Académique Documents
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Francis Feingold
PHIL 871
Dr. Tobias Hoffmann
4/7/1!
T"#$I%# &ITHI# TH" &ILL' $(%T)$ A#D A*)I#A$ %# A#G"LI( $I#
1. Introduction
T+o,g+ -+e sin of -+e angels mig+- seem a- firs- glance an arcane and e.o-ic -o/ic -+a- /,s+es -+e
bo,ndaries of 0+a- o,r limi-ed in-ellec-s can gras/1 i- in fac- in2ol2es a 3,es-ion of 2i-al in-eres- -o an4
/+iloso/+ical ,nders-anding of +,man freedom' +o0 is an irra-ional c+oice /ossible 0i-+in -+e 2er4 domain of
reason i-self5 T+o,g+ akrasia1 -+e corr,/-ion of -+e /rac-ical 6,dgmen- d,e -o -+e infl,ence of -+e sense a//e-i-es1
is i-self none -oo l,cid a conce/-1 i- a- leas- gi2es ,s an in-,i-i2e e./lana-ion of -+e motive for -+e corr,/- 6,dgmen-.
For e.am/le1 i- is eas4 -o ,nders-and -+a- -+e reason why m4 ra-ional a--en-ion is di2er-ed from -+e good of s-a4ing
+eal-+4 and is -,rned ins-ead -o -+e lesser good of sensor4 s-im,la-ion is beca,se m4 sense a//e-i-e70+ic+ is
some+o0 con6oined -o -+e 0ill in i-s desires and delig+-s7desires -+e -as-e of ice cream. T+e g,il-1 in -+is case1 is
clearl4 fo,nded in m4 0ill8s c+oice -o +eed i-s 9lo0er: inclina-ion -o sa-isf4 -+e sense a//e-i-e ra-+er -+an i-s
9+ig+er: inclina-ion -o /,rs,e -+e good of reason; a lo0er motive is /referred -o a +ig+er one. <,- +o0 is one -o
e./lain -+e sin of /,rel4 in-ellec-,al beings1 0+ere -+ere sim/l4 are no sense a//e-i-es -o conflic- 0i-+ -+e 0ill8s
inclina-ion -o /,rs,e -+e good of reason5 Ho0 are 0e -o a--rib,-e g,il- -o an angel1 if angelic sin is mo-i2a-ed b4
-+e 2er4 same inclina-ion 9-o0ards -+e good of reason: as angelic 6,s-ice5 &e do no- blame -+ose 0+o do -+e
0rong -+ing for -+e rig+- reason1 b,- ra-+er /i-4 -+em for -+eir mis-a=e; 4e- -+e angels a: can ma=e no mis-a=e1 and
b: seem inca/able in an4 case of ac-ing o,- of an4 mo-i2a-ion sa2e >-+e rig+- one1? i.e. -+e /,rs,i- of -+e ra-ionall4
a//re+ended good. Ho0 is one -o acco,n- for -+is a//aren- con-radic-ion5 &e 0ill +ere e.amine -0o famo,s
a--em/-s -o sol2e -+is /roblem' -+a- of $-. T+omas A3,inas and -+a- of <l. D,ns $co-,s. Firs- -+e core elemen-s of
A3,inas8 -+eor4 0ill be laid o,-1 and an a//aren- fla0 in -+e reasoning 0ill be disc,ssed1 namel4 -+e a//aren- lac=
of a /la,sible motivation for -+e angels -o fail -o com/le-e -+eir delibera-ion before ma=ing -+eir c+oice 9and -+,s
-o sin 0i-+o,- direc-l4 2iola-ing -+e command of -+eir inerran- /rac-ical in-ellec-:. T+en 0e 0ill -,rn -o $co-,s and
+is a--em/- -o g,ard agains- -+is /roblem b4 +a2ing reco,rse -o a 0ill com/osed of no- one b,- -0o f,ndamen-al
inclina-ions 9-+e affectio commodi and -+e affectio iustitiae:; and I 0ill see= -o s+o0 -+a- -+is sol,-ion is indeed
consis-en-1 and moreo2er -+a- i- fi-s in remar=abl4 0ell 0i-+ -+e broader T+omis-ic ,nders-anding of sin in general.
2. A=rasia in Aquinas
To /in/oin- 0+ere -+e diffic,l-4 0i-+ A3,inas8 -+eor4 mig+- lie1 0e m,s- firs- la4 o,- -+e f,ll s-reng-+ of
i-s arc+i-ec-,re1 0+ic+ is formidable gi2en -+e diffic,l-4 of -+e s,b6ec- and -+e seeming con-radic-ions be-0een -+e
/remises on 0+ic+ i- is based. %n -+e one +and1 $-. T+omas o//oses in-ellec-,al de-erminism in no ,ncer-ain
-erms1 since -+is 0o,ld elimina-e -+e gro,nds for moral acco,n-abili-4'
$ome +a2e +eld -+a- -+e +,man 0ill is necessaril4 mo2ed -o c+oose -+ings. <,- -+e4 did no- +old -+a-
-+e 0ill is coerced1 since onl4 some-+ing from an e.-ernal so,rce1 no- e2er4-+ing necessar41 is coerced.
And so also some necessar4 mo2emen-s are na-,ral b,- no- coerced. For 0+a- is coerced is as con-rar4 -o
0+a- is na-,ral as -o 0+a- is 2ol,n-ar41 since -+e so,rce of bo-+ -+e na-,ral and -+e 2ol,n-ar4 is in-ernal1
and -+e so,rce of 0+a- is coerced is e.-ernal.
<,- -+is o/inion is +ere-ical. For i- -a=es a0a4 -+e reason for meri- and demeri- in +,man ac-s1 as i-
does no- seem meri-orio,s or demeri-orio,s for /ersons -o do necessaril4 0+a- -+e4 co,ld no- a2oid doing.
I- is also -o be co,n-ed among -+e oddes- /+iloso/+ical o/inions1 since i- is no- onl4 con-rar4 -o fai-+ b,-
also s,b2er-s all -+e /rinci/les of moral /+iloso/+4.
1
In o-+er 0ords1 no- onl4 is -+e +,man 0ill free from -+e con-rol of an4 o-+er agen-1 b,- i- is free also from an4
necessi-4 im/osed b4 any other powers intrinsic to man1 of 0+ic+ -+e in-ellec- is of co,rse -+e /rime e.am/le.
And 4e-1 a- -+e same -ime A3,inas is adaman- -+a- -+ere is ne2er discord be-0een -+e 0ill and -+e final
/rac-ical 6,dgmen- of -+e in-ellec-' >c+oice res,l-s from -+e decision or 6,dgmen- 0+ic+ is1 as i- 0ere1 -+e
concl,sion of a /rac-ical s4llogism1?
and >a 6,dgmen- abo,- -+is /ar-ic,lar ob6ec- of o/era-ion +ere and no0 can
ne2er be con-rar4 -o o,r a//e-i-e.?
@
As a res,l-1 -+ere can be no e2il c+oice 0+en 0e are f,ll4 a0are of -+e -r,e
9/ar-ic,lar: good1 for s,c+ a0areness can onl4 res,l- in a -r,e /rac-ical s4llogism; and since a /rac-ical s4llogism1
if carried -+ro,g+1 canno- fail -o inform -+e mo2emen- of -+e 0ill1 i- follo0s -+a- -+e c+oice of -+e 0ill -+a- is made
in f,ll a0areness of -+e good is necessarily rig+-. Hence a bad /rac-ical s4llogism 9i.e. one -+a- does no- -a=e -+e
>+ig+er r,le? or1 in more commonAsense -erms1 -+e >bigger /ic-,re? in-o considera-ion:
4
is /ossible onl4 if -+e
in-ellec- fails in i-s a0areness of -+e -r,e good and ins-ead s,bs-i-,-es a considera-ion of a merel4 a//aren- good'
>From a correc- a//e-i-e for -+e las- end -+e inordina-e desire for some-+ing co,ld no- follo0 ,nless reason 0ere -o
1
$-. T+omas A3,inas1 De Malo 9+ereaf-er DM:1 3. BI1 ar-. 11 -rans. Cic+ard Cegan 9#e0 Dor=' %.ford )ni2ersi-4 Press1 !!@:.
ST IAII1 3. 1@1 ar-. @ 9-rans. Fa-+ers of -+e "nglis+ Dominican Pro2ince1 1E47:.
@
De eritate 9+ereaf-er D:1 3. 41 ar-. .
4
(f. DM1 3. 1F1 ar-. .
@
-a=e as referable -o -+e end some-+ing 0+ic+ is no- so referable.?
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Ho0 are 0e -o reconcile -+ese /assages5 For if 0e are con-en- sim/l4 -o insis- 9as A3,inas seems -o: -+a-
-+e 0ill errs sim/l4 beca,se1 and onl4 insofar as1 -+e in-ellec- is in error1
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and allo0 -+e ma--er -o remain -+ere1 0e
no- onl4 +a2e e.cl,ded -+e /ossibili-4 of a sinf,l inerran- being' 0e also +a2e e.cl,ded -+e /ossibili-4 of +,man
g,il-1 since a deficienc4 of o,r in-ellec- lies o,-side of o,r /o0er -o e2en recogniHe1 le- alone remed4 9for if -+e
lig+- of o,r in-ellec- fails1 b4 0+a- lig+- s+all 0e see -o res-ore i-5:. (learl41 -+erefore 0e m,s- be on o,r g,ard in
a--rib,-ing -o A3,inas a belief -+a- -+e freedom of -+e 0ill is sim/l4 derived from -+e freedom of -+e in-ellec-1 and
some dis-inc-ions are in order. T+e 0ill8s freedom is indeed >deri2a-i2e? in -+a-1 0ere i- no- for -+e ,ni2ersali-4 of
-+e in-ellec-8s =no0ledge1 0e 0o,ld be in -+e same condi-ion as -+e br,-e animals; i- is onl4 beca,se o,r in-ellec-
can s+o0 ,s -+e /ar-ic,lar good as a limi-ed /ar-ici/a-ion in -+e ,ni2ersal good -+a- 0e are a- liber-4 -o ei-+er -,rn
-o0ards 0+a- i- +as of real goodness1 or -o -,rn a0a4 from -+e in+eren- deficienc4 and limi-a-ion of -+a-
goodness.
7
I- is in -+is sense -+a- -+e 6,dgmen- of -+e /rac-ical in-ellec- can ne2er a--ain -o -+e cer-i-,de of
s/ec,la-i2e science1 b,- m,s- al0a4s remain f,ndamen-all4 contin!ent1 o/en -o con-raries; and in -+is sense -+e
con-ingenc4 of -+e 0ill8s o/era-ion is roo-ed in -+e con-ingenc4 of -+e o/era-ion of -+e /rac-ical in-ellec-.
8
T+e
0ill8s freedom is also deri2a-i2e from -+a- of -+e in-ellec- in -+a- -+e specification of -+e 0ill8s ac-7-+a- 0+ic+
gi2es i- i-s form or >con-en-1? ma=ing i- an ac- of a gi2en >s/ecies? s,c+ as almsAgi2ing1 res-i-,-ion1 or ad,l-er47
comes -o i- from -+e ob6ec- /resen-ed b4 -+e in-ellec- in -+e /rac-ical s4llogism. In o-+er 0ords1 -+e ac- of c+oice
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D 3. 1 ar-. F. (f. Tobias Hoffmann1 >A3,inas and In-ellec-,al De-erminism' T+e Tes- (ase of Angelic $in1? Archiv f"r #eschichte
der $hilosophie 8E 9!!7:1 1E.
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ST IAII1 3. 771 ar-. ' >$ince -+e ob6ec- of -+e 0ill is a good or an a//aren- good1 i- is ne2er mo2ed -o an e2il1 ,nless -+a- 0+ic+ is no-
good a//ear good in some res/ec- -o -+e reason; so -+a- -+e 0ill 0o,ld ne2er -end -o e2il1 ,nless -+ere 0ere ignorance or error in -+e reason.?
(f. also e.g. S%#1 <=. 41 c+. E@1 IIFA7.
7
ST IAII1 3. 1!1 ar-. .
8
(f. DM BI.1' >T+e form of a -+ing of na-,re is a form indi2id,a-ed b4 ma--er1 and so also -+e inclina-ions res,l-ing from -+e form are
de-ermined -o one -+ing1 b,- -+e ,nders-ood form is ,ni2ersal and incl,des man4 indi2id,al -+ings. And so since ac-,ali-ies regard sing,lar
-+ings1 and none of -+em e.+a,s-s -+e /o-en-iali-4 of -+e ,ni2ersal1 inclina-ions of -+e 0ill remain inde-ermina-el4 dis/osed -o man4 -+ings.?
(f. also ST IAII1 3. 1!1 ar-. ' >$ince lac= of an4 good 0+a-e2er is a nonAgood1 conse3,en-l41 -+a- good alone 0+ic+ is /erfec- and lac=ing in
no-+ing1 is s,c+ a good -+a- -+e 0ill canno- no-A0ill i-' and -+is is Ha//iness. &+ereas an4 o-+er /ar-ic,lar goods1 in so far as -+e4 are lac=ing
in some good1 can be regarded as nonAgoods' and from -+is /oin- of 2ie01 -+e4 can be se- aside or a//ro2ed b4 -+e 0ill1 0+ic+ can -end -o
one and -+e same -+ing from 2ario,s /oin-s of 2ie0.? %r again1 cf. ST I1 3. 81 ar-. ' >#o0 -+ere are some -+ings in-elligible 0+ic+ +a2e no-
a necessar4 connec-ion 0i-+ -+e firs- /rinci/les; s,c+ as con-ingen- /ro/osi-ions1 -+e denial of 0+ic+ does no- in2ol2e a denial of -+e firs-
/rinci/les. And -o s,c+ -+e in-ellec- does no- assen- of necessi-4. <,- -+ere are some /ro/osi-ions 0+ic+ +a2e a necessar4 connec-ion 0i-+ -+e
firs- /rinci/les' s,c+ as demons-rable concl,sions1 a denial of 0+ic+ in2ol2es a denial of -+e firs- /rinci/les. And -o -+ese -+e in-ellec- assen-s
of necessi-41 0+en once i- is a0are of -+e necessar4 connec-ion of -+ese concl,sions 0i-+ -+e /rinci/les; b,- i- does no- assen- of necessi-4
,n-il -+ro,g+ -+e demons-ra-ion i- recogniHes -+e necessi-4 of s,c+ connec-ion. I- is -+e same 0i-+ -+e 0ill. For -+ere are cer-ain indi2id,al
goods 0+ic+ +a2e no- a necessar4 connec-ion 0i-+ +a//iness1 beca,se 0i-+o,- -+em a man can be +a//4' and -o s,c+ -+e 0ill does no-
ad+ere of necessi-4.? D 3. 41 ar-. also em/+asiHes -+e correla-ion be-0een -+e ,ni2ersali-4 of -+e in-ellec-8s ob6ec- and -+e freedom of -+e
0ill1 con-ras-ing i- 0i-+ -+e /ar-ic,lari-4 of br,-e animals8 sense a//re+ension and -+e conse3,en- de-ermina-ion of -+eir a//e-i-es; and a
similar /oin- is made in ST I1 3. GE1 ar-. @' >%nl4 an agen- endo0ed 0i-+ an in-ellec- can ac- 0i-+ a 6,dgmen- 0+ic+ is free1 in so far as i-
a//re+ends -+e common no-e of goodness; from 0+ic+ i- can 6,dge -+is or -+e o-+er -+ing -o be good. (onse3,en-l41 0+ere2er -+ere is
in-ellec-1 -+ere is freeA0ill.?
4
m,s- necessaril4 be -o0ards -+e ob6ec- /resen-ed in -+e concl,sion of -+e in-ellec-8s concomi-an- /rac-ical
s4llogism sim/l4 beca,se1 if i- 0ere di2orced -+erefrom1 -+e ac- of c+oice 0o,ld be an em/-4 ac- 0i-+ no con-en-
and no direc-ion1 a c+oice of no-+ing; i- 0o,ld be no- onl4 irra-ional 9as all sin is: b,- ac-,all4 ,nin-elligible1
lac=ing a na-,re or >s/ecies.?
E
T+e 0ill8s freedom is not deri2ed1 +o0e2er1 in -+e f,r-+er sense -+a- i- is -+e in-ellec- -+a- s/ecifies or
de-ermines which ob6ec- i- 0ill be -+a- s/ecifies -+e 0ill. As Pa-ric= Lee no-es1 -+ere is a dangero,s ambig,i-4 in
sa4ing -+a- -+e >in-ellec- s/ecifies -+e 0ill1? since -+is can easil4 be -a=en 9and1 +e -+in=s1 in fac- +as been -a=en b4
man4 T+omis-s in -r4ing -o dis-ance -+emsel2es from 2ol,n-arism:
1!
as gi2ing -+e las- 0ord -o -+e in-ellec- in -+e
manner 6,s- described. $,c+ a -+eor4 0o,ld fall afo,l of -+e em/+a-ic condemna-ion ci-ed abo2e from De Malo
BI.11 beca,se i- 0o,ld bind -+e 0ill -o some-+ing o,-side o,r /o0er -o con-rol' -+e errors of o,r in-ellec-1 0+ic+1
-+o,g+ indeed con-ingen- and in-rinsic1 are no- free b,- ra-+er s,b6ec- -o blind c+ance. Ca-+er1 Lee +olds -+a-
>A3,inas does no- mean -+a- one 0ills 0+a- +e 0ills onl4 beca,se of reason8s 6,dgmen-. In fac-1 in a si-,a-ion of
c+oice -+ere is no- 6,s- one order of reason; -+ere are man47as man4 as -+ere are al-erna-i2es for ac-ion. T+e /oin-
is -+a- 0+a-e2er is 0illed is 0illed according -o some order of reasonJ T+a- is1 A3,inas is no- sa4ing -+a- reason
s/ecifies which order 0ill be follo0ed1 b,- -+a- reason /ro2ides -+e orders of -+e /ar-ic,lar ob6ec-s -o bea-i-,de 9or
+a//iness:1 no ma--er 0+a- ob6ec- is e2en-,all4 c+osen.?
11
T+e 0a4 -+e 0ill accom/lis+es -+is is -+ro,g+ i-s /o0er
-o -,rn -+e considera-ion of -+e in-ellec- from one ob6ec- or >orderA-oA-+eAend? -o ano-+er. &e +a2e all e./erienced
-+e >/,ll? -o foc,s o,r -+o,g+-s on 0+a- /leases ,s1 and -o /,- ,n/leasan- or diffic,l- considera-ions o,- of o,r
E
DM BI.1' >Po0ers are mo2ed in -0o 0a4s' in one 0a4 regarding -+e s,b6ec-; in a second 0a4 regarding -+e ob6ec-J T+e firs- =ind of
al-era-ion indeed belongs -o -+e 2er4 /erformance of -+e ac-1 namel41 -+a- i- be or no- be /erformed1 or /erformed be--er or 0orse. And -+e
second =ind of al-era-ion belongs -o s/ecif4ing -+e ac-1 since ob6ec-s s/ecif4 ac-s. And 0e need -o consider -+a- -+e s/ecifica-ion of ac-s in
-+ings of na-,re indeed comes from -+e -+ings8 forms.? (f. also ST IAII.E.1' >%n -+e o-+er +and1 -+e ob6ec- mo2es1 b4 de-ermining -+e ac-1
af-er -+e manner of a formal /rinci/le1 0+ereb4 in na-,ral -+ings ac-ions are s/ecified1 as +ea-ing b4 +ea-.? T+e references -o >formal
/rinci/le? and -o -+e e.am/le of +ea- clearl4 indica-e -+a- >s/ecifica-ion? +ere sim/l4 means gi2ing -+e ans0er -o -+e 3,es-ion >0+a- is i-5?1
for -+a- is /recisel4 0+a- form does.
If one 0ere -o ob6ec- -+a-1 al-+o,g+ -+e ac- of -+e 0ill m,s- indeed be a c+oice of a ra-ionall4 a//re+ended good1 i- need no- be -+e good
/resen-ed b4 -+e las- /rac-ical s4llogism b,- co,ld ins-ead be a differen- good ob6ec-1 -+e ans0er 0o,ld be sim/l4 -+a- -+e /rac-ical s4llogism
is o,r longA0inded ling,is-ic 0a4 of s/elling o,- -+e 0ill8s mo2emen- -o0ards a//re+ended goodness. T+e 0+ole s4llogism1 and no- 6,s- a
freeAfloa-ing conce/-1 needs -o be /resen- in order for -+e 0ill -o mo2e -o0ards -+e ob6ec- under the aspect of its 9/ar-ic,lar 2arie-4 of:
!oodness; and i- +as -o be -+e last /rac-ical s4llogism1 ra-+er -+an a /rior one1 beca,se -+e >s4llogism? or a//re+ensionAofAgoodness m,s- of
necessi-4 be concomitant 0i-+ -+e ac- of c+oice -+a- i- informs. Here1 as in all -+e -+ornies- iss,es of /+iloso/+41 0e m,s- al0a4s be mindf,l
of -+e limi-a-ions of o,r +,man =no0ledge b4 >com/osi-ion and di2ision1? =no0ing -+a- 0+a- 0e m,s- /erforce se/ara-e in o,r minds is in
fac- one in reali-4.
1!
Pa-ric= Lee1 >T+e Cela-ion <e-0een In-ellec- and &ill in Free (+oice According -o A3,inas and $co-,s1? The Thomist 4E 91E8G:1
@11 n. .
11
Ibid.1 @@GA@@F. To ar-ic,la-e -+e /osi-ion -+is 0a4 co,ld lead -o conf,sion1 since i- mig+- gi2e -+e im/ression -+a- -+e in-ellec- does no-
compare -+e orders and /rono,nce 6,dgmen- on 0+ic+ of -+em is be--er o2erall70+ic+ i- cer-ainl4 does. Ho0e2er1 -+e /oin- is -+a- -+e
inclina-ion -o follo0 rig+- reason is onl4 one of -+e inclina-ions of -+e 0ill; 0e also +a2e a- leas- a com/e-ing inclina-ion -o follo0 o,r sense
a//e-i-es 9cf. ibid.1 @@E:1 and -+ese com/e-ing inclina-ions are /recisel4 -+e fo,nda-ion for akrasia. &+e-+er o,r com/e-ing inclina-ions are
limi-ed -o -+ese -0o1 or 0+e-+er -+ere is a -+ird 9as $co-,s +olds:1 remains -o be seen.
G
mind;
1
-+is >/,ll? -o -+in= in -+e direc-ion of o,r inclina-ions lies1 for A3,inas1 a- -+e +ear- of -+e /roblem of
akrasia1 and -+e famo,s >s4llogism of fo,r /ro/osi-ions? -+a- +e borro0ed from Aris-o-le is b,il- aro,nd -+is
/+enomenon.
1@
To sa41 -+en1 -+a- one sins o,- of /assion or akrasia is -o sa4 sim/l4 -+a- -+e 0ill1 b4 2ir-,e of i-s
/o0er -o mo2e -+e in-ellec-1
14
4ields -o -+e sense a//e-i-e8s >dri2e? -o foc,s o,r a--en-ion 9bo-+ ra-ional and
sensi-i2e1 since -+e former is ne2er /resen- 0i-+o,- -+e la--er: on -+e /leas,rable ob6ec-; and 0+ile -+e firs- /remise
of -+e s4llogism of rig+- reason1 e.g. >+eal-+ is good Ki.e. /er-ains -o m4 0+ole goodL1? is s-ill /roffered b4 -+e
in-ellec- -o -+e 0ill alon! 0i-+ -+e /ar-iall4 -r,e s4llogism >Pleas,rable ac-i2i-4 is good1 and ea-ing a second /iece
of ca=e is /leas,rable and -+erefore good1? -+e 0ill7follo0ing -+e inclina-ion of -+e sense a//e-i-e ra-+er -+an i-s
o0n /ro/er1 b,- c,rren-l4 no- e.ercised1 inclina-ion -o ac- based ,/on -+e >0+ole /ic-,re?
1G
7=ee/s onl4 -+e
>/leas,rable? s4llogism in -+e foregro,nd1 -+,s allo0ing -+e /ar-ic,lar /remise of -+e >bigA/ic-,re? s4llogism -o
be >corr,/-ed.?
1F
$-. T+omas e./lains -+is b4 /oin-ing o,- -+a- a//e-i-e is al0a4s direc-ed -o /ar-ic,lars1
17
so -+e
0ill can s0a4 o,r a0areness of -+e /ar-ic,lar /remise7e.g.1 >ea-ing a second /iece of ca=e is ,n+eal-+4?7in a
0a4 in 0+ic+ i- canno- con-rol o,r a0areness of -+e ,ni2ersal /remise -+a- +eal-+ is good.
18
I- is /recisel4 in -+is
s0a4 o2er o,r a0areness 90+ic+ goes -oge-+er 0i-+ -+e 0ill8s abili-4 -o refrain from c+oosing ,n-il -+e desired
considera-ion lies before i-: -+a- -+e famo,s >freedom of e.ercise? -+a- A3,inas a--rib,-es -o -+e 0ill consis-s.
1E
1
(f. ST IAII1 3. 771 ar-. 1 and .
1@
&icomachean 'thics BII.@; DM III.E ad 7; ST IAII1 3. 771 ar-. ad 4.
14
D 3. 1 ar-. 1; ST I1 3. 81 ar-. 4.
1G
(f. Lee1 @@E' ><,- -+e /ers/ec-i2e of ri!ht reason deno-es -+e 0+ole /ers/ec-i2e 9no- a ,-ili-arian s-andard1 b,- -+e lo2e of God and
neig+bor and -+e res/ec- for -+e +,man goods -+is en-ails:.T+is /ers/ec-i2e is no- e3,al -o -+e o-+ers. Hence one can sa41 if all -+e al-erna-i2es
e.ce/- one are con-rar4 -o rig+- reason1 -+a-1 a(solutely s/ea=ing1 -+e morall4 good al-erna-i2e is -+e bes- and -+e o-+ers are onl4 a//aren-
goods? 9em/+asis in original:.
1F
$ee n. 11 abo2e.
17
D 3. 41 ar-. ' >A//e-i-e is concerned 0i-+ a /ar-ic,lar ob6ec- of o/era-ion1 0+ereas -+e 6,dgmen- of reason is some-imes concerned
0i-+ some-+ing ,ni2ersal1 and -+is is a- -imes con-rar4 -o o,r a//e-i-e.? (f. also DM 3. @1 ar-. E' >Mno0ledge regards ,ni2ersals. And 4e-
,ni2ersal =no0ledge is -+e so,rce of ac-s onl4 as connec-ed -o /ar-ic,lars1 since acts re!ard particulars? 9em/+asis mine:; ST I1 3. 8!1 ar-.
ad ' >T+e in-ellec-,al a//e-i-e1 -+o,g+ i- -ends -o indi2id,al -+ings 0+ic+ e.is- o,-side -+e so,l1 4e- -ends -o -+em as s-anding ,nder -+e
,ni2ersal.?
18
$-. T+omas8 leng-+4 e./lana-ion in DM 3. @1 ar-. E ad 7 claims -+a-1 0+ereas -+e 2ir-,o,s and 2icio,s man bo-+ +a2e sim/l4 an
ordinar4 @A/ro/osi-ion s4llogism 9e.g. >Ma-erial /ossessions are good7s-ealing from -+is man gi2es me ma-erial /ossessions7s-ealing from
-+is man is good?:1 -+e con-inen- and incon-inen- man bo-+ ,se a s4llogism 0i-+ four /ro/osi-ions. "ssen-iall41 -+is means -+a- -+e la--er bo-+
s-ar- o,- 0i-+ no- one b,- two ,ni2ersal /remises in -+eir in-ellec-,al a0areness 9e.g. (oth >Ma-erial /ossessions are good? and >in6,s-ice is
e2il?70+ereas i- 0o,ld ne2er occ,r -o -+e -r,l4 co2e-o,s man1 for e.am/le1 -o en-er-ain -+e la--er /ro/osi-ion in +is conscio,sness:1 b,- -+en
/roceed -o e./lici-l4 dra0 o,- -+e /ar-ic,lar im/lica-ions of onl4 one of -+ese ,ni2ersal /remises1 de/ending on 0+ic+ inclina-ion -+e 0ill
follo0s' i-s o0n /ro/er inclina-ion -o follo0 ri!ht reason 9-+e s4llogism /ro/osed b4 reason as con-aining -+e whole /ic-,re:1 or -+e
inclina-ion comm,nica-ed -o i- b4 -+e inclina-ion of -+e sensi-i2e a//e-i-e. T+e e./ression Cegan ,ses in +is -ransla-ion for -+is com/le-ion of
-+e /rac-ical s4llogism 0i-+ a 9single: /ar-ic,lar /remise and concl,sion is >-o s,bs,me and concl,de ,nder? -+e ,ni2ersal /ro/osi-ion; -+e
La-in is >assumere et concludere su( Kprimo or secundoL.? T+e o-+er /ar-ic,lar /remise1 -+e one -+a- fell ,nder -+e re6ec-ed ,ni2ersal
/remise1 is ignored or corr,/-ed1 or /er+a/s 0e s+o,ld sa4 sim/l4 >no- made e./lici-1? a- leas- no- a- -+e momen- of c+oice; and -+e reason
for -+is is sim/l4 no- -raceable be4ond -+e 0ill8s o0n ,nfe--ered abili-4 -o >0eig+? i-s com/e-ing inclinations.
1E
ST IAII1 3. 1!1 ar-. ' >T+e 0ill is mo2ed in -0o 0a4s' firs-1 as -o -+e e.ercise of i-s ac-; secondl41 as -o -+e s/ecifica-ion of i-s ac-1
deri2ed from -+e ob6ec-. As -o -+e firs- 0a41 no ob6ec- mo2es -+e 0ill necessaril41 for no ma--er 0+a- -+e ob6ec- be1 it is in man)s power not to
think of it1 and conse3,en-l4 no- -o 0ill i- ac-,all4? 9em/+asis mine:. (f. also ST IAII1 3. E1 ar-. 11 and DM1 3. F1 ar-. ,n. Da2id Gallag+er
F
T+is in2ol2es1 +o0e2er1 claiming -+a- i- is -+e 0ill -+a- +as -+e >las- 0ord1? a- leas- in -+e case of akrasia.
T+is is +o0 0e can de/ar- from ri!ht reason; for e2en af-er -+e in-ellec- +as 0eig+ed -0o differen- limi-ed1
incom/a-ible goods and fo,nd -+a- -+e >/ers/ec-i2e? from 0+ic+ one is bes- is more im/or-an- -+an -+e o-+er1 i-
s-ill /resen-s -+is s4llogism 9of rig+- reason: alon!side a more limi-ed s4llogism -+a-1 ra-+er -+an 0eig+ing
>/ers/ec-i2es1? sim/l4 /resen-s one 9e.g. -+e >/ers/ec-i2e? of -+e a//e-i-e for food:7-+,s lea2ing i- -o -+e 0ill -o
de-ermine i-self ei-+er in accord 0i-+ i-s o0n /ro/er inclina-ion -o follo0 ri!ht reason1 or 0i-+ -+e inclina-ion i- 9so
-o s/ea=: >borro0s? from -+e sense a//e-i-e -o follo0 0+a- 0e mig+- call >sensi-i2e reason1? -+e s4llogism 0+ose
ma6or /remise is -+e inclina-ion of -+e sense a//e-i-e 9>-as-4 -+ings are good?:. Indeed1 i- seems -+a- 0+a- se-s -+ese
differen- >/ers/ec-i2es? a/ar- are /recisel4 -+e ends of -+e 0ill8s differen- inclina-ions1 namel4 -+e sensi-i2e and
-+e ra-ional 9or 0+ole: good; and -+a- -o 0eig+ -+ese /ers/ec-i2es is no- -+erefore a ma--er of 0eig+ing means 9-+e
-as= of delibera-ion: b,- ends.
!
De- i- is cr,cial -o no-e -+a- in (oth cases reason informs -+e 0ill8s c+oice 0i-+ i-s
/rac-ical s4llogism1 -+,s /reser2ing -+e c+oice from ,nin-elligible1 em/-4 >con-en-lessness.? A- -+e same -ime1
freedom is also /reser2ed beca,se i- remains in -+e 0ill8s /o0er -o de-ermine 0+ic+ /rac-ical s4llogism 0ill be >in
foc,s? a- -+e momen- of c+oice1 0+ic+ is sim/l4 -o sa4 -+a- i- is in -+e 0ill8s /o0er -o de-ermine 0+ic+ s4llogism
0ill inform -+e c+oice.
1
#or is -+is merel4 a ma--er of dis/osi-ional s-reng-+ or >m,scleA/o0er? on -+e /ar- of -+e
gi2es s-rong s,//or- -o -+is /osi-ion in +is e.cellen- ar-icle >Free (+oice and Free N,dgmen- in T+omas A3,inas1? Archiv f"r #eschichte der
$hilosophie 7F 91EE4:' 47A771 es/. F7AFE and 7FA77. (f. also Tobias Hoffmann1 >A3,inas and In-ellec-,al De-erminism1? es/. 1@8A
1@E and 148A14E.
!
#one-+eless1 0e s+o,ld no-e -+a- -+ere is an im/or-an- ambig,i-4 in -+e no-ion of >/ers/ec-i2e?; for 0+ile i- ma4 refer -o -+e differen-
ob6ec-s of -+e 0ill8s inclina-ions 9-+e 0+ole good1 -+e goodAforAme1 -+e conc,/iscible good1 -+e irascible good1 e-c.:1 i- ma4 also refer -o -+e
differen- as/ec-s ,nder 0+ic+ eac+ one of -+e firs- -0o inclina-ions 9-+e ra-ional ones: ma4 be /,rs,ed. T+,s1 a sain- ma4 be mo-i2a-ed b4
/,re lo2e of God1 and +a2e -o c+oose be-0een -0o differen- goods 0+ic+ bo-+ allo0 +im -o ser2e God in differen- 0a4s; and i- seems
/la,sible -+a-1 e2en gi2en all circ,ms-ances1 -+ere ma4 be no-+ing -+a- ma=es one al-erna-i2e 9e.g. /ra4er: be--er overall -+an ano-+er 9e.g.
almsgi2ing:; con2ersel41 a 2icio,s man mo-i2a-ed b4 a /,re1 ,nAmodera-ed selfAlo2e ma4 s-ill lac= a 0a4 -o ran= -+e /rac-ice of one 2ice
ob6ec-i2el4 >+ig+er? -+an ano-+er a- an4 gi2en momen-. In s,c+ a case i- 0o,ld seem ,n/roblema-ic -o a//eal -o a random ac- of -+e 0ill as
-+e e./lana-ion of 0+4 one 0as c+osen ra-+er -+an -+e o-+er1 as o//osed -o a >0eig+ing of inclina-ions? of -+e =ind 0e +a2e been describing.
$,c+ a -+eor4 0o,ld seem -o fi- 0i-+ 0+a- A3,inas sa4s in ST I1 3. F1 ar-. 81 ad and @.
1
<ased ,/on 0+a- +as been said so far1 one mig+- 0onder 0+e-+er >+a//iness?7-+e complete good as s,c+7is -r,l4 -+e firs-
/rinci/le of all /rac-ical reasoning1 or onl4 -+e firs- /rinci/le of ri!ht 9i.e.1 moral: reason. T+is +as been -+e s,b6ec- of a +ea-ed con-ro2ers4
be-0een Cal/+ McInern4 on -+e one +and and Germain GriseH and No+n Finnis on -+e o-+er. T+e former +olds -+a- -+e 0ord >good? in -+e
/rinci/le -+a- >good is -o be /,rs,ed and e2il a2oided? 9ST IAII1 3. E41 ar-. : refers -o -+e complete good 9cf. >T+e Princi/les of #a-,ral
La01? American *ournal of *urisprudence G K1E8!L' 1A1G1 es/. 4AG:; -+e la--er main-ain -+a- -+e 0ord refers sim/l4 -o an4-+ing -+a- +as a
s+are in -+e ratio (oni1 e2er4-+ing -o 0+ic+ +,man beings na-,rall4 incline1 s,c+ as life1 food1 re/rod,c-ion1 -r,-+1 friends+i/1 e-c. 9cf. >T+e
<asic Princi/les of #a-,ral La0' A Ce/l4 -o Cal/+ McInern41? American *ournal of *urisprudence F K1E81L' 1A@1:. McInern48s /osi-ion
+olds -+a- -+ese la--er i-ems1 disc,ssed b4 A3,inas in e./laining -+e /rece/-s of -+e na-,ral la0 9and also in describing 0+a- is necessar4 for
+a//iness1 in ST IAII1 3. 41 ar-. G:1 are sim/l4 >/ar-ic,lariHa-ions? of -+e ,l-ima-e end1 limi-ed /ar-ici/a-ions in -+e com/le-e good 0+ic+ 0e
see= -o ac+ie2e beca,se of -+eir s+are in -+e com/le-e good -+a- 0e desire; 0+ereas GriseH and Finnis con-end -+a-1 for A3,inas1 -+ese -+ings
can be desired even apart from -+e no-ion of -+e com/le-e good1 sim/l4 as >good.? T+o,g+ s,c+ an in-er/re-a-ion 0o,ld +a2e -o defend i-self
agains- -+e man4 /assages in A3,inas 0+ere +e describes -+e firs-1 necessar4 inclina-ion of -+e 0ill as being direc-ed -o0ards (eatitudo 9cf.
&illiam Mars+ner1 >Does Prac-ical Ceason $-ar- 0i-+ Good or 0i-+ (om/le-e Good5? +aith , -eason F K!!1L' @@EA@781 for an able
-+o,g+ /er+a/s no- concl,si2e defense of -+e GriseH/Finnis /osi-ion:1 i- is clear +o0 GriseH and Finnis8 /osi-ion affec-s -+e /roblem of sin in
general1 and angelic sin in /ar-ic,lar' if -+e firs- /rinci/le in 0+ic+ all /rac-ical s4llogisms are roo-ed in2ol2es onl4 -+e ratio (oni and no-
(eatitudo1 -+en 0e need no- +old -+a- -+e in-ellec- 9mis-a=enl4: belie2ed a sin -o be a >s-e/ on -+e 6o,rne4? -o0ards +a//iness1 b,- sim/l4 -+a-
7
0ill1 0+ic+ con-inen- /eo/le +a2e and incon-inen- /eo/le do no-; on -+e con-rar41 A3,inas and o,r common
e./erience coincide in -elling ,s -+a- no- onl4 con-inen- b,- e2en 2ir-,o,s1 sain-l4 /eo/le some-imes fall1 and b4 no
means necessaril4 as a res,l- of a -i-anic1 o,-AofA-+eAordinar4 -em/-a-ion.