CHAPTER I

IDIOMS AND IDIOMATICITY

Traditional perspective on idioms
Language, as we all know, is considered o !e a "er# use$ul de"ice $or %u&an
co&&unicaion in order o e'(ress $eelings and ideas o eac% o%er) I %as !een (ro"ed o"er %e
i&e %a i %as !o% $igurai"e and lieral &eanings) In %e las $i$# #ears, s(ecial aenion %as !een
gi"en !# &an# linguiss and researc%ers o %e $ield o$ %e sud# o$ idio&aic e'(ressions) Idio&s
can !e easil# ari!ued o $igurai"e language) T%e sandard wa# o discuss a!ou idio&aic srings
is o consider %e& $i'ed e'(ressions %a are rerie"ed as c%unks $ro& %e le'icon)
*%en linguiss are asked o answer a %e +uesion w%a idio&s are, %e# usuall# re(l# %a
idio&s are le'ical unis or &uliword e'(ressions w%ose o"erall &eanings canno !e undersood
$ro& %e &eaning o$ is indi"idual co&(onens)
In Nun!erg,s o(inion-.//012304, 5an idio&aic (%rase is si&(l# an idios#ncraic #(e o$
(%rasal consrucion %a is assigned is own idio&aic &eaning6) 7suall#, %e &eaning o$ idio&aic
e'(ressions &a# !e re(laced !# a single word like in 5John kicked the bucket. Here, %e well8
known idio&aic e'(ression 5kick the bucket w%ose o"erall &eaning is 5o die6, can !e re(laced
!# %e word 5died6 and %ere will !e no c%anges in %e signi$icaion o$ %e uerance)
According o Collins Co!uild Dicionar# o$ Idio&s -.//24, an idio& is 5 a kind o$ s(ecial
(%rase) I is a grou( o$ words w%ic% %as a di$$eren &eaning w%en used oge%er $ro& %e one i
would %a"e i$ %e &eaning o$ eac% word were aken indi"iduall#6) 9enerall#, %e e'(ressions
w%ic% are regarded o !e idio&s %a %a"e a $i'ed gra&&aical srucure and i$ %e gra&&aical
srucure is c%anged %an, a c%ange in %e general &eaning o$ %a e'(ression will occur) *e!ser,s
New *orld College Dicionar# also de$ines an idio&aic e'(ression as 1 5 a (%rase, consrucion
or e'(ression %a is recogni:ed as a uni in %e usage o$ a gi"en language and ei%er di$$ers $ro&
%e usual s#nacic (aerns or %as a &eaning %a di$$ers $ro& %e lieral &eaning o$ is (ars aken
oge%er6) *e are all asking oursel"es w%en we alk a!ou idio&s w%# are %ese so i&(oran $or a
language) T%e answer is +uie si&(le ) Idio&aic e'(ressions are uni+ue $eaures o$ language %a
can di$$er $ro& eac% counr# or culure, !u %e usage o$ %e& can %el(s %a ones w%o are non8
nai"e s(eakers o$ a language o !e &ore $luen in %a language and o undersand &ore easil# %e
%a!is and %e culure o$ %e arge language) Ano%er !asic role o$ idio&aic e'(ressions is o
5give colour6 o %e language and o deer&ine %e s(eakers o e&(%asi:e new &eanings, o &ake
%eir own ;udge&ens and o!ser"aions &ore ineresing) Mos o$ %e linguiss agree %a %e
increased nu&!ers o$ %e idio&s w%ic% occurs in &an# language lael# is a real (roo$ %a
idio&aic srings (la# an essenial role in dail# language use)
Two o((osie a((roac%es o %e (rocess o$ (roducing, iner(reing and (rocessing idio&s
%as !een (ro(osed o"er %e i&e) T%e $irs one is called %e radiional a((roac% o idio&s or %e
sandard wa# in de$ining idio&aic srings, or si&(l# %e nonco&(osiional "iew o$ idio&s) T%e
second one is re(resened !# %e cognii"e (ers(eci"e o idio&s, "er# well known as %e
compositional model of (rocessing and iner(reing idio&aic e'(ressions, w%ic% reas idio&aic
srings as anal#sa!le se&anic e'(ressions wi% &eanings %a are a leas (arl# &oi"aed)
According o %e radiional (ers(eci"e on idio&aic e'(ressions, Carer -.//<1=24 de$ine
idio&s as 5 resriced collocaions w%ic% canno nor&all# !e undersood $ro& %e lieral &eaning o$
%e words w%ic% &ake %e& u(6) Nonco&(osiional (rocessing &odels o$ idio&s consider %e&, as
$i'ed &uliword e'(ression w%ic% are lised as c%unks $ro& %e le'icon) T%e &oi"aion in
clai&ing %is %a"e is origins in %e !elie$ %a %e &eaning o$ an idio&aic sring is in no wa#
reco"ered $ro& %e &eaning o$ is consiuens (ars and %a idio&s are s#nacicall# 5$ro:en
ele&ens6) >or insance, in %e &eaning o$ %e well8known e'(ression 5 kick %e !ucke6 %ere is
no%ing %a can ell us %a %e &eaning o$ %is e'(ression is 5o die6? %ere is no connecion
!eween %e o"erall &eaning o$ %is idio& and is consiuen (ars) T%ere$ore %ere is no wa#, once
we are $a&iliar wi% %e idio&, o !reak u( is &eaning ino %e indi"idual consiuens o$ %e sring)
T%e $a&ous aricle Problems in Analysis of Idioms6 wrien !# *einreic% in ./=/ ries o
i&(ose so&e crieria on %e wa# in w%ic% %e linguiss esa!lis% %e &ain c%aracerisics and
s#nacic $eaure $or idio&aic e'(ressions) He recogni:e as idio&s onl# %ose &uliword le'ical
unis %a %a"e lieral couner(ars) I$ an idio&aic e'(ressions do no con$or& o %is crierion is
alread# dis+uali$ied as idio&aic (%rase) In %is o(inion, an idio&aic (%rase re$ers o 5 a
(%raseological uni %a in"ol"es a leas wo (ol#se&ous consiuens, and in w%ic% %ere is a
reci(rocal cone'ual selecion o$ su!senses@6 -*einreic%, ./=/1AA=4)
>ollowing %e idea %a idio&aic e'(ressions are ar!irar# &oi"aed, %ree %eories or
%#(o%esis regarding o (rocessing and undersanding idio&s %a"e !een ado(ed: the literal first
hypothesis the simultaneous processing hypothesis and the figurative hypothesis.
The literal first hypothesis was (ro(osed !# Bo!row and Bell in ./CD and %e &ain
assu&(ion on w%ic% %is &odel is !ased is %a idio&s are &enall# (rocessed and re(resened in
our &ind as le'ical unis) According o %is idea we can sa# %a idio&aic srings are re(resened in
a &enal idio& lis? %a is, in a idio& le'icon %a (arallels %e &enal word le'icon !u is di$$eren
$ro& i) As %e wo $ounders o$ %is &odel %a"e alread# saed, %e lieral &ode, consider o !e
aci"e, (rocesses %e lieral &eaning o$ an idio& $irs) I$ %e anal#sis o$ %e lieral &eaning $ails
oward a correc iner(reaion, %e $igurai"e &ode !eco&es aci"e and (rocesses %e idio&aic
&eaning)
The !irect Access "ypothesis #or figurative first hypothesis$
T%is %#(o%esis also called %e figurative first hypothesis (ro(osed !# 9i!!s in ./<3
underline %e idea %a liseners need no auo&aicall# anal#se %e co&(lee lieral &eanings o$
linguisic e'(ressions !e$ore o go o (rag&aic knowledge o $ind ou w%a s(eakers wan o
co&&unicae) T%is &eans, in $ew words, %a idio&s can !e considered le'ical ie&s w%ose
&eaning is aken $ro& %e &enal le'icon as soon as %e# a((ear in a wrien or s(oken
con"ersaion) 9i!!s e&(%asi:es %ere$ore an ineresing %eor# w%ic% sound like %is1 %e $indings
according o w%ic% idio&s -e)g kick %e !ucke4 are (rocessed $aser %an lieral srings - e) g E
srike %e (ail, 4 does no necessaril# i&(l# %a lieral (rocessing &us ake (lace a all) In $ew
words, %e lieral reading is no onl# no (rior o %e idio&aic one, i can !e !#(assed &an# i&es)
In &# o(inion idio&s are %ose e'(ressions %a !ear a cerain degree o$ $i'aion and w%ose
&eaning need o !e deci(%ered in er&s o$ cognii"e &ec%anis&s, suc% as &ea(%ors and
&eon#&ies , o a greaer or lesser e'en) T%ere is no onl# one %eor# a!ou w%a idio&s reall#
are) Pal&er %inks o$ idio&s in %e cone' o$ o%er languages $or e'a&(le- ./<.1<.4 1 5*%a is and
w%a is no an idio& is, %en, o$en a &aer o$ degree-@4) *e could , (er%a(s, de$ine idio&s in
er&s o$ non8e+ui"alence in o%er languagea) T%e# canno !e direcl# ranslaed6)
T%e au%or Fo%n *rig% c%araceri:ed an idio&aic e'(ression, in %is (u!licaion Idio&s
Organi:er -A3334 , as a idio&aic sring wi% %ree i&(oran $eaures1
I) I is $i'ed and easil# recogni:ed !# nai"e s(eakers
II) I uses language in a non8lieral wa#
III) An idio& is a w%ole e'(ression %a usuall# canno su$$er c%anges, suc% in t%o
heads are better than one
I is said, $ro& %e radiional (oin o$ "iew, %a idio&s can !e de$ined on %e !asis o$ %e $ollowing
crierion1 -.4 con"enionali#, w%ic% !asicall# saes %a i,s i&(ossi!le %a %e &eaning o$ an
idio& o !e enirel# (rediced, -A4 in$le'i!ili#, w%ic% saes %a idio&s %a"e &ore $i'ed s#nacic
consrucion %an an# o%er $igurai"e e'(ressions, and -D4 $iguraion, w%ic% saes %a idio&s
!elongs o %e $igurai"e language -!eing &oi"aed usuall# !# &ea(%ors and &eon#&ies4)
&ompositional idioms
T%e rea&en o$ idio&s is one o$ %e &os i&(oran as(ec o$ %e cognii"e "iew o %e
sud# o$ language) According o %e cognii"e (ers(eci"e, idio&s are also (roducs o$ our
conce(ual s#se&, no ;us a &aer o$ %e le'icon) *i% res(ec o %e co&(osiional &odels o$
co&(re%ension and (rocessing idio&s, i is &ore easier o (redic %e $igurai"e &eaning o$ an
idio&aic e'(ression i$ is consiuens are so&e%ow relaed o %e o"erall &eaning) 9i!!s and
O,Brien %a"e ried o in$ir& in %e las wen# #ears %e radiional %eor# w%ic% regards idio&s as
non8co&(osiional e'(ressions $ro& %e se&anic (oin o$ "iew) T%e# e'(lain %a (eo(le %a"e
grea knowledge a!ou %e &ea(%orical !asis o$ idio&s) Nai"e s(eakers (ro"e a re&arka!le
consisenc# concerning %e &enal i&ages w%ic% e&(%asi:e %e idio&s, so&ei&es di$$eren in
$or& , !u wi% si&ilar $igurai"e &eaning)
According o Go"ecses -.//=1DD341 5 Man# or (er%a(s &os idio&s are (roducs o$ our
conce(ual s#se& and no si&(l# a &aer o$ language -i)e) a &aer o$ %e le'icon4) An idio& is
no ;us an e'(ression %a %as &eanings %a is so&e%ow s(ecial in relaion o %e &eanings o$ is
consiuens (ars, !u i arises $ro& our &ore general knowledge o$ %e world -e&!odied in our
conce(ual s#se&4) In o%er words, idio&s -or, a leas, %e &a;ori# o$ %e&4, are conce(ual, and
no linguisic, in naure 6)
I is said %a con"enional i&ages re(resen an i&(oran !asis $or undersanding and
(roducing idio&s) Lako$$ -./<C100C4 calls %e& Ei&agea!le idio&s, and (oins ou %a are
%ousand o$ cases w%ere %e &eaning o$ %e idio&aic e'(ression is no ar!irar# a all) T%is new
(ers(eci"e on idio&s co&es o conradic so&e%ow %e radiional a((roac% w%ic% clai&s %a
%ere is no connecion !eween %e consiuen (ars o$ %e idio&s and %e general or $igurai"e
&eaning o$ i) >or Lako$$ -./<C100<4 , %e de$iniion $or %e idio&aic &oi"aion is as $ollows1 5
T%e relaions%i( !eween A and B is &oi"aed ;us in case w%ere %ere is an inde(enl# e'ising
link , L, suc% %a A8L8B H$i oge%erI ) L &akes sense o$ %e relaions%i( !eween A and B6)
9i!!s -.//C1.0A4 clai&ed %a 5 idio&s do no e'is as se(arae se&anic unis wi%in %e
le'icon, !u acuall# re$lec co%eren s#se&s o$ &ea(%orical conce(s6 ) T%ere$ore &enion %a
%e &eaning o$ &an# Ei&agea!le idio&s, de(ends on %e $ollowing $acors1
T%e relaion !eween %e source do&ain and %e arge do&ain, relaions%i( %a
deer&ines %e general &eaning o$ %e idio&)
S#se&aic &a((ings !eween %e source and %e arge do&ains w%ic% gi"es us
&ore s(eci$ic &eaning o$ idio&s)
Cognii"e &ec%anis&s w%ic% &oi"ae %e idio&aic e'(ressions1 &ea(%or and
&eon#&#)
&haracteristics of Idioms
Tradiional (ers(eci"e on idio&s clai&s %a an idio& is a $i'ed e'(ression, a 5$ro:en
le'ical uni6 w%ose o"erall &eaning canno !e deer&ined $ro& %e &eanings o$ is consiuen
(ars and is o$en ar!irar# seleced) According o 'ebster(s )e% 'orld &ollege !ictionary an
idio&aic e'(ression is 5 an e'(ression w%ose &eaning canno !e (rediced $ro& %e usual
&eanings o$ is consiuen ele&ens6 ) An# language $ollows so&e s(eci$ic rules w%ic% allow %e
nai"es and non8nai"es o use %a language) I is said %a an idio&aic sring !reaks all %e rules as
%e# can !e seen &os o$ %e i&e non8 co&(osiional in naure and do no undergo under
con"enional nor&s o$ a language) As >ill&ore-./<C4 %i&sel$ assers 1 5 Idio&aici# is !es
de$ined negai"el#1 e'(ressions in a language can !e %oug% o$ as idio&aic i$ %ere are as(ecs o$
%eir $or&, %eir meaning or %eir use w%ic% could no %a"e !een (rediced !# so&eone w%o knew
%e words o$ %e language -including %eir su!caegori:aion re+uire&ens or "alence $ra&es4 $or a
gi"en language 5) A&ong %e i&e , %e linguiss %a"e esa!lis%ed %a %ere are so&e c%aracerisic
$eaures o$ idio&aic e'(ressions %a %el( us o recogni:e %e& &ore easil# like idio&s) So&e o$
%e& are relaed o %e 1 se&anic uni# o$ idio&aic e'(ressions, srucural sa!ili# o$ idio&s, %e
&ea(%orical &oi"aion, or o %e aleraion o$ gra&&aical rules
*emantic unity of idioms
Eac% idio& in Englis% is a &uliword e'(ression &ade u( o$ wo or &ore le'ical
co&(onens, !u i s%ares %e $eaure o$ %a"ing se&anic uni# wi% single words) T%e &eaning o$
an idio& is o(a+ue? i is no %e oal su& o$ %e &eaning o$ is consiuen words) T%ere$ore, eac%
e'(ression considered as an idio&aic e'(ression, can !e regarded as one single word in se&anic
(oin o$ "iew) Mos o$ %e $a&ous linguiss clai&ed o"er %e i&e %a an idio& is a gra&&aical
$or&8 w%ose &eaning is no deduci!le $ro& is srucure) T%e se&anic uni# o$ idio&s can !e also
%ig%lig%ed in %e illogical relaion !eween %e lieral &eaning o$ eac% le'ical consiuen and %e
&eaning o$ %e w%ole e'(ression) >or insance, %e e'(ression 5 ho% do you do, is a co&&on
$or& o$ greeing so&eone w%en # &ee %i& on %e sree on in o%er (laces) Is lieral &eaning 5 %e
wa# in w%ic% one (erson &ake a %ing is oall# di$$eren $ro& %e idio&aic &eaning) Si&ilarl# we
%a"e 5 i rain wi% cas and dogs6 w%ic% is used in ranslaions as 5i rains %ea"il#68 !u
%eoreicall# i %as no logical &eaning)
*tructural stability of idioms
Srucural sa!ili# re$ers o %e $ac %a %e srucure o$ an idio&aic (%rase canno su$$er
c%anges, as idio&s are $i'ed e'(ressions) In o%er words, %e consiuen co&(onens o$ an
idio&aic sring canno !e re(laced or c%anged !# o%er words) T%ere$ore, we canno c%ange a
idio& like 5 once in a !lue &oon6 ino 5once in %e !lue &oon6 wi%ou disru(ing is original
&eaning)
The metaphoricity1 Idio&s generall# in"ol"e &ea(%ors -ake %e !ull !# %e %orns4,
&eon#&ies -coun %eads4, %#(er!oles -no wor% %e (a(er i,s (rined on4) In o%er words, %e#
%a"e non8lieral &ea(%orical &eaning) T%is $eaure is considered essenial in disinguis%ing idio&s
$ro& o%er co&(le' er&s) So&ei&es i,s %ard o know %e (recise $igure in"ol"ed)
&lassification of Idioms
Idio&aic e'(ressions $or& an i&(oran (ar o$ %e Englis% "oca!ular# and an aci"e ool o
conce(uali:e %e social en"iron&en and reali# around us) 9ra&&arians and linguiss %a"e &ade
&an# ae&(s o"er %e i&e o caegori:e %e idio&s) T%e caegori:aion o$ idio&aic e'(ressions
&ig% !e a co&(le' (rocess
Idioms classification according to their spectrum of idiomacity
I is one o$ %e &os i&(oran classi$icaion o$ idio&s) According o %is crierion idio&aic
e'(ressions can !e classi$ied in 1
transparent idioms+ are %ose idio&aic sring w%ose $igurai"e &eaning can !e
co&(re%ended !# looking care$ull# o %e signi$icance o$ %eir consiuens - one Jo
Jone se&anic relaions !eween %e idio& consiuens and co&(onens o$ %e
idio&,s &eaning4
e) g : to fight a loosing battle to land a hand to see the light to hit the nail on the
head
semi+transparent idioms+ are idio&aic e'(ressions w%ic% usuall# carr# a
&ea(%orical signi$icance and %eir consiuens %a"e a s&all role in co&(re%ending
%e o"erall &eaning o$ %e e'(ression
e) g 1 o !reak %e ice
semi+opa,ue idioms+ %is grou( o$ idio&s re$ers o %ose idio&aic e'(ression in
w%ic% %e o"erall &eaning o$ %e e'(ression is no relaed o %a o$ %e consiuens
e) g 1 to pass the buck # to pass responsibility$
to kno% the rope #to kno% ho% a particular -ob should be done4
.pa,ue idioms
T%is #(olog# o$ idio&s is %e &os di$$icul one !ecause %e relaion !eween
idio&,s consiuens and is &eaning &a# !e o(a+ue and %e senses o$ indi"idual
words can !e ne"er%eless consrain in !o% iner(reaion and use
e)g to burn one(s boat
*emantic classification of idioms
Se&anic classi$icaion in %e $ield o$ caegori:aion o$ idio&s re$ers o %e degree o$ non8
co&(osiionali# o$ %e idio&aic e'(ressions) According o %e le"el o$ co&(osiionali# idio&s
can !e classi$ied ino 1 figurative idioms , semi+idioms grou(s and pure idioms.
/igurative idioms are non8co&(osiional idio&s wi% a clear $igurai"e &eaning as a w%ole
- rans(aren &ea(%ors4? $or e'a&(le, %e underl#ing sense o$ $uili# in %e (%rase 5 to
carry coals to )e%castle is co&(re%ensi!le !# (lacing %e acion in a lieral cone'
Ano%er rele"an e'a&(les $or %is #(e o$ idio&aic e'(ressions are1 to add fuel to the fire
break the ice fill the sink
*emi+idioms usuall# co&(rise o$ a leas one lieral and one $igurai"e co&(onen, w%ic%
gi"es %e& an o"erall (ariall# co&(osiional &eaning -semi+transparent metaphors$0 %e
ranslaor needs so&e s(ecialis knowledge in order o undersand %eir signi$icaion
Pure idioms na&ed also opa,ue idioms J are %ose idio&s canno !e ranslaed or
iner(reed co&(osiionall#) A rele"an e'a&(le o$ a (ure idio&s is 5 to kick the bucket as
i is an o(a+ue e'(ression) T%e co&!inaion o$ %ese c%aracerisics (laces (ure idio&s a
%e o( o$ %e scale o$ idio&aici#) Ano%er signi$ied e'a&(le1 over the moon in a nutshell,
etc.
According o Makkai-./CA4 , idio&aic e'(ressions &ig% !e also classi$ied as idioms of
decoding or idioms of encoding.
Idioms of encoding are %ose iner(rea!le idio&aic e'(ressions, w%ose o"erall &eaning is
usuall# rans(aren , like in %e e'(ression 1 12et me be the first to congratulate you1.
Idioms of decoding are %ose uniner(rea!le le'ical e'(ressions w%ose general &eaning
canno !e (rediced $ro& %e co&(osiion o$ is own lieral consiuen (ars)
e)g 1 kick the bucket beat about the bush
The classification of idioms according to the grammatical functions
According o %eir gra&&aical or s#nacic $uncion in %e e', idio&aic srings can !e
di"ided ino1 no&inal idio&s? "er!al idio&s? ad;eci"al idio&s ? ad"er!ial idio&s and senence
idio&s)
)ominal idiomatic e3pressions J are %ose idio&s %a $ul$ill %e $uncion o$ %e noun in %e
senence) T%e &os #(ical gra&&aical (aerns o$ %is grou( are1
- noun4 (re(osiionKnoun
- ad;eci"eKnoun -e)g a small fortune$
- nounKcon;uncion K noun
- nounKnoun
5erbal idioms are %e &os $re+uen ones) T%e# consiss o$ / unis1
- LK N 1 o &ark i&e? o ake (lace? o !reak %e news
- LK (re(1 o look on? o waer down? o s%ow u( -o a((ear4
- LK(re(K N 1 o read !eween %e lines? o $is% $or in$or&aion
- LKNK (re( 1 o cas an e#e o"er
- LK (ronounK Pas Par1 o kee( so&eone (osed
- LK (ronounK (re(K N1 o (u so&eone in %e (icure
- LKad; K N1 o %a"e a good (ress
- LK ad"K N1 o s(read like wild$ire
- LK N1 o ring a !ell? o %i %e %eadlines
Adverbial idiomatic e3pressions are %ose grou(s o$ idio&s %a $uncion as ad"er!s in %e
senence) T%e# usuall# %a"e %e $ollowing srucure1
- Prep4ad-
- Pre(K noun #%ith or %ithout an article$: e.g in the doghouse #in disfavor$
- Adv4 prep4noun4noun
Ad-ectival idioms are %ose grou(s o$ idio&s %a (er$or& ad;eci"al $uncion in a
senence) T%e# usuall# conain one or &ore ad;eci"es) T%e &os i&(oran $eaure o$
ad;eci"al idio&s is relaed o %e ad;eci"al (airs o$ words, w%ic% are usuall# conneced !#
allieraion suc% as in safe and sound #safe$ spick and span #very tidy$ through thick and
thin #al%ays %henever in good or bad %ere i is a $igure o$ s(eec% called an o'#&oron8
co&!inaion o$ wo conradicor# er&s, a %e sa&e i&e4, !u %is is no a rule)
C%a(er II
&ognitive 2inguistics.&onceptual structures
&ognitive 2inguistics+ general considerations
Cognii"e linguisics is a !ranc% o$ %e &odern linguisics %a a((eared in %e las wen#8$i"e
#ears as a reacion agains %e generai"e gra&&ar) T%is disci(line is !ased on %e sud# o$
language e&!edded in %e re&arka!le cognii"e a!ili# %u&an !eings (ossess in conce(uali:ing
%e realiies o$ %e world %e# li"e in) In order o undersand %e naure o$ %e language (eo(le
s%ould look a %eir conce(ual world and %ow i %as s%a(ed %e signs)
According o so&e recen $indings in %e $ield an%ro(ological linguisics and cognii"e
(s#c%olog#, cognii"e linguisics su((ors %e idea %a %e &ain $eaure o$ %e language and
(eo(le,s a!ili# o learn %e& rel# on general cognii"e ca(aciies, %eir "isual or sensi8&oor skills
and %eir %u&an caegori:aion sraegies , oge%er wi% %e culural cone' %e# are in"ol"ed in)
&onceptual metaphors
Mea(%oric e'(ressions %a"e an i&(oran role in co&&unicaion) Mea(%ors are widel#
used in our e"er#da# co&&unicaion, %e# &ig% !e consider i&(oran cognii"e ools in %e
(rocess o$ conce(uali:aion e"er#da# realiies) B# de$iniion, &ea(%or is a kind o$ $igurai"e
language in w%ic% a word or a conce(ual do&ain is used o descri!e ano%er one, in order o
sugges a analog# !eween %e&) T%e er& co&es $ro& %e 9reek word 5metaphrein,, w%ic% can
!e ranslaed as Ecar# o"er,) 7suall# &ea(%orical linguisic e'(ressions &a# !e classi$ied as
conce(ual or linguisic) T%e noion o$ do&ain %a"e a $unda&enal role in %e $ield o$ conce(ual
&ea(%ors) I is widel# acce(ed !# all %e linguiss %a a conce(ual &ea(%or in"ol"e wo
conce(s and %a"e %e $or& A and B, w%ere %e conce( A8 %e arge do&ain is e'(lained in er&s
o$ conce( B, called %e source do&ain)
In cognii"e linguisic, &ea(%ors re$ers o %e undersanding one (iece o$ knowledge or
do&ain in er&s o$ ano%er one, $or e'a&(le e'(ressing +uani# in er&s o$ direcionali#1 5prieces
are rising6) Conce(ual &ea(%ors are !ased !asicall# on e&!odied %u&an e'(erience) In
6etaphors 'e 2ive 7y wrien !# 9eorge Lako$$ and Mark Fo%nson, %e au%ors descri!e
co&&unicaion in %is wa#1 5Co&&unicaion is no w%a one does wi% %e &ac%ine, !u is %e
&ac%ine isel$)6 -Fo%nson, Lako$$, ./<34)
According o Ro!er Nis!e1 6etaphor is a %ay of kno%ing one of the oldest most deeply
embedded even indispensable %ays of kno%ing in the history of human consciousness. 9eorge
La$o$$ and Mark Fo%nson also clai& %a 5 6etaphor is for most people a device of the poetic
imagination and the rhetorical flourish+ a matter of e3traordinary rather than ordinary language8
most people think they can get along perfectly %ell %ithout metaphor. 'e found out on the
contrary that metaphor is pervasive in everyday lifenot -ust in language but in thought and
action. In %eir conce(ion a!ou &ea(%ors in general, &ea(%orical e'(ressions can !e &ediaors
!eween %e %u&an &ind and culure) T%e# works on %e !asis on analogies and %e rans$er o$
in$or&aions)
In ./<3 Lako$$ inroduced a new %eor# in %e $ield o$ cognii"e linguisics, %e &onceptual
6etaphor Theor# or &ognitive 6etaphor Theory) According o %is, &ea(%orics e'(ressions
esa!lis% &a((ings !eween wo conce(ual do&ains1 %e source do&ain and %e arge do&ain)
T%e $irs do&ain, %e source do&ain ends o !e &ore concre %an %e second one) A arge do&ain
srucure will !e seleced onl# $ro& a concre do&ain, $ro& %e source do&ain, and i is no (re8
e'ising) In %e wa# according o w%ic% %u&an !rain conce(uali:e %e world %ere are onl# $ew
a!srac noions %a canno !e e&(%asi:e !# conce(ual &ea(%ors) T%e well8known conce(ual
&ea(%or LI>E IS A FO7RNEY is widel# used !# &os o$ %e linguiss -e)g Lako$$ .//D1AAD "e
got a head start in life. "e is %ithout direction in life4) In order o undersand !eer %e &ea(%or
$ro& a cognii"e (oin o$ "iew, le us consider %e $ollowing sae&ens1
I(m %here I %ant to be in life)
I(m at a crossroads in my life.
"e has never let anyone get in his %ay.
#9ovecses :;;::<$
In %e lig% o$ suc% e'a&(les i see&s %a %e s(eaker o$ Englis% &ake e'ensi"e use o$ %e
do&ain o$ ;ourne# o %ink a!ou a!srac noions and elusi"e conce(s o$ li$e) O%er&ea(%ors are
used o alk a!ou di$$eren as(ec o$ li$e? i is "er# di$$icul o $ind e'(ressions used o alk a!ou
li$e, w%ic% are no &ea(%orical in a wa# or ano%er)5Basic conce(ual &ea(%ors are (ar o$ %e
co&&on conce(ual a((araus s%ared !# &e&e!ers o$ a culure) T%e# are s#se&aic in %a %ere is
a $i'ed corres(ondence !eween %e srucure o$ %e do&ain o !e undersood -e)g) , dea%4 and %e
srucure o$ %e do&ain in er&s o$ w%ic% we are undersanding -e)g), de(arure4)*e usuall#
undersand %e& in er&s o$ co&&on e'(eriences) T%eir o(eraion in cogniion is &osl#
auo&aic) And %e# are widel# con"enionali:ed in language, %a is, %ere are a grea nu&!er o$
words and idio&aic e'(ressions in our language w%ose &eaning de(end u(on %ose conce(ual
&ea(%ors6) O"er %e i&e,&ea(%or %as !een "iewed !# researc%ers, %e &os i&(oran ele&en
o$ %e a!srac language)>or a long i&e i was consider also as a re%orical de"ice and &ore
s(aci$icall# as a &aer o$ %e (oer#) Toda#, &ea(%ors are %ig%l# con"enionali:ed in %e sense
%a %e# can !e (ercei"ed as ano%er wa#s o$ %e (erce(ion o$ a!srac ele&ens, "er# well
enrenc%ed in %u&an &ind) One o$ %e &os noa!le &ea(%or we li"e !# is %e &ea(%or
AR97MENT IS *AR) *e o$en alk a!ou argu&ens in er&s o$ war) Le,s consider %e
$ollowing &ea(%ors1
AR97MENT IS *AR1 5Our clai&s are inde$ensi!le6 or 5I de$end &# argu&en6
T%e &ea(%orical e'(ressions gi"en as re(resenai"e illusraion o$ conce(ual &ea(%ors
are o a large e'en con"enionali:ed) Mos s(eakers would no e"en noice %a %e# use &ea(%or
w%en uer e'(ressions like 5defend6 in closel# connecion wi% arguments, 5 construct in
connecions wi% theories , 5digest closel# relaed o food, or to go separate %ays in
connecion wi% love. >or nai"e s(eakers is "er# naural o alk a!ou argu&ens as !eing a !ale
w%ic% can !e win or loose) Conce(ual &ea(%ors are $re+uenl# used in lieraure oo) In
S%akes(eare,s 5Sonne CA6 %ere are a leas $i"e con"enional &ea(%ors underl#ing %e a!srac
noion o$ dea%) T%ose are1 LI9HT IS A S7BSTANCE? ELENTS ARE ACTIONS? LI>E IS A
PRECIO7S POSSESSION? LI>E IS LI9HT)
Typologies of metaphor
T%e naure o$ &ea(%or, &ea(%or,s co&(re%ension and %e $uncions o$ &ea(%orical
e'(ressions are ideni$ied as %ree disinc issues $or &ea(%or researc%) Mea(%ors can %a"e a
"arie# o$ $uncions and #(ologies) As 9i!s &enioned in %is work 5 Mea(%or and %oug%6, a
&ea(%orical e'(ression 5 is no si&(l# an orna&enal as(ec o$ language, !u a $unda&enal
sc%e&e !# w%ic% (eo(le conce(uali:e %e world and %eir own aci"iies6) According o
Lako$$,s !ook 6etaphors 'e live by #=>?;$ conce(ual &ea(%ors can !e classi$ied ino %ree
#(es1 srucural, onological and onological
*tructural metaphors
T%e grou( o$ srucural &ea(%ors is consider o !e %e !igges one) A srucural &ea(%or is
a conce(ual &ea(%or %a is ranslaed $ro& one conce(ual do&ain ino ano%er one) I %as
usuall# %e $ollowing srucure 1 A is B , w%ere %e $irs do&ain A is (ercei"ed E in er&s o$
ano%er, -Lako$$ and Fo%nson, ./<31.04) Here, %e source do&ain generall# su((l# %e arge
do&ain wi% a relai"el# reac% knowledge) Co&(re%ending %e !o% conce(ual do&ains &eakes
%e &ea(%orical e'(ression &ore clear) >or e'a&(le,%e word war8 a concre conce( o$en used
in %e $igurai"e language %a !elongs o %e $ield o$ srucural &ea(%ors is &a((ed ino %e arge
do&ain as AR97MENT or LOLE) T%e conce(ual &ea(%or AR97MENT IS *AR is re$leced in
e"er#da# language !# &eans o$ a "arie# o$ e'(ressions like 1
I attacked &# opponent wi% words)
He de$ended %is argu&en "er# well)
*i% %e %el( o$ srucural &ea(%ors, %e &ore co&(le' and a!srac noions %a !elong o
e"er#da# e'(eriences o$ li$e, are e'(lained in si&(le and concree er&s) >or insance, %e conce(
o$ TIME is de$ined in er&s like MONEY, LI>E is undersood as A FO7RNEY, THEORIES are
consider o !e B7ILDIN9S, ec) T%ere$ore, %e &os co&&on conce(ual &ea(%ors w%ic% are
srucural and widel# used in e"er#da# s(oken language are1 TIME IS MGONEY, STATES ARE
CONTAINERS-e) g He is in love or S%e fell into a de(ression4, THEORIES ARE B7ILDIN9S,
LI>E IS A FO7RNEY, AN9ER IS TH7NDER)
In $ew words, as a $inal conclusion, a &ea(%or 5 is a cross do&ain &a((ing in %e
conce(ual s#se& -Lako$$4)
.rientational 6etaphors
In conras wi% %e $irs #(e o$ conce(ual &ea(%ors8 %e srucural &ea(%ors,
orienaional &ea(%ors do no srucure onl# one conce( in er&s o$ ano%er, %e# organi:e 5a
w%ole s#se& o$ conce(s wi% res(ec o one ano%er6) -Lako$$ and Fo%nson, ./<31.04) T%eir na&e
deri"es $ro& %e $ac %a %is #(e o$ conce(ual &ea(%ors are are relaed o %e &os co&&on
%u&an s(aial orienaions 1 u(8down, $ron8!ack, in8ou) T%e @P+!.') orienaional &ea(%or
can a((l# o siuaions %a conain !o% (%#sical and culural ele&ens, suc% as 1 5*he came do%n
%ith pneumonia or "e is at the peak of health. Here, good %eal% is associaed wi% %e
s(aial orienaion 5up !ecause o$ %e con"enional &ea(%oric e'(ression 1 7etter is up and
(er%a(s due o %e !elie$ according o w%ic% we sand on our $ee w%en we are $eeling well and we
end o lie down w%en we are sick or we are no $eeling "er# well) Conce(s like E%a((#,, E%eal%#,,
Econrol,, E"irue,, Eraional, usuall# are associaes wi% u(ward orienaion, and %eir o((osies
recei"e downward orienaion , like in %e $ollowing e'a&(les1 CONSCIO7S IS 7P?
7NCONSCIO7s IS DO*N 1 'ake upA "e sank into a coma.
.ntological metaphors
T%e ai& o$ %e onological &ea(%ors is o e'(lain a!srac eniies like ideas , e&oions,
saes o$ !od# or &ind, in er&s o$ su!sances, o!;ecs or conainers) Fus like e"er# da#
e'(eriences o$ %u&an s(aial orienaions re(resens an essenial !asis $or undersanding a!srac
noions in orienaion er&s, in %e sa&e wa# our e'(eriences wi% (%#sical o!;ecs allow (eo(le o
e&(%asi:e e&oions, ideas, e"ens as eniies and su!sances) Lako$$ and Fo%nson saed in %eir
!ook 6etaphors 'e 2ive 7y : Bach of us is a container %ith a bounding surface and in+out
orientation. 'e pro-ect our o%n in+out orientation into other physical ob-ects that are bounded by
surfaces. T%us, non8(%#sical o!;ecs -e)g ) e"ens, acions, aci"iies, saes4 can !e undersood !#
5rans$or&ing6 %e& ino (%#sical o!;ecs wi% de$inie !oundaries) E'a&(les1
.) T%e (ro!le& will !e deal wi% in %e ne' discussion)
A) I can see %is $eelings in %is wriings
D) Ann could no ge ou o$ laug%)
In addiion, saes and e&oions are conainers, oo1
.) S%e $ell in lo"e)
A) T%e# will !e ou o$ %e rou!le soon)
&onceptual metonymies
According o %e radiional de$iniion, &eon#&# is considered o !e a cognii"e de"ice in
w%ic% one conce( is su!siued $or ano%er one wi% w%ic% is &ore or less associaed) T%e er&
co&es $ro& %e 9reek word metonymia, w%ic% &eans Echange of name(, and re(resens a $igure o$
s(eec% in w%ic% one word or e'(ression can !e used $or ano%er i$ %e &eaning o$ %e words are
closel# relaed) Basicall#, i %el(s s(eakers o use language in a creai"e wa#, $or insance, o
su!siue1 -.4 an au%or $or %is work, -A4 an o!;ec $or %is (ossessor, -D4 a conainer $or is conen,
ec)
>or a !eer undersanding $or w%a I a$$ir&ed a!o"e, I will (ro"ide so&e $ew e'a&(les o$
&eon#&ies1
-.4 Do #ou like o read *hakespeareC # i. e the %riting of *hakespeare are replaced %ith the
name of the author$
-A4 Mark likes "er# &uc% 7urgundy )-i.e a drink+red %ine in this case is replaced %ith the
%ine region 7urgundy from /rance$
-D4 I will %a"e a glass onl#) #container is substituted for content$
According o GM"ecses N Radden -4 , &eon#&# is de$ined as 5 a cognii"e (rocess in
w%ic% one conce(ual eni#, %e "e%icle, (ro"ides &enal access o ano%er conce(ual eni#, %e
arge, wi%in %e do&ain or ICM Oideali:ed cognii"e &odelP6 ) In cognii"e linguisic, &eon#&#
is re(resened !# %a (rocess in w%ic% a &ore co&(le' as(ec is ideni$ied !# a single $eaure) T%is
cognii"e (rocess is a case o$ w%a Cro$ -.//D4 calls do&ain %ig%lig%ing) Le,s consider %e
$ollowing %ree e'a&(les1
a) *e need a cou(le o$ srong !odies $or our ea&)
!) T%ere are a lo o$ good %eads in %is sc%ool)
c) *e need so&e new $aces around %ere)
As i can !e easil# noiced, in eac% o$ %ese %ree uerances &enioned a!o"e, a re$erence o
%u&an !eings is !eing &ade) *%a is e're&el# i&(oran a!ou %e& is %a in eac% case one
(aricular rele"an as(ec o$ a %u&an !eing is %ig%lig%ed) In a. , %e do&ain PHYSICAL
STREN9TH relaed o %e caegor# BODY is %ig%lig%ed, and in %e second e'a&(le, na&el# b.,
%e do&ain INTELI9ENCE is relaed o HEAD) T%e caegor# >ACE is (aricularl# a((ro(riae in
%e cone' o$ new (eo(le ;us !ecause %is is w%a we usuall# (ercei"e $irs w%en we &ee
srangers)
In %eir ae&( o &ake a disincion !eween %e &eon#&# and &ea(%or, Murra#
Gnowles and Rosa&und Moon -A33=4 sae1 5Meon#&# and &ea(%or also %a"e $unda&enall#
di$$eren $uncions) Meon#&# is a!ou re$erring1 a &e%od o$ na&ing or ideni$#ing so&e%ing !#
&enioning so&e%ing else w%ic% is a co&(onen (ar or s#&!olicall# linked) In conras, &ea(%or
is a!ou undersanding and iner(reaion1 i is a &eans o undersand or e'(lain one (%eno&enon
!# descri!ing i in er&s o$ ano%er)Q
!ifferent typologies for the metonymy
&onventional metonymy
A con"enional &eon#&# is %a #(e o$ &eon#&# w%ic% is o$en %eard in dail#
con"ersaions) >or e'a&(le, w%en we gree so&e!od# wi% 1 5It is a pleasure for me to see a
familiar face , we use a con"enional &eon#&# !ecause we use %e word 5$ace6 o re(lace %e
(ersonal (ronoun 5you. I is in $ac a PART >OR THE *HOLE &eon#&#, na&el#, THE >ACE
STANDS >OR THE PERSON &eon#&#, used $or indirec re$erring) Here, a w%ole eni#8 a
(erson8w%ic% is $a&iliar o us, is associaed and re(laced wi% one o$ is (ars1 the face. T%e
classi$icaion o$ &eon#&ic e'(ressions %as !een an e'ensi"el# discussed o(ic ) O"er %e i&e
i&(oran researc%es, suc% as GM"ecses -.///4, Pan%er and T%orn!urg -.///4 , Seo and Blank
-.///4 ried o esa!lis% "arious #(ologies o$ &eon#&ies and o classi$#ing %e &eon#&ies
so&e%ow) As 9eorge Lako$$ and Mark Fo%nson,s assered in %eir well8known !ook 6etaphors
'e 2ive 7y -./<3, ()DC4 1 5 Meon#&# allows us o conce(uali:e one %ing !# &eans o$ is relaion
o so&e%ing else? &eon#&ic conce(s srucure no ;us our language !u our %oug%s, aiudes,
and acions? Meon#&ic conce(s -like THE PART >OR THE *HOLE 4 are (ar o$ %e ordinar#,
e"er#da# wa# we %ink and ac as well as alk6) Our &eon#&ic conce(s are conce(s rooed in our
e"er#da# e'(erience)
According o T%orn!urg and Pan%er -.///4, &eon#&ies can !e grou(ed oge%er ino
%ree classes1 (redicaional &eon#&ies, re$erenial &eon#&ies and illocuionar# &eon#&ies)
Meon#&ies deals wi% logic o(eraions) T%e# are !ased on su!siuions) 7suall#, in &eon#&ies ,
we can $ind relaions o$ su!siuions like 1 insiuions $or (eo(le res(onsi!le $or, cause $or e$$ecs,
or (roducs $or (rocesses , a (ar o$ an eni# $or %e w%ole eni#, ec) Meon#&ic conce(s are
o!"iousl# s#se&aic conce(s w%ic% can !e ideni$ied in %e $ollowing (aerns 1
o THE PART >OR THE *HOLE - w%en a su!caegor# re(resens a w%ole caegor#4
B3amples 1 T%e# don, like longhairs )
*e need good heads %ere)
I will !u# a new set of %heels)
S%e will colla!orae wi% a ne% ne%spaper)
o CONTROLLER >OR CONTROLLED - e)g )apoleon los *aerloo Jw%ere Na(oleon
sands $or >renc% ar&#4
o PROD7CER >OR PROD7CT 1 S%e go a /ord.
He %as !oug% a Picasso recenl# I like
*hakespeare &os)
o THE PLACE >OR THE ELENT 1
B.g 1 'atergate c%anged our e'ernal (oliics)
Pearl "arbor sill %as an e$$ec on our (olic#)
o THE PLACE >OR THE INSTIT7TION J w%en a (lace $ro& w%ic% an insiuion !elongs
can sand $or %e insiuion isel$
B.g "olly%ood is $a&ous $or is alened acors
'all *treet is in error)
C%a(er III
"uman 7ody+part Idioms. "and+based Idioms
"and Idioms
T%ere are los o$ idio&aic e'(ressions, !o% in Ro&anian and Englis% language w%ic% are
relaed o (ars o$ %e !od#, es(eciall# associaed wi% %ear, %ands, $ingers, e#es or ar&s) In %is
c%a(er, a cognii"e a((roac% o so&e %and8!ased Ro&anian and Englis% idio&s will !e (resened)
Descri!ing suc% idio&s is a "er# co&(le' (rocess w%ic% &us !e anal#sed $ro& %e se&anic and
$or&al as well (oin o$ "iew) I is well esa!lis%ed in cognii"e linguisics %a conce(ual
&ea(%ors and &eon#&ies deer&ine %e o"erall &eaning o$ idio&aic e'(ressions) >or insance,
%e &eaning o$ %e well J known idio& to keep someone at arm(s length is deer&ined !# wo
&ea(%ors and a con"enional i&age) T%ese are %e con"enional &ea(%ors1 Intimacy is physical
closeness and Social harm is physical harm w%ic% conce(uali:e %e (%#sical knowledge o$
kee(ing so&eone a ar&,s leng% and is undersood as 5 o kee( so&eone $ro& !eco&ing ini&ae,
so as o (roec onesel$ $ro& socialO@P %ar&6 )-Lako$$, ./<C4
Lako$$ -./<34 argues %a &an# (%#sical e'(eriences o$ %u&an !eings are !ased on %e
analogies wi% %e (rinci(al (ars o$ %eir !od# and %e ineracion %e# %a"e wi% %e en"iron&en)
T%is leads us o %e conclusion %a $or "arious idio&s, %e &ain conce(ual &ea(%ors and
con"enional i&ages %a &oi"ae %e& co&e u( $ro& %e $ield o$ !od# (ars)
Meon#&ies and &ea(%ors are o$en used in e"er#da# language) Mea(%orical language is so o$en
encounered in our dail# e'(ressions %a we don, e"en $eel %e& &ea(%orical a all? %eese
e'(ressions are con"enionali:ed in suc% a wa# %a e"er#!od# consider %e& le'ical (%rases in
%eir own rig%s, ra%er %an &ea(%ors) >or e'a&(le, %e con"enionali:ed e'(ression1 5the hand
on a clock6 )
According o Go"ecses -A3.34 %e &oi"aion o$ &os o$ %e idio&aic srings originae in
%ree cognii"e &ec%anis& 1 &eon#&#, &ea(%or and con"enional knowledge)
Radden -.//.1A.4 re$ers o &eon#&# like %is1 5 &eon#&# is a cognii"e (rocess in w%ic%
one conce(ual eni#, %e "e%icleO@P, (ro"ides &enal access o ano%er conce(ual eni#, %e
arge, wi%in %e sa&e cognii"e &odel6) In Lako$$ ,s o(inion -./<C4, 5 &eon#&ic conce(s
srucure no ;us our language !u our %oug%s, aiudes , and acions6) Associaed o cognii"e
(rocesses, &ea(%or is $ur%er seen !# Lako$$ -./<C1AA<4 in %e $ollowing wa#1
5@ &ea(%oric &a((ing in"ol"es a source do&ain and a arge do&ain@ T%e &a((ing is #(icall#
(arial) I &a(s %e srucure $ro& %e source do&ain ino a corres(onding srucure in %e arge
do&ain6)
9i!!s -.//04, Berg -.///4 and &an# o%er linguiss argued %a "arious as(ecs o$
&ea(%orical language arise $ro& %u&an e&!odi&en) 9i!!s and *ilson -A33A4 asser %a 5 &an#
conce(ual &ea(%ors %a"e source do&ains %a are rooed in (er"asi"e (aerns o$ !odil#
e'(erience6) T%e de!ae in %is c%a(er $ocuses on %ow %u&an !od# (ars, es(eciall# !ased on %and
and ar& (ars, &oi"ae so&e co&&on idio&aic e'(ressions)
"and+idioms based on conventional kno%ledge
As a cognii"e (rocess, con"enional knowledge denoes %e knowledge %a (eo(le $ro& a
cerain culure i&(ar o eac% o%er regarded o a conce(ual do&ain) T%is #(e o$ knowledge %a"e ,
$or insance, s(eci$ic in$or&aion a!ou s%a(es, $or&s, (ars, $uncions or si:e o$ %e %u&an !od#
ele&ens, according o a cerain conce(ual do&ain)
De(ending on %e s(eci$ic $eaures o$ %e culure %e# !elong o, (eo(le sore in %eir &ind
"arious con"enional i&ages o$ %e en"iron&en around %e&)
Hands and ar&s can !e conce(uali:ed in an# culure as ools w%ic% are indis(ensa!le $or e"er#
single %u&an !eing) T%e# are used o (er$or& di$$eren aci"iies as 1 working, %olding %ings,
wriing, %iding "arious o!;ecs, ec) T%e# are o$en used e"en in non8"er!al co&&unicaion) >or
e'a&(le, w%en we &ee (eo(le we s%ake %ands in order o gree %e& or, w%en we wan %a a
grou( o$ (eo(le o (a# aenion o us we cla( our %ands) T%ere$ore, !# analog#, w%en so&eone %as
%is %ands !us# !# %olding so&e%ing, or $or so&e o%er reason, %e canno (er$or& o%er aci"iies)
Conse+uenl#, %e signi$icaion o$ %e idio& have one(s hand full is Dto be busy()
Con"enional knowledge %el( us so&ei&es o undersand %e &eaning o$ so&e i&(oran
idio&aic e'(ressions in a !eer wa#? i can &oi"ae %e&) I also links %e lieral &eaning o$ an
idio& wi% %e $igurai"e one, and creae a con"eional i&age in %e s(eaker,s &ind a!ou w%a %e
idio&aic sring could s#&!oli:e) >or e'a&(le, %e idio&aic e'(ression to get your hand dirty
w%ose Ro&anian e+ui"alen is 5a avea mainile patate de , &eans o in"ol"e #oursel$ in so&e%ing
w%ic% is un(leasan or o (arici(ae o all kind o$ ;o!s %a are no agreea!le a all, o do so&e%ing
%a can co&(ro&ise #our (rinci(le &ore e'acl#) T%e analog# w%ic% is &ade %ere is +uie
si&(le)T%ink a!ou w%a so&eone $ells w%en %eRs%e %a"e %isR%ers %ands dir# -during working $or
insance4 and #ou ge dir#8 %ow un(leasan could !e) T%ere$ore to have your hands dirty %a"e %ere
%e signi$icance o$ being involved in something %hich is not pleasant or nice. Ano%er ineresing
e'a&(le o$ idio&aic e'(ression is to have hands like slabs of ice) His Ro&anian e+ui"alen is a
avea mainile gheataE a avea mainile ca sloiurile de gheata) I&agine %ow i is w%en so&eone is
e'(osed o cold wea%er) T%e e're&iies o$ %is !od# 1 $ace, nose, %ands, $ee are a$$eced in a !ad
wa#) His %and, %is nose and %is $ace !eco&e suddenl# like ice and !# analog# wi% %e $ac %a ice
is cold w%en so&e!od# ouc%es i and %e %and o$ so&eone !eco&e also like ice i$ %eRs%e is
e'(osed o cold, we arri"e o %e &eaning o$ %e idio& &enioned a!o"e and &ake an idea a!ou
w%a %e idio& to have hands like slabs of ice &eans)
According o cognii"e linguisics (rinci(les, %ere are so&e conce(ual &eon#&ies in
Englis% w%ic% can %el( %e s(eakers o (ercei"e !eer %e signi$icance o$ idio&s and re(resens an
i&(oran !asis $or %e &oi"aion o$ idio&aic e'(ressions) T%ese could !e1 THE HAND STANDS
>OR THE PERSON, THE HAND STANDS >OR THE ACTILITY, THE HAND STANDS >OR
THE SPEECH, ec) *omeone %ith a long hand &eon#&icall# sands $or onl# one &eaning1 a %ie$
w%o seals e"er#%ing %a $alls in %is %ands) Here, %e conce(ual &eon#&# THE HAND
STANDS >OR THE PERSON $uncions "er# well) 7suall# w%en so&eone %as long ar&s %e can
reac% easil# o &an# %ings around %i&) T%ere$ore, %inking on %is and on w%a could re$er %e
idio&aic e'(ression 5someone %ith a long hand 6 o , we access +uickl# o %e signi$icaion o$ %is
e'(ression) Ano%er idio&aic (%rase w%ic% can ca(ure our aenion !# %e $ac %a i uses %e
sa&e #(e o$ &eon# &enione a!o"e is to take something %ith both hands. His Ro&anian
e+ui"alen is1 a luaEa apuca cu mainile amandoua) T%e signi$icance $or %is idio& is Dto take
eagerly()I is known %a we ouc% o!;ecsR %ings wi% !o% %ands w%en we wan i less and w%en
we don, wan %e& oo &uc% we ric% ou wi% onl# one %and) Si&ilar e'(ressions can!e $ound in
Ro&anian language oo1 5a+i tremura mana+ a fi Fgarcit0 a da cu a mana a lua cu Fece etc.
In Englis% 5from hand to hand %as %e &eaning o$ Epassing something directly(. I is
known %a w%en so&e!od# inen o (ass so&e%ing o so&e!od# else, %e will use %is %ands o
%old %a %ing and %e (erson w%o is recei"ing i, will use %ands oo) I see&s %a %e conce(ual
&eon#&# THE HAND STANDS >OR THE PERSON sars o $uncion %ere again, and %e
o"erall &eaning o$ %e e'(ression is undersood !# %e connecion !eween lieral and $igurai"e
&eaning &ade !# %e conce(ual &eon#&# e'ising %ere)
In e"er#da# language we use also a s(ecial se o$ idio&aic e'(ressions w%ose general
&eanings in"ol"e %a #(e o$ con"enional knowledge regarded o gesures %a (eo(le (er$or&
using %eirs %ands) T%e well Jknown e'(ression to shake handscan !e iner(reed in er&s o$
Egreeing so&eone, $or e'a&(le) O%er insances o$ %is #(es o$ e'(ressions are1
'ring one(s hands, w%ic% &ig% e'(ress des(air or &is$orune) In Ro&anian i can !e
ranslaed as Ea+si frange mainile(
Gub hands %ith pleasure, co&es o e'(ress sel$8sais$acion
Ho do%n on one(s hands and knees can !e iner(reed as Easking to someone a favour %ith
great humility(
&onceptual 6etonymies in "and Idioms
THE HAND STANDS >ORCONTROL
T%ere are los o$ !od#8(ar idio&s relaed o %e %and in Englis% w%ic% are conneced
so&e%ow wi% %e conce( o$ %a"ing conrol o"er so&e%ing) Mos o$ %e& are &oi"aed !# %e
conce(ual &eon#&# %e HAND STANDS >OR CONTROL or !# (eo(le,s con"enional
knowledge a!ou %e (resen or (as %a!is, culures ,e"ens) Le,s ake, $or insance, %e Englis%
idio& 1 to gain the upper hand w%ic% &eans o gain a (osiion o$ (ower o"er so&e%ing or
so&eone else . As we can noice, %e con"enional &eon#&# 5HANDS STAND >OR CONTROL6
looks o work "er# well %ere) T%e word hand can !e "iewed in %is e'(ression as a conrol de"ice)
Bu w%a a!ou %e ad"er! upper used %ereS *ell, %is ad"er! &ig% !e &oi"aed !# %e
conce(ual &ea(%or CONTROL IS 7P) T%ere$ore, %is idio&aic e'(ression %a !elongs o %e
conce(ual $ield o$ %u&an !od#8(ars relaed o %e %and see&s o !e cognii"e &oi"aed !# a
con"enional &ea(%or and a cognii"e &eon#&# in %e sa&e i&e) T%e wo cognii"e &ec%anis&
used %ere are %e &ea(%or 1CONTROL IS 7P and %e conce(ual &eon#&# 5 THE HAND
STAND >OR CONTROL6)
Ano%er rele"an e'a&(le in %e $ield o$ %and8!ased idio&s &oi"ed !# conce(ual
&eon#&# &ig% !e %e idio&aic e'(ression to rule someone or something %ith a hand of iron
%a &eans Eo rule so&eone or so&e%ing in an au%oriarian wa#. T%e ranslaion in Ro&anian
language $or %is (%rase can !e %e $ollowing 1 a conduce cu o mana de fier) Here, %e idio&aic
&eaning E o rule wi% au%ori#, is (ercei"ed %roug% &an# cognii"e &ec%anis&s) >irsl#, we
%a"e o !ring ino discussion , %e con"enional knowledge w%ic% %as is roos in %e Middle Age
w%en %ose w%o i&(osed condiions and rules o so&e!od#, usuall# used c%ain glo"es) Two
i&(oran &eon#&ies can !e noiced o $uncion "er# well %ere) T%ose are THE HAND STAND
>OR THE PERSON and THE HAND STAND >OR THE CONTROL)
Man# o%ers %and idio&s &oi"aed !# conce(ual &eon#&# THE HAND STANDS >OR
CONTROL can !e $ound in Englis%) *e will (ro"ide now onl# so&e $ew idio&aic e'(ressions
w%ic% !elong o %ese #(e o$ Englis% idio&s, $ollowed !# %eir general &eaning1
To fall into somebody hands1 o !e conrolled !# so&e!od# -e) g 1 T%e Englis%
soldiers $ell ino %eirs ene&# %ands in %e s(ring o$ %a #ear) 4
To rule an iron hand in a velvet glove : o rule wi% an au%oriarian aiude %a is
&ade o see& so$-e) g 1 To en$orce a new law %e (residen uses (ersuasion $irs,
and %en rules %e iron %and in %e "el"e glo"e)
.ut of hand 1 w%en #ou are doing so&e%ing wi%ou discussing a!ou i
or wi%ou %inking a all a!ou i) -e) g 1 Her use o$ credi cards was uo o$ %and a
week ago)
"and on heart: o (ro&ise so&e%ing o so&e!od# in a sincere wa# -e)g1
Hand on %ear, iTs %e %ones ru%)4
THE HAND STANDS >OR THE ACTILITY
T%ere are &an# idio&aic e'(ressions in w%ic% %e conce(ual &eon#&# 5THE HAND
STANDS >OR THE ACTILITY6 see&s o %a"e an essenial role in &oi"aing %e o"erall
&eaning o$ %ese e'(ressions) I is i&(oran o &enion %a %e cognii"e &eon#&# 5HANDS
STAND >OR THE ACTILITY6 are !ased on %e general well8known &eon#&# 1 5 THE
INSTR7MENT 7SED IN AN ACTILITY STANDS >OR THE ACTILITY 6) T%is &eon#&# 1
THE HAND STANDS >OR THE ACTILITY s(rang $ro& %e si&(le $ac %a (eo(le in"ol"e
%ands in e"er# dail# aci"i# %e# (er$or&1 in wriing, in working , ec) T%us %ands !eco&e s(eci$ic
ool in (er$or&ing an# %u&an aci"i#) T%ere$ore, oge%er wi% %e con"eional knowledge, %e
conce(ual &eon#&# THE HAND STANDS >OR THE ACTILITY $or& a grea !asis $or %e
&oi"aion o$ a large (ar o$ Englis% idio&s)
Le,s ake $or e'a&(le %e idio&aic e'(ression 5to sit on one(s hand. I is alread# known
%a i$ so&eone doesn, use %ands o work, %e is considered &anuall# inaci"e) T%ere is a si&ilar
e'(ression in Ro&anian language w%ic% is o$en used in dail# con"ersaions 1 5 a sta cu mainile in
san6 - e)g 1 In loc sa $aca ce"a sa resol"e (ro!le&a statea cu mainile in san, gandidndu8se cine l8ar
(ue a;ua4) T%e conce(ual &eon#&# &enioned a!o"e co&e %ere o connec %e lieral &eaning
o$ %e e'(ression wi% %e $igurai"e one, w%ic% is usuall# iner(reed as Edeliberately do nothing()
Le,s consider now %e $ollowing idio&aic sring 1 5to hold one(s hand. Is &eaning isD to %ait
and see() Here, in %is case, %e general &eaning o$ %e idio& arises as a conse+uence o$ %e
&eon#&# 1 THE HAND STANDS >OR THE ACTILITY !u also as a resul o$ %e con"enional
knowledge relaed o %olding so&e!od#,s %ands) >or insance w%en so&e!od# %olds %is %ands , %e
%as so((ed $or so&e &o&ens %e aci"i# %e was in"ol"ed in) He is %inking $or %e &o&en
w%e%er o coninue or no %a aci"i#) O%er si&ilar e'a&(les o$ idio&s !ased on conce(ual
&eon#&# 1 THE HAND STANDS >OR THE ACTILITY could !e 1
To give a helping hand : o %el( so&e!od#
To put one(s hands in one(s pockets 1 o deli!erael# do no%ing
To have a nice hand 1 o %a"e a !eaui$ul %and8wriing
To do something %ith one hand or to do smth %ith one hand tied behind one(s
back1 o do so&e%ing "er# easil#
To -oin hands %ith somebody 1 o coo(erae wi% so&e!od#
&onceptual metaphors and hand Idioms
No all %e idio&aic e'(ressions are &oi"aed !# &eon#&ies) So&e o$ %e& are
&oi"aed !# conce(ual &ea(%ors as well or !# con"enional knowledge %e (eo(le $ro& a culure
(ossess) *i%in %e Englis% idio&s, %ands and ar& denoe (ower and conrol, as e"er#!od# knows
%a w%en so&e!od# %old so&e%ing in %isR%er %ands , %e %as co&(lee conrol o"er %a %ing)
In %e idio&aic e'(ression 5to fall into the hands of somebody %e conce(ual &ea(%or
CONTROL IS HOLDIN9 IN THE HAND -A DETINE CONTROL AS7PRA 7N7I OBIECT4
see&s o link %e lieral &eaning o$ %e idio& wi% is $igurai"e one J 5to be under the control of
somebody. T%is conce(ual &ea(%or %as is roos in %e con"enional knowledge according o
w%ic% once so&eone %olds so&e%ing in %is %ands, %e can &ani(ulae %a o!;ec as %e wans, %e
conrol is in %is %ands in %a &o&en)
T%ere are do:ens o$ o%er si&ilar idio&aic e'(ressions in Englis%, w%ere %e conce(ual
&ea(%or CONTROL IS HOLDIN9 IN THE HAND (la#s an i&(oran role in &oi"aing %e
$igurai"e &eaning o$ %ose e'(ression) I will &enion onl# a $ew o$ %e& in order o %a"e a clearer
i&age o$ %is $ac1
To take the la% into one(s o%n hands J o a"oid o e'ecue law and orders
To be out of one(s hands8 o lose conrol
To have something in the palm of one(s hand8 o assu&e co&(lee conrol
o"er so&e%ing
To be in goodEsafe hands+ !eing aken care !# so&eone w%o is a res(onsi!le
(erson - e) g *%en &# c%ild is wi% &# siser, I kno% he is in good hands4
T. 7B ".)B*T 6BA)* T. "A5B &2BA) "A)!*
T%ere are los o$ Englis% idio&s relaed o %e conce( o$ %ones# %a are $re+uenl# used
!# nai"e s(eakers in e"er#da# language) T%e noion o$ &orali# is o$en undersood %roug%
concree conce(s like (%#sical cleanliness and dir. Conce(s suc% as1 %ones# and (uri# sand ou
in !old relie$ in Englis% !# &eans o$ idio& like1 to have clean hands or to %ash one(s hands of
something) T%e idio&aic e'(ression to have clean hands w%ic% &eans to be honest is &oi"aed
!# %e cognii"e &ea(%or TO BE MORAL IS TO BE CLEAN w%ic% is !ased on %e con"enional
knowledge %a (%#sical cleansing release %u&an !eing $ro& %e guil $ro& %is (as) T%ere$ore
was%ing %ands or o %a"e clean %ands is easil# associaed, in idio&s like %ose &enioned a!o"e ,
wi% %ones#, wi% less dou!s a!ou cerain decisions aken once in %e (as and less &oral dir)
O%er idio&aic e'(ressions !ased on %e conce(ual &ea(%or TO BE HONEST IS TO HALE
CLEAN HANDS are 1
To have someoneIs blood on oneIs hands8 o !e accused !# causing so&eone,s dea%
To catch somebody red+handed J o cac% so&eone in %e course o$ co&&iing a
cri&e
To was% so&eone,s dir# %ands o$ so&e%ing8 o re$use o assu&e res(onsi!ili# $or
so&e%ing
A9REEMENT IS SHAGIN9 HANDS
According o Gendon in %eir co&&unicaion ac (eo(le usuall# 5e&(lo# gesure in suc% a
wa# as o &ake so&e%ing %a is !eing said &ore (recise or co&(lee6) In %e idio&aic e'(ression
to shake hands on it %e con"enional &ea(%or %a associaes (eo(le general knowledge o$
%e s(eci$ic gesure o$ s%aking one,s %and during %e (rocess o$ negoiaing so&e%ing, wi% %e
idio&aic &eaning o$ %is e'(ression - to agree on something$ is A9REEMENT IS SHAGIN9
HANDS)
Our e"er#da# e'(erience in co&&unicaing wi% (eo(le s%ows us %a no onl# we wan o
gree so&eone we s%ake %ands, !u also w%en we r# o conclude an agree&en) T%ere$ore, %e
general &eaning 5 o agree wi% so&e%ing6 o$ %e idio& &enioned a!o"e is !ased (ariall# on %e
(eo(le,s !elie$ %a i$ #ou agree wi% so&e%ing, $or e'a&(le wi% a success$ul !usinessR deal
recenl# co&(leed, #ou (er$or& %e (%#sical gesure o$ s%aking %ands)
The metaphor : /GBB!.6 T. A&T I* "A5I)H T"B "A)!* /GBB and hand idioms
In Englis%, idio&aic e'(ressions suc% as 1 to give somebody a free hand to have a free
hand in something to bind somebody hand and foot %e a!srac noion o$ 8 $reedo& in (er$or&ing
so&e%ing -a (%#sical or inellecual aci"i# $or e'a&(le4 is e'(lained in er&s o$ 1 having free
hands is having the freedom to take decisions by yourself) T%e cognii"e &ec%anis& w%ic% see&s
o !e a real !asis in &oi"aing %e &eaning o$ %e idio&s a!o"e is %e conce(ual &ea(%or
>REEDOM TO ACT IS HALIN9 THE HANDS >REE) T%is &ea(%or %as is roos in (eo(le,s
!elie$ according o w%ic% i$ we %a"e $ree %ands %a are no in"ol"ed in an#%ing we are a!le o use
%e& easil# in w%ae"er we wan and %us, we en;o# a cerain $reedo& in w%a we inend o do)
Anal#sing care$ull# e"er#%ing we %a"e &enioned unil now in %is (a(er, we can easil#
asser %a in an# language, e"en in Ro&anian or in Englis%, %ere are cerain conce(ual &ea(%ors
and &eon#&ies w%ic% %el(s %e s(eakers o$ %a language o in$er %e $igurai"e &eaning o$ %e
idio&aic e'(ressions !elonging o %eir own culure) T%ose e'(ressions %a !elongs o %e $ield o$
%e %u&an !od#8(ars usuall# re$lec a s(eci$ic wa# o$ %inking and !e%a"ing and also a cerain
(aern o$ conce(uali:ing (eo(le,s dail# e'(eriences) T%e &os co&&on con"enional &ea(%ors
and &eon#&ies used wi%in %e Englis% %and8!ased idio&s are 1 THE HAND STANDS >OR THE
ACTILITY, THE HAND STANDS >OR THE PERSON OR >OR THE SGILL, A9REEMENT IS
SHAGIN9 HANDS, TO BE MORAL IS TO HALE CLEAN HANDS, COOPERATION IS
HOLDIN9 HANDS and >REEDOM TO ACT IS HALIN9 THE HANDS >REE)
As a su((le&en o %e idio&s anal#sed ill now in %e (resen (a(er I will (ro"ide a lis
wi% %e &os i&(oran Englis% %and idio&s used in e"er#da# s(oken language and I will &ake a
co&(arison !eween %e& and %eir Ro&anian e+ui"alens in order o de&onsrae once again, %e
considera!le corres(ondence !eween Ro&anian and Englis% culure in %e idio&aic (%rase,s area
and %e $ac %a &os o$ %e i&e, (eo(le use %e sa&e conce(ual (rocesses in %eir ae&( o
elucidae %e general &eaning o$ an idio&) T%e a!le illusraed !elow co&es o s%ow %e &os
co&&on si&ilariies %a &a# e'is !eween a Ro&anian %and8!ased idio& and an Englis% idio&
$ro& %e sa&e caegor# in %u&an,s dail# discourse)
Hand-based Idioms
Bnglish idiom Gomanian
significant
e,uivalent
Gelevant
significance
B3amples
To ge ou o$ %and
- A-i scpa
din mn
I is said a!ou a
cerain siuaion
%a is getting out
of hand i$ i canno
!e conrolled
an#&ore
!uring the
demonstrations things
got out of hand and a
group of students has
broken many shop
%indo%s
To $orce one,s
%and
- A fora
mna cuiva
To force
somebody to do
something that is
against to his %ill
*he forced her o%n
manager(s hand to give
to her colleagues more
days off
T%e rig% %and
doesn, know w%a
%e le$ %and is
doing
Re$ers on suc%
siuaions in w%ic%
wi%in a grou( o$
(eo(le %ere is no
co&&unicaion a
all, due o %e $ac
%a so&e o$ %e&
%a"e no idea w%a
%e o%ers are
doing
In that group the right
hand doesn(t kno% %hat
the others are doing
To !ie %e %and
%a $eeds #ou
- A muca
mna care
te hraneste
To %ur so&e!od#
w%o %el(ed #ou
7ill bit the hand that fed
him %hen he said those
terrible %ords to his
aunt
To go hand in
hand
- A merge
mna in
mna
T#(icall#
idio&aic
e'(ression %a
re$ers o wo
%ingsRsaes w%ic%
usual# co&es
og%eer, one wi%
ano%er, no
se(arael#
It is said that poverty
and desease goes
hand in hand
To go away
empty-handed
- A pleca cu
mna goal
I &eans o de(ar
wi% no%ing
- I have -ust seen
the beggar %ho
%ent a%ay
empty+handed in
that day very
close from our
house
To !e so&eone,s
rig% %and
- A fi mana
dreapta a
cuiva
Being
someones right
hand means to
be considered as
a trustworthy
human being in
that persons
opinion
He was the kings
right hand
A sparrow in the
hand is better
than two in the
bush
- A nu da
vrabia din
mana
pentru cea
de pe gard
This expression
refers to the fact
that is better to
keep something
you have already
achieved than to
be in a risky
situation of
loosing it by
trying to
purchase
something better
If I %ere you I %ouldn(t
give up at the title that I
got hopping that I %ill
get other more better.
After all a sparro% in
the hand is better than
t%o in the bush
At first hand - La prima
mana
This expression
refers to the fact
that people feel
they have tried
something for
the first time, or,
at first hand, if
they experience
it in a direct way
or !ill" working in
that factory was an
opportunity to see at
first hand how it is to
#e on your own in life
and to earn your own
money
Conclusions
T%e (resen (a(er is $ocused on %e sud# o$ Ro&anian and Englis% idio&s conaining in
%eir co&(osiion %u&an !od# (ars, es(eciall# %ands and ar&s, and %ow so&e $uncions o$ %is
!od# (ars are rans$erred o a large nu&!er o$ %ese idio&aic srucures, widel# used !# (eo(le in
%eir e"er#da# language in order o de$ine %eir own %oug%s, e&oions and (erce(ions a!ou li$e)
>ro& a radiional (oin o$ "iew, idio&aic e'(ressions are considered as &uliword e'(ressions
w%ose linguisic consiuens are usuall# se&anicall# a&!iguous) T%e sandard a((roac% o %e
naure o$ idio&s de$ine %e& as 5froFen s#nacic unis w%ose signi$icance &eans so&e%ing
oall# di$$eren $ro& w%a %e consiuen (ars lierall# i&(l#)
Howe"er, wo $unda&enal crieria were i&(osed o"er %e i&e !# linguiss w%ic% %el(s
s(eakers o$ a language o recogni:e easil# an idio&) T%ese crieria are regarded o %e $ac %a
idio&aic e'(ressions s%ould !e &us well esa!lis%ed and acce(ed %roug% co&&on (racice)
Tradiional linguiss %a"e considered idio&s as non8co&(osiional le'ical ie&s) T%is
%eor# %as is origins in %eir $ir& con"icion %a %e o"erall &eaning o$ an idio&aic srings canno
!e deduced $ro& %e &eaning o$ is consiuen words) Con"ersel#, cognii"e linguiss %a"e !een
de$ined idio&aici# in a di$$eren wa#) T%e# !elie"e %a %e &eaning o$ an idio& is no anar!irar#
le'ical $or&ula and i arises $ro& (eo(le,s general knowledge a!ou %e world) T%e in"esigaions
&ade o"er %e i&e u(on a large nu&!er o$ idio&aic e'(ressions %a"e de&onsraed %a a grea
a&oun o$ %e& are anal#sa!le and %a"e $igurai"e &eanings) >or e'a&(le, in %e $ollowing
e'(ression 5o s(ill %e !eans6 , %e acion o$ 5s(ill 5can !e anal#sed in er&s o$ re"ealing
so&e%ing, a (iece o$ in$or&aion $or insance, and %e word 5 !eans6 can !e ari!ued o %a (iece
o$ in$or&aion disclosed) T%us , i$ we look a %is siuaion as a w%ole, we arri"e o %e general
&eaning o$ %e idio&aic e'(ression, Eo re"eal a secre,)
T%e ranslaion o$ an idio&aic (%rase $ro& one language o ano%er can !eco&e a clu&s#
and di$$icul (rocess , due o %e di$$eren "alues, !elie$s, conce(s and social !ackground (eo(le
$ro& %a wo culures (ossess) T%is (a(er is cenered on %ose Ro&anian and Englis% %u&an !od#8
(ars idio&s w%ic% are si&ilar in &eaning and $or&)
T%e &os radiional &e%ods o$ eac%ing and learning idio&s are $ocused on &e&ori:aion8
a wrong wa# o ac+uire new idio&aic e'(ressions in w%ic% %e associaions !eween $or&s and
&eanings doesn, e'is) Di$$eren linguiss !elie"e %a %e &ea(%oric &a((ings !uild
corres(ondences !eween source and arge conce(s o$ &an# idio&aic srings and conse+uenl#
%el( Englis% $oreign learners o undersand in a !eer wa# %eir &oi"aions) Conse+uenl#,
&ea(%orical e'(ressions are essenial in our dail# language)
Mea(%ors are no ;us orna&enal $igures o$ s(eec% ari!ued o %e (oer#, i is (ar
o$ %e wa# in w%ic% (eo(le (ercei"e %e world %e# are li"ing in, or %e wa# according o w%ic%
&an# a!srac noions are srucured !ecause %e# %a"e a grea (ower in e'(laining %e language
(%eno&ena) As idio&aic language is (er"asi"e in e"er#da# s(oken language, &ea(%ors are
i&(oran cognii"e &ec%anis&s in &oi"aing idio&s oo) Recenl#, a new %#(o%esis regarded o
%e sud# o$ &ea(%ors %a"e !een de"elo(ed) Is na&e is T%e Conce(ual Mea(%or T%eor# and is
$ounders are 9eorge Lako$$ and Mark Fo%nson) T%e# clai&ed %a &ea(%ors are o$en encounered
in (eo(le,s dail# co&&unicaion and %e# srucure %eir own wa# o$ %inking and acing)
T%ere$ore we li"e !# cerain conce(ual &ea(%ors) T%e usage o$ %e &ea(%oric conce(s in our
dail# language is ine"ia!le in %is case)
During %e (rocessing and co&(re%ension o$ idio&s, (eo(leTs assu&(ion a!ou %e wa# in
w%ic% %e indi"idual co&(onens o$ %e idio&aic srings re$ers o %e &ea(%orical conce(s %a
e&(%asi:e %eir $igurai"e re$erens di$$er greal# $ro& %e (erce(ions o!ained w%en lieral
language is used) >or insance, %e idio&aic e'(ression 5Ann s(illed %e !eans6 &a(s %e s(eaker,s
con"enional knowledge o$ so&eone,s i((ing o"er a conainer o$ !eans8 %e source do&ain8 ino a
(erson a (erson re"ealing a secre8 %e arge do&ain) >or nai"e s(eakers 5 s(ill %e !eans6
unconsciousl# &eans E o re"eal a secre, !ecause so&e re(resenai"e conce(ual &ea(%ors suc%
as THE MIND IS A CONTAINER and IDEAS ARE PHYSICAL ENTITIES can !e $ound in %e
(rocess o$ &oi"aing %e $igurai"e &eaning o$ %is idio&aic e'(ression) *e canno &ake a lis
wi% all %e conce(ual &ea(%ors used like use$ul !asis in &oi"aing our dail# idio&aic
e'(ressions !ecause language is considered o !e a (rocess %a is in a (er&anen rans$or&aion
!u we can s(eci$# %e &os co&&on e'a&(les o$ con"enional &ea(%ors we use in our e"er#da#
co&&unicaion) In &an# cases, %e usage o$ &ea(%ors in %e co&&unicaion ac see&s o !e a
unconscious (rocess !ecause (eo(le are no aware all %e i&e o$ %e $ac %a, !# &eans o$ so&e
con"enional e'(ressions, %e# are a!le o conce(uali:e %e &os co&&on a!srac conce(s $ro&
our conce(ual s#se&)
Conce(s like LI>E or AR97MENTS are o$en srucured in &ea(%orical e'(ressions
like 1 LI>E IS A FO7RNEY or AR97MENTS ARE *ARS) THEORIES are also unconscious
&a((ed in er&s o$ B7ILDIN9S and IDEAS in er&s o$ >OOD, !u %e &os widel# &ea(%orical
e'(ressions $ro& (eo(le,s dail# s(oken discourse is TIME IS MONEY, w%ere %e a!srac noion
o$ i&e is undersood in er&s o$ &one# due o %e $ac %a i&e is "iewed alwa#s as a li&ied
resource ;us like money)
Idio&s canno !e considered se(araed le'ical unis wi%in %e le'icon !ecause %eir
srucures re$lec &ea(%orical conce(s) I is i&(ossi!le no o noice w%en we anal#se so&e
Ro&anian and Englis% e+ui"alen idio&s %a %e# are o$en &oi"aed !# %e sa&e &ea(%orical
conce(s) >or e'a&(le, %e idio&aic e'(ressions 15ge %o under %e collar6, 5o !low one,s o(6 or
5o !low #our sack6 , wi% %eir Ro&anian e+ui"alen 1 5a8i sari andara6, 5a8i sari ca(acele6 and
5a8si iesi din $ire6 are all &oi"aed !# %e conce( AN9ER IS HEATED >L7ID IN A
CONTAINER) Ano%er i&(oran cognii"e &ec%anis& in &oi"aing idio&aic (%rases is
re(resened !# conce(ual &eon#&#) Conce(ual &eon#&ies generall# (ossess re$erenial
$uncions) T%e# are cognii"e de"ices in w%ic% one conce( or do&ain sands $or ano%er %a is
so&e%ow linked or associaed wi% %e $irs one) >or insance, %e BODILY SYMPTOMS O> AN
EMOTION STAND >OR EMOTIONS) T%e %u&an !odil# s#&(o& o$ %ig% e&(eraure sands $or
>EAR $or e'a&(le, like in 5Ann was c%illed o %e !one6, or %e dro((ing (osure sands $or
SADNESS like in 5His %ear sank6)
T%e (resen (a(er is $ocused &ore on %u&an !od# (ar idio&s, es(eciall# %and8!ased
idio&s, %an on o%er #(es o$ idio&aic e'(ressions) T%e %u&an !od# (ars %a"e an i&(oran role
in undersanding %e world ) *e can recei"e si&uli $or& %e e'ernal en"iron&en and inerac
wi% o%ers onl# %roug% %e&) T%e &os co&&on %u&an !od# J(ars idio&s see&s o !e relaed o
!od#8(ar er&s like ar&s and %ands , so, %e &ain (ur(ose o$ %is (a(er is o anal#se %e (rinci(al
cognii"e &ec%anis&s w%ic% co&e o &oi"ae %e $igurai"e &eaning o$ %is %ese kinds o$ idio&s
and %e di$$erences and si&ilariies %a Ro&anian and Englis% !od#8(ars idio&s see& o %a"e
w%en are used in (eo(le,s e"er# da# discourse) T%e %ands and ar&s &ig% !e considered in an#
culure as indis(ensa!le $or %u&ans in (er$or&ing %eirs dail# aci"iies) *e use %e& in %olding
%ings, wriing, working , ec) T%ere$ore, %e# are (resen in di$$eren #(es o$ linguisic
e'(ressions, es(eciall# in idio&s) Bo% in Ro&anian and Englis% language, %ere are so&e
i&(oran conce(ual &eon#&ies like 1 THE HAND STAND >OR THE ACTILITY -MANA
REPREUINTA ACTILITATEA in Ro&anian4, THE HAND STANDS >OR THE PERSON - in
Ro&anian1 MANA REPREUINTA PERSOANA4 and THE HAND STANDS >OR THE
CONTROL, w%ose &ain goal is o %el( non8nai"e s(eakers o (ercei"e !eer %e signi$icance o$
%e idio&s %e is using in %e (rocess o$ co&&unicaion !eween %i& and o%ers) One o$ %e !es
known &eon#&# in Englis% is THE HAND STANDS >OR THE PERSONS w%ic% see&s o !e a
(aricular case o$ %e conce(ual &eon#&# THE PART STANDS >OR THE *HOLE, o$en
encounered in e'(ressions like 5 we need &ore %ands6 or 5 %e# need a sronger ar& in rig%
$ield6) >ro& suc% e'(ressions, Englis% s(eakers undersand %e &eaning o$ 5&ore %ands 6 and
5sronger ar&s 6 as8 &ore (eo(les and sronger $ig%ers) Here, a !od# (ar like %and or ar& , is
su!siued !# %e w%ole !od# e&(%asi:ing %e &eon#&ical relaions%i( PART >OR THE
*HOLE) T%e sa&e &eon# can !e used in &oi"aing %e o"eral &eaning o$ so&e addiional
e'(ressions1 a $acor# %and, %e de"il $inds work $or idle %ands, $ro& %and o %and)
Ano%er rele"an &eon#&# used in &oi"aing %e $igurai"e &eaning o$ %and8!ased
idio&aic e'(ressions is THE HANDS STAND >OR THE ACTILITIES) T%is con"enional
&eon#&# re(resens a s(ecial case o$ %e &eon#&# INSTR7MENT STANDS >OR ACTION) I$
we look care$ull# a %e well8known idio&1 o ie one,s %and $or e'a&(le, we can easil# consider
%a %e &os i&(oran insru&en used in "arious aci"iies is %e %and and w%en so&e%ow %as
%ands ied oge%er, %e canno de"elo( an# aci"i# wi% %e&) T%ere$ore, anal#sing idio&aic
e'(ressions suc% %e one &enioned a!o"e , we can arri"e a %e general conclusion %a %e !asis
$or %e conce(ual &eon#&# THE INSTR7MENT 7SED IN AN ACTILITY STANDS >OR THE
ACTILITYand , i&(lici, %e roos $or %e con"enional e'(ression THE HANDS STAND >OR
THE ACTILITIES arise $ro& %e con"enional knowledge %a asser %a a large a&oun o$
(roo#(ical %u&an s(eci$ic o %e %u&ans are (er$or&ed wi% %e %ands)
*e #(icall# use %ands w%en we e'ercise conrol o"er so&e%ing oo, so, we o$en use %e
conce(ual l&eon#&# THE HANDS STANDS >OR CONTROL w%en we alk a!ou aci"iies %a
re+uire aking conrol o"er so&e%ing or so&eone) T%is conri!ues o %e occurance o$ idio&aic
e'(ressions w%ic% are si&ilar o %e o%er &eon#&ies1 5 o rule wi% a %and o$ iron6 J o rule in an
au%oriarian wa#, 5 o gain %e u((er %and6 J o o!ain a !ene$i o"er ano%er (erson, 5o %a"e a
%and in so&e%ing6 J o !e alened in doing so&e%ing)
Bu idio&aic e'(ressions are also &oi"aed !# %e conce(ual &ea(%ors and general
con"enional knowledge %a (eo(le $ro& a culure usuall# (ossess) In %e las wen# #ears, %e
ineres $or %e sud# o$ &ea(%ors in %u&an !od#8(ars idio&s conaining %e word 5hand in %eir
co&(osiion %as grown)
Mos o$ %e %and8!ased idio&s used in dail# s(oken language see&s o !e &oi"aed !#
conce(ual &ea(%ors like 1 THE HAND IS A CONTAINER - %a include s(eci$ic &ea(%ors suc%
as J HOLDIN9 IN THE HAND IS CONTROL, HOLDIN9 IN THE HAND IS COOPERATION
and HOLDIN9 IN THE HAND IS POSSESION4, A9REEMENT IS SHAGIN9 HANDS and TO
BE HONEST IS TO HALE CLEAN HANDS)
T%e a!srac noion o$ Econrol, see&s o !e o$en srucured in (eo(le,s discourse !# %e acion o$
%olding in %ands) T%is resuls $ro& %e si&(le $ac %a (eo(le consider %a i$ so&eone %olds
so&e%ing in %is %and %e gains a!solue conrol o"er %a o!;ec) Si&ilarl#, %e a!srac conce( o$
coo(eraion can !e also conce(uali:ed !# an acion o$ %olding %ands) *%en wo (ersons are
%olding %e %ands o$ eac% o%er i &eans %a %e# %a"e de"elo(ed a good relaions%i( !eween
%e&) Based on %is !elie$, &os o$ %e (eo(le unconsciousl# use in %eir e"er#da# language
idio&aic e'(ressions suc% as 1 it goes hand in hand , they %orked hand in glove %ith the
police etc. %a are (ariall# &oi"aed !# %e con"enional &ea(%or1 COOPERATION IS
HOLDIN9 HANDS)
T%ere$ore, a$er we %a"e &enioned all %ese %ings, we can conclude %a idio&s are no
onl# linguisic e'(ressions %a are so&e%ow in a s(ecial relaions%i( wi% %e &eaning o$ is
consiuen (ars, !u %e# co&e u( $ro& %u&an,s general knowledge a!ou %e world e&!odied in
%eir conce(ual s#se&)
!isbet, "#$%$ &ocial 'hange and (istory ) Aspects of the *estern, , London) +xford ,niversity
-ress
George Lakoff and Mark Turner - More Than Cool
Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor , 199 Chicago : !ni"ersit# of
Chicago Press