Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship

Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities

Author: Paul Hayes

1
Introduction
The following two quotes highlight both the past and present status of the militarys
relationship with the media.
1864: I hate newspapermen. They come into camp and pick up their
camp rumors and print them as facts. I regard them as spies, which, in
truth, they are. General William Tecumseh Sherman

2004: Quote from writer on relationship between press and PAOs. I
could spout off more about the indignities, incompetence, and rudeness I
have been subjected to by PAOs, but the high ground in this discussion
is not going to be held by whining. It will be won and held with
constructive solutions. James Lacey, OCT 2004 issue of Proceedings

In 140 years, has the relationship improved that much? If this necessary interaction is
so strained, why not find a way to fix it? Using the theories of Earnest Bormann and
Robert Cialdini might shed light on how to improve this association. Bormanns theory
of symbolic convergence (SCT) uses the sharing of group fantasies to achieve a symbolic
meeting of the minds between two opposing groups. Robert Cialdinis tools of
influence focus on using mental shortcuts to sway opinion and action. By examining
these two theories in depth, their foundations, criticisms, and practical applications, we
will see how they could be used either together or separately to improve the military-
media relationship.
Bormann and SCT
Ernest Bormann began his work on SCT in the early 1970s. Inspired by the work of a
Freudian scholar, Robert Bales, Bormanns studies of group behavior inspired him to
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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theorize that groups collectively dream. He surmised that just as individuals dream
during the day and night about events that do not presently exist, groups too create
fantasies that help them cope with their social realities. (Gunn, 48) Therefore, he
designed his work around a study of group interaction and how he could predict their
activities. Bormann himself described SCT as, a general theory which provides a
universal explanation of human communication. (Bormann, 51) While the term
general appears somewhat broad, within communications theory, it has specific
meaning.
SCT as a general theory of communication
As a general theory, SCT deals with, tendencies in human communication events that
cannot be ignored or rescinded by participants. (Bormann, 2) As a general theory, SCT
is both transcultural and transhistorical and accounts for the creation and use of special
communications theories. (Bormann, 2)
While considered a general theory of communication, compared with other theories -
SCT is also a social theory. Where agenda setting theory relies on media for
communication, primarily SCT relies on the verbal communication within small groups.
Of course, the application of SCT relies on some basic assumptions. In defining these
assumptions for their work on applying SCT to corporate strategic planning, John Cragan
and Donald Shields established six critical assumptions for SCT. (Cragan and Shields,
1992)
1. Meaning, emotion, and motive for action are in the manifest content of the
message.
2. Reality is created symbolically.
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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3. Fantasy theme chaining creates symbolic convergence that is dramatistic in form.
4. Fantasy theme analysis is the basic method to capture symbolic reality.
5. Fantasy themes occur in and chain out from all discourse.
6. At least three master analogues righteous, social, and pragmatic compete as
alternative explanations of symbolic reality.
SCT definitions
To further help in understanding SCT, Bormann defines some of the key terms above
that make up his theory. Understanding the key terms of communication, symbolic
convergence, fantasy type, rhetorical community, rhetorical vision, and saga help put his
theory into perspective.
Bormann defines communication as a human social process where people create, raise,
and sustain consciousness. It is in this definition of communication that we see SCT as a
social theory. SCT requires communication between people.
Symbolic convergence is not necessarily an event as it is a process. First, symbolic
convergence, creates, maintains and allows people to achieve empathetic communion as
well as a meeting of the minds. (Bormann, 51) Second, the convergence is symbolic.
The symbology of SC is in the human tendency to interpret signs, objects, and the things
people say or do and assign meaning to them. Finally, the convergence portion of SC
is the way in which two or more, private symbolic worlds incline towards each other,
come more closely together, or even overlap. (Bormann, 51)
Critical to the process of SC is the definition of fantasy. A fantasy is the, creative and
imaginative interpretation of events that fulfils a psychological rhetorical need. (Griffin,
38) An example of a fantasy might be seen in Shermans quote, all reporters are spies.
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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While this fantasy might not be true, for Shermans group it explains why papers
consistently published military secrets.
Rhetorical communities are those that share the fantasy. They are the members of the
group that share a rhetorical vision. This vision is a, shared script that predicts how
events will occur. Using the Sherman example, the community is made up of military
officers. The rhetorical vision is the collection of shared fantasies that paint an overall
picture of the communitys perspective. For example, Shermans spies fantasy coupled
with other fantasies within the group of reporters paint a vision of reporters are the
enemy for the entire group.
The final term, saga, also plays a critical role in SCT. A saga is a, detailed narrative of
the achievement and events in the life of a person, group, community, or organization.
According to Bormann, it is the glue that binds the community together. The saga is the
shared events or stories in the groups past that tie it together. The saga is the impetus
between us versus them. (Bormann, 53) Using the Sherman example, the saga for his
group of officers might be the battles and campaigns his officers shared over the course
of the war. Certainly the reporters could not share in this group saga as they were banned
from camp and remained on the outside looking in.
Strengths and criticisms
There are several strengths to SCT as a communications theory. First and foremost,
SCT has objective characteristics that allow it to explain the past and present and predict
the future. Bormann uses a three-part structure to show how the theory can be applied.
First, SCT is used to discover the recurring forms of communication indicative of a
shared group consciousness. Second, the theory explains why a group consciousness
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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begins, rises, and is sustained , thus providing meaning, emotion, and motive for
members of a symbolic community. Third, SCT clarifies the process of how people
share(or cease to share) a common symbolic reality. (Cragan and Shields, 200)
Another strength of SCT is that it is transhistorical and transcultural. (Bormann, 2)
In this way, it can be used to explain the actions of small groups from the Roman Empire
as well as present day Middle America. The last strength of SCT is that it has proven
itself in practical applications. The theory has seen applications in education, corporate
planning, and political strategy.
The theory, however, is not without its weaknesses and criticisms. The first critic of
Bormann was G. P. Mohrmann. His criticisms were three-fold. First, symbolic
convergence theory reinvented the wheel. Mohrmann charged that Bormann was merely
putting a confusing spin on the work of Kenneth Burkes dramatistic vocabulary and
Roland Barthess semiotics (Gunn, 50)
Second, the theory lacked rigor and its method promoted cookie-cutter or formulaic
solutions. Mohrmann again charged that Bormanns basic definitions lack precision
and that his theory consequently, lacked sophistication and invited mechanical
application. Furthermore, he stated that all that fantasy theme analysis seemed to
achieve was the discovery of themes, types, and visions as a self-contained exercise,
not signaling that life is drama, only that it can be described in dramatic terms. (Gunn,
50)
The final criticism of Bormann is that his theory is based on Freud and, thus, is internally
contradictory. At the heart of the charge, was that to Freud, individual dreams were
misleading distortions of wishes and unconscious desires; hence, the motive or source of
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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group fantasy, likewise, could not be discerned on the basis of surface texts and apparent
fantasies. Picking up on this, Joshua Gunn in 2003 went on to expand on this concept
and even provoked a response from Bormann himself. (see Defending Symbolic
Convergence Theory From an Imaginary Gunn, Quarterly Journal of Speech Vol. 89, No.
4, November 2003, pp. 366372)
Opportunities for application
While Bormann had his critics, his supporters include Cragan, Shields, Novek, and
Haskins. These researchers all contributed to Bormanns original work by demonstrating
the theorys practical applications.
Bormann himself provides application recommendations for teachers and consultants.
To this end, he indicated that the theory could be helpful diagnosing communications
malfunctions and assessing communications effects.
In diagnosing communications malfunctions, Bormann suggests SCT can be applied to
organizational audits. Teachers and consultants can use individual and group interviews
to discover the dramatizing messages, stories, histories, and anecdotes that members tell
to each other. Additionally, Bormann suggests consultants review official
communications documents such as mission statements, organizational goals, and plans.
Unofficial documents are important too. Poems, songs, jokes, bulletin boards, and
newsletters are also important to glean shared fantasies. By examining these documents
and conducting interviews, Bormann suggests that a rhetorical vision will emerge. This
vision will lead to defining the communications malfunction. (Bormann, 56)
An example of this application is seen in the work of Elanor Novek. She was able to
explore communications issues at a prison by using SCT to analyze the prison newspaper.
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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Through her work, she concluded that the prison newspaper allowed the inmates to,
build community through shared narratives and construct a rhetorical vision of the
institution. (Novek, 299)
Bormann also suggests that consultants can use SCT to assess communication effects.
In analyzing the 1976 presidential campaign, he demonstrated SCT could also study mass
media effects. In particular, his studies provided a detailed and plausible explanation
of the relationship among campaign messages, media coverage, and voting behavior.
(Bormann, 57) In an interesting twist, the researchers investigated cartoons as the basis
of their qualitative research. Repeated again in the 1980 campaign, Bormann was also
able to chart the rise, progression, and decline of major rhetorical visions and how they
could be used to predict election results. (Bormann, 59)
Another suggested application for SCT is for corporate strategic planning and business
leadership. In their 1992 case study, Cragan and Shields demonstrated how SCT could
be used to review organizational communication. Using interviews and surveys, Cragan
and Shields to help the organization determine a name, explain the corporate saga,
determine positioning statements, establish market segmentation, and select appropriate
sales stories / advertising messages. (Cragan and Shields, 215) In one of his earlier
works, Bormann, Pratt and Putnam looked at the interaction between male and female
leaders within a simulated business organization. Their research included reviewing
decision-making communication, conflict management communication, and interpreted
shared group fantasies to address the issues of power, authority and sex within the
workplace. One of their most significant findings was that males shared a castigation
fantasy when demoted in front of female peers. (Bormann, Pratt, Putnam, 119-120)
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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A competing theory - Cialdini and tools of influence
Robert Cialdinis tools of persuasion provide a different approach to
communications theory. First researched in 1972, Cialdini has spent years developing
and refining his tools. Similar to Petty and Cacioppos elaboration likelihood model,
Cialdini suggests that six basic principles of behavior used singly or in combinations
engender compliance with a request. Originally called, weapons of influence,
Cialdinis six tools persuade by, appealing to a limited set of deeply rooted human
drives and needs in a predictable way. (Mandell, 35) Similar to the elaboration
likelihood models peripheral branch, Cialdinis tools work best on those who lack the
motivation and ability to process elaboration. The practical applications of his work are
seen in his recommendations for brokers, managers, and even non-profit organizations.
Cialdinis work is not considered a classic communication theory. In fact, Cialdinis
background is psychology. Despite this background, however, Cialdinis work has
objective characteristics much like Bormanns. Similar to Bormanns SCT, Cialdinis
tools of influence seek to define why someone acted as they did and predict how they will
act in the future.
Additionally, Cialdinis work is complimentary to that of Petty and Cacioppo. In their
work on ELM, they looked at two routes by which receivers (people) are persuaded
(Figure 1). One route, the central route, requires receivers to, carefully scrutinize the
ideas, try to figure out if they have merit, and mull over their implications. (Griffin,
198) Using this rational route can be time consuming and requires both the motivation to
process and ability to process the argument. On the other hand, the peripheral route
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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offers a shortcut to either accept or reject an argument, without any active thinking
about the attributes of the issue or the object of consideration. (Griffin, 198)
It is on this peripheral route that
Cialdini found his niche. On the
peripheral route, receivers rely on
a variety of clues that allow them
ot make quick decision thus
allowing them to avoid extensive
cognitive work. (Griffin, 198)
Tools of Influence Keys to the
kingdom of persuasion
Tools of influence are another
word for clues. In 1984, Cialdini defined these six important tools of influence. The
principle of liking proposes people like those that like them. As a rule, he proposes,
persuaders should uncover real similarities between themselves and the receiver and offer
genuine praise. (Cialdini, 74) As a result, his research proves that if you love me,
youll love my ideas. (Griffin, 198) The next principle is that of reciprocity (you owe
me). Reciprocity is the theory that people will repay in kind. (Cialdini, 75) Therefore,
those who wish to persuade with this tool should give what you want to receive. The
third principle is that of social proof (everybodys doing it). Social proof finds its power
in the thought that people will follow the lead of similar others. (Cialdini, 76) He
proposes that we should use peer power whenever possible. The next tool of influence
is consistency (weve always done it that way). Consistency dictates that people will
Figure 1
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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align with their clear commitments. Those wishing to utilize this tool should make their
commitments active, public, and voluntary. (Cialdini, 76) Authority (because I say so)
is the rule that states people will defer to experts. Thos wishing to utilize authority
should expose their expertise and should not assume it is self evident. (Cialdini, 77) The
final principle is that of scarcity (quick, before theyre all gone). Cialdini believes that
people want more of what they can have less of. Persuaders using this clue should
highlight unique benefits and exclusive information. (Cialdini, 78)
Strengths and criticisms
As seen with SCT, each theory has its own strengths and weaknesses. One of the
strengths of Cialdinis work is its simplicity. Cialdini himself describes them as, easy
for most people to grasp, even those with formal education in psychology. (Cialdini,
79) this simplicity has allowed him to travel across the country using the theory as a
basis for business lectures. Another strength of Cialdinis principles is that they will be
more useful in the future. Cialdini explains that each tool has the ability to produce a,
distinct kind of automatic, mindless compliance from people, that is a willingness to say
yes without thinking first. (Cialdini, xiv) He argues that in the ever-accelerating
informational crush of modern life, this form of unthinking compliance will be more
prevalent in our future. The final strength of Cialdinis work is that it has been well
researched and scrutinized over the past three decades. While Cialdini has been
responsible for the majority of the research, the business community has heavily
recommended his principles. George Soros, Peter Lynch, and Berkshire Hathaway Vice
Chair Charles Munger all attest to the validity (financial mainly) of Cialdinis principles.
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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The first criticism against Cialdini might come from another theory. The work of
agenda setting advocates such as Shaw suggest that persuasion itself is losing ground to
informational gated communities. Receivers of today are relying more and more to
mediums of persuasion which they chose. For example, those who gain all their
information from a specific set of blogs, will not respond to persuaders from outside that
community regardless of their authority. Those who wish to persuade, must be within
the gated community to do so before any of Cialdinis tools might have an affect. Shaw,
21)
Another criticism of Cialdini comes from observing those who initially reject attempts at
persuasion. Tormala and Petty researched attitudes of people being persuaded and the
damage done to the persuaders cause if initially rejected. They originally assumed that
when a would-be persuader was unsuccessful in an attempt to change a target attitude,
little or no damage was done to the overall cause Their findings, however, showed that
failed persuasion attempts can backfire by making people more committed than ever to
their original attitudes. (Tormala and Petty, 441)
Applications for Cialdini
Cialdini does not hide the fact that the major applications for his work rest with those in
the business of selling. In fact, Cialdini has made a significant amount of money
traveling the country selling his books to marketers, brokers, and advertisers. Nancy
Mandell of On Wall Street aimed the lessons of Cialdini at fee based financial advisers.
(Mandell, 34) In examining the branding of Lexus and Rolex, Cialdni examined how
consumers purchasing habits were influenced by comparisons with individuals who were
wealthier and more successful than themselves. These results were geared towards
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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advertisers and supported his principle of social proof. (Mandel, Petrova, and Cialdini,
68) Cialdini has also found application for managers. He suggests that managers could
use the tools of influence to persuade office mates and subordinates. He furthermore
suggest they rely on conversations and informal interaction to implement the tactics.
(Cialdini, 79)
The way forward How can I apply the two theories?
Both Bormann and Cialdini present communications theories that have been proven in
practical applications. Bormanns theory can be used to define and predict the actions of
groups. Cialdinis principles can be used to persuade. These two theories can be used in
concert to improve the relationship between the military and media.
The first step of this application would be to utilize Bormanns theory to select and
define the media as a small group. The application should focus on small group such as a
media pool or beat reporters in an area surrounding a military post. Using Bormanns
three steps, research should be designed to,
1. Determine the recurring forms of communication indicative of a shared media pool
group consciousness.
2. Determine how the group consciousness began, rose, and is sustained, thus providing
meaning, emotion, and motive for members of the media community.
3. Clarify the process of how the media share a common symbolic reality.
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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Fantasy
Reality
Symbolic
Convergence
Military are
mouthpieces
They are lying
to us
They are
avoiding our
questions
They are
out of touch
with reality
Theyre out
for a scoop
They dont
share the
hardship
They hate
the Army
They just
want to
sell
papers
On
deadline
Have
pressure
from
editors
Volunteered
Have
friends
that died
Want the
truth
Dont totally
understand but
want to learn
They dont know
anything about
what we do
Have pressure
form the top
Have to
safeguard
information
Mustnt get
ahead of policy
Competition
Responsible for
subordinates
lives
Have oath to
Constitution
Have strong
ethics
Bormanns Symbolic Convergence and the Military vs. Media Relationship
Where is the
common ground?
Throughout this process, the medias fantasies (Figure 2) and saga would be identified
thus allowing prediction
of future media actions.
Utilizing SCT to with
the media would require
building a
comprehensive media
list for the group,
conducting surveys,
follow-up interviews,
and content analysis of
media official and un-official communication.
In an ideal world, SCT would lead to a meeting of the minds. However, if that is not
possible, the second part of the application is to implement Cialdinis tools of influence.
How can those who fall outside the common ground be influenced? (Figure 3) Most
public affairs officers lament the
coverage media provide to high
profile events and curse
coverage of highly negative
events. Throughout the
implementation of SCT, many of
the medias likes and dislikes
Figure 2
Symbolic
Convergence
Application of Cialdini in Military Media Relationship - Influencing the outliers
common
ground
Cialdinis Area
of Influence
Figure 3
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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will be learned by exposing fantasies and sagas. Using these exposed points of influence,
select tools could be successfully implemented. Cialdini realizes all six tools might not
be successful if used simultaneously. Ideally, through interviews, surveys and content
analysis, two or three of Cialdinis techniques might be identified as viable alternatives.
Using these tools could lead to reporters being more receptive to pitched stories.
Additionally, using these tools could also be used to obtain coverage at key community
relations events,
Conclusion
Both Bormann and Cialdinis theories provide a fresh, relevant, and proven approach to
improving relationships within small groups and between individuals. The relationship
between the military and media is an important subject that must be improved to maintain
public trust and ensure success of future military campaigns. By utilizing these two
theories, the relationship can be improved and all groups will benefit.
Applying Communications Theory to the Military Media Relationship
Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

15
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Social Convergence Theory and its Possibilities
Author: Paul Hayes

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