is recommended that average ratio of spares inventory to capital expenditure on plant
equipment and machinery should range between 5% to 6%. The basis of fixing up this norm is
shown as below:

Maintenance Materials Expenditure
Norms of ----------------------------------------------------------------- = 30%
Capital Expenditure on Plant & Machinery
Since, we should normally carry on inventory
Double that the consumption, therefore,


Spares Inventory
Norms of ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 2 x 3%
Capital Expenditure on Plant equipment and
Machinery = 6%

(Range 5% to 6%)

Condition monitoring pertains to providing information on the condition of machinery and
equipment so that it can be maintained properly. One can predict incipient failures with the help
of such information of machine condition and plan the maintenance and repair accordingly. In
this way, maintenance can be carried out more effectively and efficiently with a minimum loss of
time and expense.

Many power stations are guided by a preventive maintenance policy which is based upon
programmed replacements and repairs. The problem in planning preventive maintenance and in
implementing service replacement in to decide about the appropriate maintenance interval for
each machine. As the maintenance needs of a machine are dependent on the differences in the
operation of the machine and in the behaviour of its components, scheduling of maintenance
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cannot be worked out easily. With the help of condition monitoring, the performance and
behaviour of each critical machine can be inspected on a regular basis. The data collected by
the appropriate condition monitoring techniques will then enable programming of optimum
maintenance.

In the report of the Central Electricity Authority on thermal plant outages during 1977-78, it has
been shown that the capacity loss due to forced outage of thermal plants is quite high, over
19%. This confirms that the maintenance planning & monitoring in our thermal power plants
require to be improved, maintenance inspection be strengthened and sophisticated techniques
such as signature analysis & condition monitoring methods have to be adopted in these plants.
Proper records have to be maintained and further maintenance actions have to be carried out in
the light of past records. There has to be continuous training for the staff and engineers of the
maintenance departments & proper attitude has to be developed. Then only the forced outages
would decline and the thermal units would run to a proper schedule and on an optimum load.