Biology Revision- 3.

4- DNA Replication

3.4.1 Explain DNA replication in terms of unwinding of the double helix and separation of the
strands by helicase, followed by the formation of the new complementary strands by DNA
polymerase
Helicase
Unwinds the DNA and separates the two polynucleotide strands by breaking the hydrogen
bonds between complementary base pairs
The two separated polynucleotide strands act as templates for the synthesis of new
polynucleotide strands

DNA Polymerase
Synthesises new strands from the two parental template strands
Free deoxynucleoside triphosphates (nucleotides with three phosphate groups) are aligned
opposite their complementary base partner and are covalently bonded together by DNA
polymerase to form a complementary nucleotide chain
The energy for this reaction comes from the cleavage of the two extra phosphate groups

3.4.2 Explain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation of the base
sequence of DNA
Each of the nitrogenous bases can only pair with its complementary partner (A=T ; G=C)
Consequently, when DNA is replicated by the combined action of helicase and DNA polymerase:
The new strands formed will be identical to the original strands separated from the template
The two DNA molecules formed will be identical to the original molecule

DNA Replication is a Semi-Conservative Process


3.4.3 State that DNA replication is semi-conservative
DNA replication is a semi-conservative process because when a new double-stranded DNA
molecule is formed:
One strand will be from the original molecule
One strand will be newly synthesised

Biology Revision-3.5-Transcription and Translation
3.5.1 Compare the structure of DNA and RNA


3.5.2 Outline DNA transcription in terms of the formation of an RNA strand complementary to
the DNA strand by RNA polymerase
Transcription is the process by which an RNA sequence is produced from a DNA template:
RNA polymerase separates the DNA strands and synthesises a complementary RNA copy from
one of the DNA strands
It does this by covalently bonding ribonucleoside triphosphates that align opposite their
exposed complementary partner (using the energy from the cleavage of the additional
phosphate groups to join them together)
Once the RNA sequence has been synthesised, RNA polymerase will detach from the DNA
molecule and the double helix will reform
The sequence of DNA that is transcribed into RNA is called a gene
Transcription occurs in the nucleus (where the DNA is) and, once made, the mRNA moves to the
cytoplasm (where translation can occur)

Three main types of RNA are predominantly made:
Messenger RNA (mRNA): A transcript copy of a gene used to encode a polypeptide
Transfer RNA (tRNA): A clover leaf shaped sequence that carries an amino acid
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): A primary component of ribosomes

3.5.3 Describe the genetic code in terms of codons comprised of triplets of bases
The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in mRNA sequences is
converted into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells
Codons are a triplet of bases which encodes a particular amino acid
As there are four bases, there are 64 different codon combinations (4 x 4 x 4 = 64)
The order of the codons determines the amino acid sequence for a protein
The coding region always starts with a START codon (AUG) and terminates with a STOP codon

The Genetic Code


The genetic code has the following features:
It is universal - every living thing uses the same code (there are only a few rare and minor
exceptions)
It is degenerate - there are only 20 amino acids but 64 codons, so more than one codon may
code for the same amino acid (this allows for silent mutations whereby a change in the DNA
sequence does not affect the polypeptide sequence)

3.5.4 Explain the process of translation, leading to polypeptide formation
Translation is the process of protein synthesis in which the genetic information encoded in
mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
Ribosomes bind to mRNA in the cell's cytoplasm and move along the mRNA molecule in a 5' - 3'
direction until it reaches a start codon (AUG)
Anticodons on tRNA molecules align opposite appropriate codons according to complementary
base pairing (e.g. UAC will align with AUG)
Each tRNA molecule carries a specific amino acid (according to the genetic code)
Ribosomes catalyse the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids (via a
condensation reaction)
The ribosome moves along the mRNA molecule synthesising a polypeptide chain until it reaches
a stop codon, at this point translation stops and the polypeptide chain is released

The Process of Translation


3.5.5 Explain the relationship between one gene and one polypeptide
A gene is a sequence of DNA which encodes a polypeptide sequence
A gene sequence is converted into a polypeptide sequence via the processes of transcription
(making an mRNA transcript) and translation (polypeptide synthesis)
Translation uses tRNA molecules and ribosomes to join amino acids into a polypeptide chain
according to the mRNA sequence (as read in codons)
The universality of the genetic code means all organisms show the same relationship between
genes and polypeptides (indicating a common ancestry and allowing for transgenic techniques
to be employed)
Some proteins may consist of a number of polypeptide chains and thus need multiple genes
(e.g. haemoglobin consists of four polypeptide subunits encoded by two different genes)
When a gene is mutated it may lead to the synthesis of a defective polypeptide, hence affecting
protein function

The 'One Gene - One Polypeptide' Rule


There are two exceptions to the 'one gene - one polypeptide' rule:
Genes encoding for tRNA and rRNA do not code for polypeptide sequences (only mRNA
sequences code for polypeptides)
A single gene may code for multiple polypeptides if alternative splicing occurs (the removal of
exons as well as introns)