Conditionality and Conditional Sentences.

1
CONDITIONALITY AND CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

1 General.
1.1 Terminology.

CONDITIONAL verbal form
clause
sentence

1.1.1 The conditional verbal form.

(i) the present conditional WOULD/SHOULD + Present Infinitive,
(ii) the past conditional WOULD/SHOULD + Perfect Infinitive.

the present conditional (1) the future-in-the past (2):

(1) If they had time, they WOULD GO with us to the party.
(2) I thought that they WOULD GO with us to the party.

1.1.2 The conditional clause / sentence

a conditional sentence

a subordinate conditional clause a main clause
THE PROTASIS / THE CONDITION THE APODOSIS/THE CONSEQUENT

(3) If George comes, Mary will be happy.

protasis/condition apodosis/consequent


1.1.2.1 The order of the protasis and apodosis.

information structuring:


(4) Its not the rummy that aggravates my blood pressure. If there were no cards, there would still be the stock
market, if there werent the stock market, there would be the condominium in Florida.


framing subsequent discourse:
(5) And if Miss Luft hadnt got to the phone he probably would have killed her, and then eventually he would
have come sniffing around after me.

Conditionality and Conditional Sentences.
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structural consideration:
(6) a) Concern continued yesterday that the Chancellor might not be able to guarantee that 15 per cent
base rates were the peak if sterling came under pressure again.

b) ?? Concern continued yesterday that the Chancellor might not be able to guarantee that if sterling
came under pressure again, 15 per cent base rates were the peak.

written/spoken language

2 Classification of conditional sentences.

(7) If she comes, that'll be a great surprise.
(8) If she came, that would be a great surprise.
(9) If she had come, that would have been a great surprise.
(10) If she comes, that is a great surprise.
(11) If she came, that was a great surprise.

(12) If you hadn't left the map at home (yesterday), we wouldn't be lost (now).
(13) If he were really so rich (now), he wouldn't have bought a 5-year old car (last month).
(13a) If she caught the early train, shell be here any minute.

3 Subordinators and other syntactic devices.

3.1 Subordinators.

IF / UNLESS

(14) Unless you give me my money back, I'll call the police.
(15) If you don't give me my money back, I'll call the police.

IF ONLY

(16) If only you weren't so selfish!
(17) I should have bought a car if only I hadn't spent the money.

PROVIDED/PROVIDING, ON CONDITION

(18) I'll tell you the secret on condition you promise you won't tell anyone.
(19) You can go trekking with your gang provided you have passed the exam.

SUPPOSE/SUPPOSING/WHAT IF

(20) Suppose he doesn't come.
(21) Supposing I had done it, what would you have said then?

Conditionality and Conditional Sentences.
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IN CASE

(22) In case he does come round, call me immediately.

BUT: He always sleeps by the phone in case something urgent happens at the hospital.

AS LONG AS

(23) She may go as long as he goes with her.

WITHOUT / WITH

(24) Without my help, you wouldnt be able to manage.
(25) With them on our side, we are secure.

3.2 Syntactic devices.

3.2.1 Inversion.

(26) SHOULD you change your mind, please let me know.
(27) WERE she a few years younger, they would treat her differently.
(28) HAD she DESERVED it, I would have intervened.
(29) MIGHT / COULD I but see my native land, I would die a happy man.


3.2.2 Other possibilities.

BUT FOR THAT
(30) He lent me his car. But for that I couldn't have come.

OTHERWISE/OR ELSE
(31) You'd better hurry; otherwise you'll miss the train.

imperative AND
(32) Just tell her that George is here and she will come running.


4 Usage notes.

(33) If the accused BE found guilty, the judge may sentence him to up to twenty years in prison.
(34) If he WAS/WERE TO COME, I would pretend not to know him.
(35) If John WAS/WERE here, he would soon learn the truth.
(36) If it SHOULD come to this, everybody will be alarmed.
(37) If you'LL wait a moment, I'll try to find Mr. Brown for you.
(38) If George WILL come, Mary will come.
Conditionality and Conditional Sentences.
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5 Other related functions of conditional clauses

5.1 Rhetorical conditional clauses

assertion is patently absurd:

(39) If you are French, I'm the Pope.
(40) If you believe her story, you'll believe everything.
(41) If she doesn't get the first prize, she's no daughter of yours.

assertion is patently true:

(42) He's ninety if he's a day.
(43) It must be worth a thousand dollars if it's worth a cent.

assertion is patently false:

(44) If Dave's younger than me, I'll eat my hat.
(45) I'll be damned/hanged if he really did it.

5.2 Indirect condition.

an conventional expression of politeness:

(46) If you don't mind my saying so...
(47) If I may be quite frank with you...
(48) If you can keep a secret...
(49) If I may put it bluntly
(50) If I may be personal
(51) If I may interrupt

a metalinguistic comment either suggesting that the wording is not quite precise or that
it should not be misunderstood in some sense not intended by the speaker:

(52) His style is florid, if that's the right word.
(53) She's resigning, if you know what I mean.

the uncertainty about the speaker's or the hearer's knowledge required for a correct
interpretation of the utterance:

(54) I met your girlfriend Caroline last night, if Caroline IS your girlfriend.
(55) I said I couldn't come, if you remember.

Conditionality and Conditional Sentences.
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the condition under which the speaker makes the utterance:

(56) If you are going my way, I need a lift back.
(57) If you want to borrow a shoe brush, there's one in the bathroom.
(58) Where did your parents go, if you know?


6 Not a condition.

WHETHER - OR
(59) You must listen to him whether you like it or not.

EVEN IF (concession)
(60) Even if you promise me a million dollars, I won't do it.
Modality.
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MODALITY

1 General

A. Modality is a semantic category which operates at the sentence level. It is a cover term for
devices which allow the speaker to express varying degrees of commitment to, or belief in, a
proposition.

B. Modality may be defined as a manner in which the meaning of a clause is qualified so as to
reflect the speakers judgment of the likelihood of the proposition it expresses being true.

C. Modality expresses the speakers subjective attitude towards the proposition.

D. A clause consists of a proposition and modality.

PROPOSITION

(1) Hitler invaded Poland.
(2) Poland was invaded by Hitler.
(3) It was Poland that Hitler invaded.
(4) What Hitler invaded was Poland.
(5) The one who invaded Poland was Hitler.

(6) HITLER INVADED POLAND.

CLAUSE = MODALITY + PROPOSITION

(7) George has left by now. commitment 100% (He has left)
(8) George must have left by now.
(9) George could have left by now.
(10) George might have left by now.
(11) George couldnt have left by now.
commitment 0% (He hasnt left)


THE THEORY OF SPEECH ACTS
John Austin, 1975, How to Do Things with Words, Oxford: Clarendon
John Searle, 1976, The Classification of Speech Act, Syntax and Semantics 3: 59-82.

(i) the locutionary act
(ii) the illocutionary act
(iii) the perlocutionary act

(12) Shoot her!

(13) Could I see your ticket? ??No, you couldn't.
(14) Can you tell me the time, please? ??Yes, I can.
(15) [in a bank] May I have change for a dollar? ??No, you may not.

Modality.
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2 Ways of Expressing Modality.

A: MODAL VERBS:

(16) George should take three pills a day.

B: MODAL FRAMEWORKS or HEDGES.

(17) It is certain that George will arrive late.
(18) It is possible that George will arrive late.
(19) I think that George will arrive late.
(20) I believe that George will arrive late.
(21) I hope that George will arrive late.
(22) There is a possibility that George will arrive late.

C: MODAL ADVERBIALS.

(23) Perhaps he went to Paris.
(24) Maybe she is in love.

D: MODAL TENSES.

(25) I wish George arrived sooner.
(26) He behaves as if he owned the Universe.

E: MOOD.

(27) I wish Mary were here with me.
(28) It is imperative that he not arrive late.

N.B.1
modality naklonskost
mood naklon
modal verbs naklonski gl.



N.B.2
Mood vs. Modality.
I insist that he do it.
I insist that he must do it.

Modal Tenses.
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MODAL TENSES.

1 General

(i) the modal function
(ii) the temporal function


2 The use of the modal tenses.

2.1 Conditional clauses.

2.2 The use of the Modal Past tenses.


(1) Man does not live by snobbery alone although sometimes it looks as if he did.


(2) Mrs. Gould said in a tone as if she was repelling an undeserved aspersion.


(3) She was beaming with joy as if Andrew was coming home the next day.


(4) He looked as if he had lost everything.


(5) The world will seem so clear that youll feel as if someone had just given you a new set of eyes.


(6) Masha spoke as if she had been impeded in some way.


2.2.1 after it's (high) time, if only, wish

2.2.1.1 Wish.

(7) I wish / wished I spoke French.
(8) I wish / wished I had read that chapter.

Compare:

(9) I wish to succeed in life.
(10) I wish I were in a position to help you.

(11) I wish they would make it.
Modal Tenses.
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(12) I wish you wouldn't spend every moment with him.

2.2.1.2 If only.

(13) If only you worked harder!
(14) If only you had studied harder!

2.2.1.3 Its (high) (about) time.

(15) It's time somebody put a stop to it. It's time for the children to go to bed.
(16) It's time I was going.
(17) *It's time I were going.
2.2.2 after as if / as though, suppose, imagine, would rather

2.2.2.1 As if / as though

(18) He behaves as if he owned the place.
(19) He behaves as if he owns the place.
(20) She is talking / was talking / will be talking as if she knew him personally.
(21) She is talking / was talking / will be talking as if she had met him in person.
(22) She is talking as if she were smart.

2.2.2.1.1 As if + verbs of seeming /seem, appear, look, sound, feel, smell, taste/

(23) It seems as if the weather is improving.
(24) He sounds as if he was/were trying to convince everyone of his guilt.
(25) You look as if you know each other.
(26) You look as if you've been running.
(27) You look as if you'd seen a ghost.
(28) Why is she looking at me as if she knew me? I've never seen her before in my life.
(29) It smells as if it is sour.
(30) It smells as if it was/were sour.

NB:
(31) He used to when he was just a kitten stand and stare up at as if asking a question.
(32) Perhaps they satisfied their curiosity by reciting creation myths to their young, as if to put behind them the
primeval chaos of unknown creation.

2.2.2.2 Imperatives suppose/ imagine

(33) Suppose he is lost.
(34) Suppose/Imagine he was/were lost.
(35) Suppose/Imagine he was /were lost.
(36) Suppose that one of us died.

Modal Tenses.
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2.2.2.3 would rather

(37) Id rather I were in bed.
(38) Id rather I was in bed.
(39) Id rather you didnt mention the price.
(40) Id rather he stays.
(41) I would rather he is sedated.
Modal Verbs.
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MODAL VERBS.
1. GENERAL.
(1) George may be in his office.
(2) George can come in now.
(3) George can run ten miles with ease.
(4) You may call me a dreamer, but I am not the only one.
(5) George will help you to find a job.
(6) The books will easily fit into this corner.
(7) She will sit there for hours without saying a word.

(8) He may come tomorrow.
epistemic:
deontic:

(9) The book should be on the shelf.
epistemic:
deontic:

(10) He must be in the office.
epistemic:
deontic:

Modal Verbs.
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2. EPISTEMIC VS. DEONTIC MODALITY.

EPISTEMIC MODALITY DEONTIC MODALITY
symbol:

meaning: possibility /probability/deduction necessity /desirability
She MAY even buy it. = Maybe she'll buy it. You MAY buy it. = I allow you to buy it.
negation She MAY NOT buy it. You MAY NOT buy it.
an event
in progress:
She MAY be waiting at home. She MAY wait at home.
past time
reference:
She MIGHT HAVE KNOWN it. You WERE ALLOWED to buy it.
reported
speech
He said she MIGHT know it. Mother said I MIGHT buy it.

2.1 The scale of epistemic modality.
certainty probability possibility
no doubts likely to happen can exist or happen

certainty uncertainty
probability doubt, improbability
possibility impossibility
2.1 The scale of deontic modality.
obligation, necessity negative suggestion
permission prohibition
suggestion absence of obligation/necessity
Modal Verbs.
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3. MODAL VERBS THE USAGE.
3.1. CAN/COULD
3.1.1 epistemic CAN/COULD:
OBJECTIVE POSSIBILITY, BASED ON PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE (VERY COMMON):
(1) Even expert drivers can make mistakes. = It is possible for even present time reference
(2) Why don't we wait for them? It can/could get so boring without them. future time reference
A SMALLER DEGREE OF POSSIBILITY:
(3) She could be in the office.
A PAST POSSIBILITY:
(4) George can / could have left. = It is possible that George left.
HABITUAL READING:
(5) Lightning can be very dangerous. = Lightning is sometimes very dangerous.
A HABITUAL PAST ACTIVITY:
(6) You could drive miles without coming across a petrol station. = It was possible for you to drive
CAN + NEGATION MODALITY IS NEGATED :
(7) He cant be working at this hour. = It is NOT possible that he is working at this hour.
(8) He can hardly be working at this hour. = It is HARDLY possible that he is working at this hour.
(9) George cannot / could not have left. = It is NOT possible that George left.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE CONTEXT :
(10) He can't be a very strong man. What do you think?
(11) He can't be a very strong man. I should know. I've seen hundreds of strong men in my life.
DOUBLE NEGATION CONSTRUCTIONS:
(12) I cannot not go to Rome. = It is not possible for me not to go to Rome.
Modal Verbs.
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3.1.2 deontic CAN/COULD:
PERMISSION:
(13) You can stay here as long as you like.
(14) Can I go, please?
A MORE TENTATIVE ATTITUDE:
(15) Could I use your phone, please.
PAST TIME REFERENCE BE ALLOWED TO, COULD ONLY WHEN DENOTING HABITUAL
PERMISSION:

(16) She was allowed to stay up late yesterday. single occurrence
(17) She could stay up late whenever she wanted. habitual
STRONG RECOMMENDATION, COMMAND (SOMETIMES WITH A TOUCH OF IRONY):
(18) You can forget all about it.
(19) If he doesnt like it, he can lump it.
(20) Im Dr Smith now, so you can observe my new status.
(21) You can say that again.

REFUSAL, PROHIBITION, THE REFUSED PERMISSION:
(22) You cannot leave now.
(23) You cannot smoke on the premises.
(24) She couldnt (=wasnt allowed to) enter the pub, because she was a minor.

SUGGESTIONS, ADVICE AND REQUEST:
(25) We can go to the cinema tomorrow.
(26) We could go out later, couldn't we?
(27) Can I phone you back?

3.1.3 dynamic CAN/COULD:
ABILITY ON THE PART OF THE SUBJECT:
(28) John can run three miles with ease. present
(29) George could speak French fluently when he was ten. past

Modal Verbs.
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THE POWER:
(30) Religion can epitomize, relate and conserve the highest ideals and values.

CAN + VERBS OF SENSATION AND THINKING WITH VERY LITTLE SENSE OF ABILITY:
(31) I can smell something burning. = I smell something burning.
(32) I can see the moon. no ability
vs. He has marvellous eyes he can see the tiniest detail. ability
(33) I cant remember a thing. = I dont remember a thing. minimal sense of ability.

CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR:
(34) He can be very unkind at times.
(35) It can be quite hot in this room.
PROBLEMS: possibility vs. ability:
(36) This game can be played by young children.
= It is possible for this game to be played by young children.
(37) (Even) young children can play this game. = Even young children are able to play this game.

3.2. MAY /MIGHT
3.2.1 epistemic MAY/MIGHT:
SUBJECTIVE POSSIBILITY, UNCERTAIN POSSIBILITY:
(1) If you say stupid things to him, he may get very angry.
Perhaps hell get angry, perhaps he wont.

Compare: If you say stupid things to him, he can get very angry.

(2) He may come tomorrow.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE CONTEXT :
(3) He may come tomorrow. He often comes on Sundays.
(4) He may come tomorrow. But he didn't come last Sunday.

A PAST POSSIBILITY:
(5) You may have met her.
(6) You might have met her.
Modal Verbs.
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(7) He might have realised what happened. possibility
(8) He might have realised what happened if he had listened to me. unfulfilment
(9) You might have at least said that you we were leaving me. unfulfilment+reproach

MAY + ADVERBS:

(10) John may possibly come tomorrow. vs. John may well come tomorrow.

MAY + NEGATION THE PROPOSITION IS NEGATED:
(11) George may not have seen her. = It is possible that G. did not see her.
(12) George cannot have seen her. = It is NOT possible that G. saw her.

MAY IN QUESTIONS (RARE):
(13) May he pass the exam?
(14) May / Might John be in the office?
= Can /Could John be in the office? = Is he likely to be
3.2.2 deontic MAY/MIGHT:
PERMISSION:
(15) May I offer you a drink?
(16) If you wish to consult another doctor, you may do so.
(17) Visitors may park their vehicles in the main square.

SOME HESITATION OR SPECIAL POLITENESS:
(18) Might I ask your name?
(18a) Sir, might I be so bold as to request some spare coinage from you?

PAST TIME REFERENCE:
(19) I was allowed / permitted to go to the party.

THE REPORTED SPEECH:
(20) I asked my mother if I might go to the party.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES AND QUESTIONS:
(21) May I smoke? Will you permit me to smoke?
(22) Ill pay you tomorrow, if I may.
REFUSAL, PROHIBITION, THE REFUSED PERMISSION:
(23) You may not leave now.

Modal Verbs.
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SUGGESTIONS, REQUESTS OR RECOMMENDATION:
(24) You might want to rewrite your essay. = You should rewrite your essay.
(25) We may (just) as well stay here.
3.2.3 dynamic MAY.
A MODALITY-NEUTRAL AUXILIARY VERB:
(i) the subordinate clauses of concession:
(26) She may be stubborn, but I still love her. = Even though she is
(ii) the subordinate clauses of purpose:
(27) He stepped aside so that the teacher might enter.
(28) Christ died, that we might live.
(iii) May used in subordinate clauses beginning with whatever, whenever, however:
(29) Our task is to deal with the customers complaints, however unreasonable they may be.

AN EXCLAMATORY WISH:
(30) May he never set foot in this house again!
(31) May God grant you happiness!
Modal Verbs.
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CAN / MAY

CAN MAY
theoretical / objective possibility:
The road can be blocked.
= It is possible for the road to be blocked.
= It is possible to block the road.

factual / subjective possibility:
The road may be blocked.
=It is possible that the road is blocked.
=Perhaps the road is blocked.
theoretical is ''weaker''
This illness can be fatal.
A friend can betray you.
=Generally speaking

factual is ''stronger''
This illness may be fatal.
A friend may betray you.
=In this particular case
modality is negated:
He [cannot have done it].
=It is NOT possible that he did it.

proposition is negated:
He may [not have done it].
It is possible that he did NOT do it.
? usually used:
Can George be in his flat?

rarely used:
May George be in his flat?
[+present]
[+future]

can / could + present infinitive may / might + present infinitive
[+past] can / could + perfect infinitive may / might + perfect infinitive
[+prog.] He can be sleeping. He may be sleeping.


CAN MAY
permission:
colloquial, informal, everyday language
permission:
formal, polite contexts

set expressions:
If I may
May I be allowed ?

suggestions, advice and request:
We could go out later, couldn't we?
Can I phone you back?

suggestions, requests or recommendation:
You might want to write your paper again.
We may (just) as well stay here.
refusing permission, common use refusing permission, only as a reply to a
question:
May I go? No, you may not.

[+present]
[+future]
can / could + present infinitive may / might + present infinitive
Modal Verbs.
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[+past] allow, permit single permission
could - habitual

allow, permit
might reported speech
[+prog.]
Modal Verbs.
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3.3. MUST
3.3.1 Epistemic MUST
A DEDUCTION, A CONCLUSIVE JUDGEMENT OR LOGICAL NECESSITY:
(1) She is a bridesmaid so she must be very excited.
(2) Something must happen next week.

RARELY WITH FUTURE TIME REFERENCE:
(3) He must come tomorrow. deduction / obligation

(4) He must be coming tomorrow.
Cf.: future as a matter of the course:
(5) When will you be paying back the money? vs. When will you pay back the money?
(6) How long will you be staying? vs. How long will you stay?

(7) He is bound to come tomorrow.
A DEDUCTION, A CONCLUSIVE JUDGEMENT OR LOGICAL NECESSITY WITH PAST TIME REFERENCE:

(8) George looks exuberant. He must have left his wife.

NORMALLY NO NEGATIVE OR QUESTION FORM:
(9) She must be Dutch. She cannot be Dutch.
(10) She must have been Dutch. She can / could not have been Dutch.

TAG QUESTIONS:
(11) There must have been thousands of people waiting, mustnt there?
3.3.2 Deontic MUST
OBLIGATION:
(12) You must be back by ten oclock. You are obliged by me to be back by ten oclock.

Modal Verbs.
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SELF-OBLIGATION OR SENSE OF DUTY:
(13) I must go now, or Ill be late.
REQUIREMENT:
(14) Old people must be treated with sympathy and understanding.

ISSUING INVITATIONS OR MAKING OFFERS IN A HOST/GUEST SITUATION:
(15) You must come and visit us sometime.
(16) You must have another piece of cake.

LIMITED TO THE PRESENT AND IN SOME EXTEND TO THE FUTURE:
(17) Tomorrow I must go to the dentist's. (=my tooth is aching)
(18) I'll have to wait for hours again.
(19) She had to return home.

REPORTED SPEECH:
(20) George said that he must be back by ten oclock.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES AND QUESTIONS:
(21) Must I answer this question?
(22) Must you make that dreadful noise?
(23) If you must behave like a hooligan, at least make sure the neighbours arent watching.
(24) If you must smoke, use an ash-tray.

MUST + NEGATION PROPOSITION IS NEGATED: (PROHIBITION)
(25) You must not bring the cat into the house.

PROHIBITION IN THE PAST:
(26) He didnt have to be back by ten oclock. absence of obligation
(27) He wasnt allowed to bring the cat into the house. past prohibition
Modal Verbs.
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3.4. HAVE TO
3.4.1 Epistemic HAVE TO
A DEDUCTION, A CONCLUSIVE JUDGEMENT OR LOGICAL NECESSITY:
(1) There has (got) to be some reason for this absurd behaviour.

Compare:
(2) Someone must be telling lies.
(3) Someone has (got) to be telling lies.
3.4.2 Deontic HAVE TO
GENERAL OR PUBLIC OBLIGATION:
(4) He has to go to hospital.

HOWEVER:
(5) Someone will have to do the shopping. implication I want you to do it!

SUBSTITUTE FOR MUST WITH PAST AND FUTURE TIME REFERENCE:
(6) I'll have to wait for hours again.
(7) She had to return home.

HAVE (GOT) TO + NEGATION MODALITY IS NEGATED:
(8) You dont have to go into great details.

COMPARE:
(9) You mustnt do it. = It is essential for you not to do it.
(10) You dont have to do it. = It is not essential that you do it.
Cf.: MAY AND CAN

QUESTION AND NEGATIVE FORMS:
(11) Do you have to go? common
(12) Have you to go? rare (BrE)
(13) Have you got to go? common (colloquial BrE)

Modal Verbs.
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PROHIBITION:
(14) George wasnt allowed to visit Mary.

3.5. BE + the infinitive
3.5.1. Epistemic BE + the infinitive
IT IS REASONABLE TO SUPPOSE THAT OR IT IS NOT REASONABLE TO SUPPOSE THAT :
(1) Genuine progress is not to be found in all those twentieth-century inventions.
(2) What is to be said at the end?

CLOSE IN MEANING TO THE EPISTEMIC CAN:
Genuine progress cannot be found
What can be said at the end?
3.5.2 Deontic BE + the infinitive
A REASONABLE COURSE OF ACTION, OR ORDERS, INSTRUCTIONS AND COMMANDS THAT EXCLUDE
THE SPEAKER:

(3) I cannot see how this is to be avoided.
(4) You are to come tomorrow.
(5) I am to inform you that = I have been told to inform you

Compare:
(6) He is to return to Germany.
(7) He has to return to Germany.

Modal Verbs.
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MUST / HAVE (GOT) TO

MUST HAVE (GOT) TO

logical necessity:


Someone must be telling lies.
logical necessity:
associated with AmE
can give a stronger meaning of necessity:
Someone has (got) to be telling lies.


replaced by can:
mustnt in question tags (rare):
She must have done it, mustnt she?
replaced by can
hasnt / havent in question tags (rare):
She has got to have done it, hasnt she?

?



[+present]
[+future]

must + present infinitive have (got) to + present infinitive
[+past] must + perfect infinitive

have (got) to + perfect infinitive
[+prog.] especially when denoting the real
present / the future:
She must be sleeping.
He may be coming tomorrow.
especially when denoting the real present / the
future:
She has got to be sleeping.
They have got to be coming soon.


MUST HAVE (GOT) TO
[+present] subjective obligation:
You must save money. Im telling you.
Mother: You must do it.

general necessity / moral obligation:
Children must obey.
I must tell the truth.

a limited period of time:
I must travel by train this week.

objective obligation:
You have to save money. General rule.
Son: I have to do it.





omnitemporal:
I have to travel by car.
[+future] future necessity from the present:
I must buy some bread. There is none
left.
necessity arising from a future situation:
If you leave me, I will have to do everything on my
own.

[+past] differences disappear only HAVE TO is used


prohibition:
You mustnt do it.
absence of obligation:
You dont have to do it.

[+prog.]
Modal Verbs.
25
3.6. WILL / WOULD
3.6.1 Epistemic WILL
SUPPOSITION OR PROBABILITY (WHAT IT IS REASONABLE TO EXPECT)
(1) Tell him Professor Johnson is involved he will know Professor Johnson.
(2) By now they will be eating dinner.
(3) They will have read the letter by now.
(4) I will/would have already seen the place we're going to, I suppose.
(5) My daughter will not have told you about her plans.
(6) This will/would be the man you're looking for.

(7) George will come tomorrow. future will / epistemic will ?????
(8) John will be going to London tomorrow.

Compare:
(9) George will be in his office.
(10) George must be in his office.

WILL + NEGATION THE PROPOSITION IS NEGATED:
(11) George wont be in his office. = It is reasonable to conclude that George is not in his office.
3.6.2 Deontic WILL
A COMMAND:
(12) You will come on time!
(13) You will remain where you are!

INTENTION / THREAT / PROMISE:
(14) Ill write tomorrow.
(15) Parents often treat their children by saying that theyll stop their pocket money.
(16) Will you be so kind as to tell me where you are going tonight?

SUGGESTIONS:
(17) Well do anything you ask.
(18) Well keep in touch, then.
Modal Verbs.
26

3.6.3 Dynamic WILL
VOLITION OR WILLINGNESS:
(19) You cannot find a publisher who will take it.

INSISTENCE / DETERMINATION OR REFUSAL:
(20) She loves him, so she wont leave him.

A FEELING OF ANNOYANCE AT SOMEONE ELSES OBSTINACY:
(21) Im soaked to the skin.
Well, if you will go out without your raincoat, what can you expect?

THE POWER:
(22) Some drugs will improve the condition.
(23) The books will easily fit into this corner.

TYPICAL OR CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR:
(24) A lion will attack a human being only when hungry. = It is characteristic of lions that they
(25) Accidents will happen.
(26) Boys will be boys.

HABITS OR REPETITIONS:
(27) She will sit for hours watching television. the present
(28) When she was a child she would play for hours with her dolls. the past

THE INFERENCE:
(29) Oil will float on water.
(30) Pigs will eat anything.

THE DISPOSITION:
(31) The auditorium will seat 500.
(32) This tent will sleep 3.

Modal Verbs.
27
3.7. SHALL / SHOULD
3.7.1 Epistemic SHALL / SHOULD
A FORMAL EQUIVALENT OF THE EPISTEMIC WILL (1
ST
PERSON SUBJECTS).
(1) Unless the business improves, we shall have no alternative but to close the factory.
SHOULD DENOTING PROBABILITY OR LIKELIHOOD:
(2) You should be meeting him this afternoon. = It is probable that
(3) They should have arrived by now. = It is probable that

NEGATIVE EPISTEMIC MODALITY:
(4) Considering how much you have studied, you shouldn't fail your exam.

THE EVALUATIVE SHOULD:
(5) It is ridiculous that I should not be allowed to work.
(6) I am sorry that you should have been disturbed.
(7) That he should do such a thing to me!

RHETORICAL QUESTIONS EXPRESSING ASSUMPTION, POSSIBILITY OR PERPLEXITY:
(8) Why should it be wrong?
(9) How should I know?
3.7.1 Deontic SHALL / SHOULD
INTENTION / PROMISE /SUGGESTION:
(10) I shall inform you if the situation changes.
(11) We shall succeed where the others have failed.
(12) Shall we go to the cinema?
(13) Good dog, you shall have a bone when we get home.

SHALL RULES IN REGULATIONS:
(14) A player who bids incorrectly shall lose fifty points.
(15) The hood shall be of scarlet cloth, with a silk lining of the colour of the faculty.

SHOULD OBLIGATION, DUTY OR WHAT IS THOUGHT TO BE ADVISABLE:
(16) You should be more careful.
Modal Verbs.
28
SHOULD NEGATIVE OBLIGATION OR PROHIBITION:
(17) You shouldnt tease her.
(18) You shouldn't go.

SHOULD + THE PERFECT INFINITIVE:
(19) You should have called me more regularly.
(20) You should have been ashamed.
SHOULDNT + THE PERFECT INFINITIVE:
(21) You shouldnt have teased her.
(22) George shouldnt have left the window open.

SHOULD ADVICE, SUGGESTION OR RECOMMENDATION:
(23) You should work harder.
(24) You should come on time.

THE PUTATIVE SHOULD:
(25) It is vital / imperative that he should come to the meeting.
= It is vital / imperative that he come to the meeting.

(26) She insisted that he should be dismissed.
3.8. OUGHT TO
INTERCHANGEABLE WITH SHOULD:
(1) He ought to come tomorrow, shouldnt he?

SOME DIFFERENCES:
Should is more common
Ought to is rare, especially in AmE
Ought to cannot be used instead of the evaluative or putative should:

(2) It is surprising that he should /* ought to say that.
(3) The judge ordered that the prisoner should / *ought to be released immediately.

Should and not ought to is used in formal notices and on information sheets:
(4) Candidates should be prepared to answer all questions.
Modal Verbs.
29
3.9. NEED
NEED AS A FULL LEXICAL VERB:
(1) He desperately needed money.

NEED AS A MODAL (AUXILIARY) VERB:
(2) You neednt be so rude.



IN NEGATIVE OR INTERROGATVES SENTENCES AS A COUNTERPART OF THE DEONTIC MUST:
(3) Need you be so strict? Im afraid I must.

ABSENCE OF OBLIGATION:
(4) You neednt come if you dont want to.

NEED IN STATEMENTS (RARE):
(5) I need hardly say how much I liked your party.

PRESENT AND FUTURE TIME REFERENCE THE MODAL AND FULL LEXICAL NEED:
(6) He neednt go. He doesnt need to go.
(7) Need he go? Does he need to go?

HOWEVER, compare:
(8) Need I go to the shop?
(9) Do I need to go to the shop?
(10) The sheets neednt be changed today.
(11) The sheets dont need to be changed today.

PAST TIME REFERENCE THE MODAL AND FULL LEXICAL NEED:
(12) I neednt have cleaned the flat but I still did it, because I wanted to.
(13) I didnt have to clean the flat, because my mother had done it already.

Modal Verbs.
30
3.10. DARE
DARE AS A FULL LEXICAL VERB:
(1) John doesnt dare to come.
(2) She doesnt dare to tell him the truth.
DARE AS A MODAL (AUXILIARY) VERB:
(3) John darent come to the party.
(4) Dare John come?

IN AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES:
(5) Dare George speak to her about the divorce? Of course, he dare.
(6) People often say I am a fool, and I dare say they are right.
Modal Verbs.
31
A: REVISION EPISTEMIC MODALITY
1. MEANING:
CERTAINTY / LOGICAL NECESSITY
must
have (got) to
will
PROBABILITY
ought to
should
will
POSSIBILITY
may /might
can / could
should in rhetorical questions
be+infinitive
UNCERTAINTY, IMPROBABILITY
may not
might not
should not
ought not to
will not
IMPOSSIBILITY
can not
could not
is not +infinitive


2. CONTEXTUAL FACTORS:
(1) He cant be a very strong man. What do you think? uncertainty
(2) He cant be a very strong man. I should know. Ive seen hundreds of strong man in my life. certainty
(3) He may come tomorrow. He often comes on Sunday. probability
(4) He may come tomorrow. But he didnt come last Sunday. uncertainty

3. INTERPERSONAL FACTORS:
(i) optimistic / cautious attitude:
(1) This is where the treasure must be.
(2) This is where the treasure ought to be.
(ii) a favourable or less favourable attitude towards the event:
(3) Our candidate ought to win. vs. ?Our candidate ought to lose.
(4) Roses should grow well in this soil. vs. ?Roses should grow badly in this soil.
(5) They must come back soon.
(6) It has to be so.

Modal Verbs.
32
(iii) implication of experience or social position:

(7) Young partner: It may be clear to everyone that this plan wont work.
(8) Senior partner: It must be clear to everyone

B: REVISION DEONTIC MODALITY

OBLIGATION, NECESSITY
have (got) to /must /
be+infinitive
ought to /should / shall
need
ABSENCE OF OBLIGATION/NECESSITY not have to
need not
PROHIBITION must not
PERMISSION
can / could
may / might
SUGGESTIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS,
ADVICE
can / could
may /might
shall?
should / ought to
would

C: REVISION DYNAMIC MODALITY

ABILITY can
POWER can / will
CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR can /will
HABITS will /would
QUASI-SUBJUNCTIVE (CONCESSION, PURPOSE, WISH) may
VOLITION / INSISTENCE / DETERMINATION will
INFERENCE will
DISPOSITION will

Modal Verbs.
33
D: REVISION MODAL VERBS AND NEGATION

SCOPE OF
NEGATION
MODAL
VERB
MEANING

MODALITY
(, )


may
permission
You may not go until youve finished.= I do not permit you to go ...


can
all senses
You can't smoke here.= You are not permitted to smoke here.
You can't be serious. = It is not possible that you are serious.
He can't drive a car. = He is not able to drive a car.

have to
all senses
You don't have to pay the fine. = It is not essential that you pay
It doesn't always have to be my fault. = It is not necessary ...
need all senses
You needn't pay the fine. = It is not essential ...
It needn't always be my fault. = It is not necessary ...
PROPOSITION
(,)


may
possibility
They may not come. = It is possible that ...

must
obligation
You mustn't keep us waiting. = It is essential that ...


will
all senses
Don't worry I won't interfere. = I'm willing not to ...
He won't do what he's told. = He insists on not doing ...
They won't have received the letter by now. = It is predictable that ...
MODALITY AND
PROPOSITION
()
- double negation -



can
I cannot not go to Rome. = It is not possible for me not to go ...

may
Plants may not not be imported from outside the EU, except from Euro-Mediterranean zone.


need
They need not not fear for their jobs.


Non-Finites.
34
NON-FINITES

1. GENERAL
(i) the infinitive
(ii) the gerund
(iii) the participle
1.1 Characteristics of non-finites
A: agreement of the subject and the predicator vs. no agreement

(1) I am happy. vs. He is happy. vs. They are happy.
(2) I want to go away. vs. He wants to go away. vs. They want to go away.

B: grammatical categories of aspect, voice and tense.

(3) a) She is believed to be the best soprano.
b) She is believed to have been the best soprano.
c) She wants to be the best soprano.

INFINITIVE
aspect tense voice
active passive
indefinite to make to be made
progressive
present
to be making /
indefinite to have made to have been made
progressive
perfect
to have been making /

GERUND
tense voice
active passive
present making being made
perfect having made having been made

PARTICIPLE
tense voice
active passive
present making being made -ING PARTICIPLE
perfect having made having been made
PAST PARTICIPLE past made

Non-Finites.
35
C: double nature; verbal vs. nominal / adjectival / adverbial

VERBAL NOMINAL ADJECTIVAL ADVERBIAL







Examples:

(4) Mary hates reading. Mary hates George.
(5) Mary regrets calling George a good-for-nothing. Mary regrets nothing.

C1) Nominal:
(6) TO ERR is human.
Errors are human.

(7) I'm looking forward to MEETING YOU AGAIN.
I'm looking forward to the concert.

(8) His SINGING is terrible.
His voice is terrible.

(9) The PAINTING of Mary was sold.
The picture of Mary

(10) SWIMMING lessons
history lessons

C2) Adjectival:

(11) Everything will be revealed in the FOLLOWING chapter.
Everything will be revealed in the next chapter.

(12) This is Mr Smith SPEAKING.

(13) First aid was given to the INJURED.
First aid was given to the poor.

C3) Adverbial:
(14) Her skirt was SOAKING wet.
Her skirt was very wet.

(15) He left TIPTOEING.

Non-Finites.
36
1.2 -ING FORMS DIFFERENT GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES

a) a gerund
(16) Mary just loves gossiping.

b) present participle
(17) She's trying to help.
(18) I saw him coming out of the shop.

c) an adjective
(19) an interesting example
(20) his surprising views

NB. adjectives vs. participles used as adjectives:
(21) There was a child in the burning house.
(22) This is an interesting example.

d) a conjunction /originally a participle/
(23) I think we shall win, providing John is well enough to play.
(24) Supposing we lose, what then?

e) a preposition
(25) I can't tell you anything concerning this issue.
(26) He came to see me regarding the Kuwait business.

f) a noun
(27) His paintings sell well.
(28) Can't you do anything about your handwriting?
(29) the Ewing Building
(30) At the beginning,....

NB. nouns vs. gerunds used in the nominal function:
(31) Crowds gathered round the Parliament building (=edifice).
(32) The building (=*edifice) of that bridge took years.

Non-Finites.
37
1.2.1 Gerunds or Participles?

(33) DRIVING TOO FAST is a sign of one's inhibition.
(34) I adore DRIVING TOO FAST.
(35) DRIVING TOO FAST, he skidded into the ditch.
(36) People DRIVING TOO FAST are nuts.
(37) I adore MEN DRIVING FAST.
(38) I do wish you'd leave off GIGGLING.
(39) The merry lot left off GIGGLING.
(40) our beloved DANCING teacher of English
(41) our beloved English teacher of DANCING

(42) FLYING PLANES can be dangerous. /Noam Chomsky/
(43) Yes, I fully agree, worms are excellent for FESTERING WOUNDS. /Paracelsus/
(44) Doctors are not enthusiastic about hordes of VISITING relatives pestering patients.
(45) about prolonged VISITING hours.

1.2.1.1 Tests for distinguishing gerunds from participles:

A: paraphrasing:
SLEEPING bag bag FOR SLEEPING nominal
The SLEEPING Beauty the Beauty that is sleeping adjectival

B: stress in speech:
,,visiting relatives
visiting ,,hours /Cf. arm-,,chair, city,,centre/

COMPOUNDS NON-COMPOUNDS
(46) a) shoe ,,polish, post ,,office
b) eye ,,doctor ,,lady doctor
c) visiting ,,hours ,,visiting relatives
d) spinning ,,wheel ,,spinning wheel
e) walking ,,stick ,,walking stick

also with adjective-noun combinations:
COMPOUNDS NON-COMPOUNDS
(46) f) White House white house
g) English teacher English teacher

Non-Finites.
38
C: the use of conjunctions and prepositions:
CONJUNCTIONS
(47) a) WHEN he was told the news, he fainted.
b) WHILE he was told the news, he fainted.
c) WHEN being told the news, he fainted.
d) WHILE being told the news, he fainted.
e) *WHEN/WHILE the news, he fainted.


PREPOSITIONS
(48) a) (UP) ON the news, he fainted.
b) *(UP)ON he was told the news, he fainted.
c) (UP)ON being told the news, he fainted.

AFTER and BEFORE can be used as prepositions and conjunctions:

AFTER BEFORE
(49) a) After he was told the news, Before he was told the news,
b) After the football match Before the football match
c) After having been told the news, Before having been told the news,


CONJUNCTION PREPOSITION
(50) a) WHEN being told the news, (UP)ON being told the news,
b) *WHEN my coming there, life changed. ON my coming there, life changed.
c) BEFORE/AFTER being told, BEFORE/AFTER my coming there,

1.3 CATENATIVE VERBS

(51) a) She wants TO GO.
b) I hate WEEDING.
c) A teacher caught them CHEATING.
d) She left CRYING.

Non-Finites.
39
1.4 TENSE DISTINCTIONS OF NON-FINITE FORMS

1.4.1 Comparison of finite and non-finite forms

FINITE FORMS
(52) 1a Jack works hard. 1b Jack is working hard.
2a Jack has worked hard. 2b Jack has been working hard.
3a Jack worked hard. 3b Jack was working hard.
4a Jack had worked hard. 4b Jack had been working hard.
5a Jack will work hard. 5b Jack will be working hard.
6a Jack is going to work hard. 6b Jack is going to be working hard.



NON-FINITE FORMS
(53) 1a
2-4a
5-6a
Jack appears to work hard.
Jack appears to have worked hard.

1b
2-4b
5-6b
Jack appears to be working hard.
J. appears to have been working hard.


1.4.2 Present vs. Perfect Infinitive

(54) She is considered to be the best soprano of our days.
(55) She is considered to have been the best soprano of her days.
(56) She was considered to be the best soprano of her days.
(57) She was considered to have been the best soprano of her days.
(58) You're a fool to spend so much on clothes.
(59) You're a fool to have spent so much on clothes.
(60) You were a fool to spend so much on clothes.
(61) You were a fool to have spent so much on clothes.
1.4.3 Present vs. Perfect Participle

(62) Hearing the news, they cancelled the celebration.
A: denoting TIME: = When they heard...
= After they (had) heard...

B: denoting CAUSE/REASON: = Because they heard...
= Because he had heard...

(63) Having heard the news, they cancelled the celebration.
A: denoting TIME: = After they (had) heard...

B: denoting CAUSE/REASON: = Because he had heard...
Non-Finites.
40

(64) After hearing the news, they cancelled the celebration.
A: denoting TIME: = After they (had) heard...

(65) After having heard the news, they cancelled the celebration.
A: denoting TIME: = After they (had) heard...
1.4.4 Present vs. Perfect Gerund

(66) On hearing the news, they cancelled the celebration.
A: denoting TIME: = When they heard...
= After they (had) heard...

(67) On having heard the news, they cancelled the celebration.
A: denoting TIME: = After they (had) heard...

1.5 THE SUBJECT OF NON-FINITE FORMS
1.5.1 not expressed

(68) I had suffered concussion PLAYING rugby football.
participle
(69) I really need TO GO.
infinitive
(70) She began TALKING.
gerund

(71) Generally SPEAKING, she is a terrible singer.
participle
(72) TO ERR is human TO FORGIVE is divine.
infinitive
(73) The cure of cancer is aided by determination that GIVING IN to it is a means of DYING from it.
gerund

(74) Why WORRY about this when it's too late?
infinitive
(75) I thanked them for PAYING us a visit.
gerund
Non-Finites.
41
1.5.2 expressed

1.5.2.1 The Infinitive

(76) She just loved HER NEIGHBOURS to be dying of curiosity.
(77) Will you expect US to study all this rubbish?

(78) I don't think there's any need FOR US to give you radiotherapy.
(79) I must arrange FOR the Morriston Choir to sing at the funeral.

1.5.2.2 The Gerund

(80) Have you heard the cause of SUSAN'S not coming to the reunion?
(81) Would you mind MY opening the window?

(82) I can't stand JERRY staring at her like that.
(83) Forgive ME interrupting you.

USAGE NOTES:
(84) SARAHS / HER singing makes you relax.

(85) Have you heard of SUSAN AND DICK getting married?
(86) Have you ever heard of A MAN OF SENSE rejecting such an offer?
(87) I remember THE HOUSE always looking the same.

(88) Can you imagine YOURSELF becoming famous?
(89) I had no doubts as to THAT being true.
(90) Its no use ANYBODY coming to help us.
(91) They insisted on the YOUNG and the OLD being treated alike.

1.5.2.3 The Participle

(92) The boy turned round, HIS HEART beating with joy.

(93) I saw GEORGE / HIM her taking the money.

Different subjects:
A: the related participle
(94) Seeing her in despair, HE immediately offered her his help.

B: unrelated participle
(95) Judging from her appearance, she must be well-off.

Non-Finites.
42
C: absolute participle
(96) THE WORK done, she hurried home.

D: misrelated participle
(97) Being stupid, I didn't want to answer his question.
(98) Barking furiously, HE let the dogs out.

Non-Finites.
43
2. THE INFINITIVE

2.1 Verbal Properties of the Infinitive

(1) Why not ring him up?
(2) To think that all his efforts had gone for nothing!
(3) My own flesh and blood to rebel!
(4) She didn't know how to give up.
(5) I have never known him behave so badly before.
(6) He came to tell me the news personally.
(7) To avoid any further misunderstanding, let me repeat...

Three types of subordinate clauses:

(8) What you see is what you get.
(9) The person who told you the news must have been George.
(10) Mary was glad when George returned.

The infinitival subordinate clauses:

(11) To understand the situation is to understand everything.
(12) George wanted to kiss Mary.


(13) I awoke one morning to find the house in an uproar.
(14) He rushed to the door, only to discover that it was locked and barred.
(15) She called him just to tell him that she had left him.
(16) To improve the garden, we shall plant shrubs.
(17) He'd be stupid not to accept that offer.

As a predicator:
(18) She called him just to tell him that she had left him.

two tenses, and two aspects

(19) I hope to be back by 7.
(20) George did it to please Mary.
(21) I am sorry to have called you names.
(22) Mary seems to be sulking again.

Non-Finites.
44
The perfect infinitive:

(23) The aircraft appears to have crashed near Paris.
cf.: It appears that the aircraft crashed near Paris.

(24) The bridge is said/believed to have been built by Plenik.

(25) You ought to have been more tactful.
(26) They could have come earlier.

(27) I expect to have dug the garden by next week.
(28) He hoped to have saved enough money to buy a new house.

voice

(29) George seems to have done it.
(30) It seems to have been done already.

active form passive meaning:

(31) George is to blame.
(32) Rooms to let.

(33) There is no time to lose / to be lost.
(34) There is nothing to see / to be seen.

(35) This tea is too hot to drink/to be drunk.
(36) The butter is soft enough to spread/to be spread.

Chomsky:
(37) John is eager to please. active meaning, eager-type adjectives
(38) John is easy to please. passive meaning, easy-type adjectives

(39) Cakes are difficult/easy to make.
(40) Mary is hard to convince.
(41) Birds are interesting to watch.
(42) The cottage is far to reach.
(43) This meal is quick to prepare.
(44) Her car is slow to start.

Non-Finites.
45
2.2 Nominal Properties of the infinitive

2.2.1 on the level of sentence structure

the subject
(45) To err is human, to forgive divine.

the introductory subject it:

(46) To understand everything about the infinitive seems impossible.
(47) It seems impossible to understand everything about the infinitive.
(48) I think it took me about 3 weeks to wake fully up to what you'd done to me.
(49) It takes a lot of energy and patience to do something like this.

(50) Does it seem impossible to understand everything about the infinitive?
(51) * Does to understand everything about the infinitive seem possible?

(52) It's unforgivable to have let go such an opportunity.
(53) For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable.
(54) To be well informed is a must in our profession.

the object

(55) You wouldn't want to stay.
(56) The officer ordered his men to move.

the subject complement

(57) He felt his duty was to thank the auctioneer.
(58) The wisest policy is (for us) not to interfere.

2.2.2 on the level of phrase structure

in NP's

(59) Its time to say goodbye.
(60) I have a right to know who my mother is.
(61) I have an announcement to make.
(62) It's a crazy thing to do.
(63) What is there to understand?

Non-Finites.
46

(64) Suddenly, Jessica discovered a burning desire to make a contribution to the cause.
(65) She rushed off before I had a chance to explain.
(66) I was in no condition to get home any sooner.
(67) You've got to find a way to keep this house.
(68) Their hopes to get rich vanished.
(69) There's no need to be sarcastic.

(70) I have something to cheer you up.
(71) There is nothing to be afraid of.

(72) The next train to arrive was from Rome.
(73) The man for John to consult is Mr. Agnew.
(74) The animals to be found in Kenya...
(75) The procedure to be followed was not quite clear to anyone.

(76) I could do with someone here all the time to help me turn her.


in Adj.P's

(77) This issue is difficult to understand. SC
(78) I find this issue difficult to understand. OC

N.B. postponed-subject constructions postmodification + object-to-subject raising
(79) It is easy/hard/difficult to please him. He is easy/hard/difficult to please.
(80) It is easy to wash these clothes. These clothes are easy to wash.

So other raising phenomena in English:
(81) I think you cannot stay. I do not think you can stay. (negation)
(81a) It is unlikely that the Government will meet the full cost. The government is unlikely to meet the
full cost. (subject-to-subject raising)

(82) It is easy to wash these clothes.
These clothes are easy to wash.
These clothes wash easily.

in AdvP's


(83) You write too slowly to finish on time.
(84) Its too late to do anything.
(85) I told you soon enough to make up your mind.
(86) I hope I speak slowly enough for students to take notes.

(87) I dont have anywhere to go this afternoon.
(88) She is nowhere to be found.

Non-Finites.
47
2.3 THE BARE INFINITIVE

(89) But I did do it.

(90) She must/may/can/should be very smart.

(91) He's trying to help me save this place.
(92) I need money. It's to help buy Eden.

(93) Why are you letting this happen?
(94) She makes him believe just anything.

but:
(95) He is made to believe just anything.

(96) Did you notice anyone take my purse?
(97) I saw her kill her old man.

but:
(98) You were seen to take something from the desk.
(99) Was anyone heard to open the door?

(100) Why listen to him?
(101) Why not do it our own way?


(102) Just imagine! Bet on this horse!
(103) You must be mad? Bring my children to a house like this!
(104) My daughter marry that hillbilly?

(105) You had better stop now.

(106) All I did was hit him on the head.
(107) Rather than John do it, I'd prefer to give the job to Mary.
(108) He has done nothing but worry.
(109) I cannot but agree with you.

2.4 The split infinitive

(110) I wish to highly recommend her for the new post.

(111) She failed entirely to understand Georges point.
(112) She failed to entirely understand Georges point.

Compare:
(113) His hardest decision was not to allow the children to go to summer camp.
His hardest decision was to not allow the children to go to summer camp.
Non-Finites.
48

(114) Part of your job, as a teacher, is really to understand your pupils.
Part of your job, as a teacher, is to really understand your pupils.

(115) I really don't still want to be here when the night falls.
I really don't want to be still here when the night falls.

2.5 The representative (anaphoric) to

(116) Have you repaired your car? - I'm going to repair my car next week.
(117) Do you ski? - I used to, but now I don't have enough time.
(118) Are you coming with me? - Yes, I'd love to.
(119) I wish he'd just accept things. - He might have to now.

2.6 Loose adjunct

(120) To tell (you) the truth
(121) To cut a long story short
(122) To avoid any further misunderstanding
(123) To be honest/ precise/ frank / sure
(124) To say the least
Non-Finites.
49
3. THE GERUND
3.1 The nominal properties of the gerund:

Modifiers

(1) She heard the deep running of the water.
(2) He was woken by an insistent tapping on his door.
(3) There would be a high-pitched whispering outside the door, and a creaking of the latch.

(4) George liked that singing.

(5) George liked her taking long baths.
(6) Mary hated Georges sobbing.

(7) She did one washing yesterday.

(8) This horrible slipping into unreality drove him mad.
(9) She heard the deep running of the water.


(10) She loved the rocking of the gig.
(11) The purchasing of needless things has ruined many.

(12) She was startled by the giggling which was coming from the room.

Plural

(13) There have been indiscriminate burnings, pillagings, and shootings.
(14) He had no idea about the recent goings-on.
(15) His comings and goings are a secret to everyone.
(16) Peter's sayings and doings are futile.

Syntactic function

(17) Of the two experiences, perhaps the meeting with the foreigner was the most significant.
(18) The singing died away.
(19) He felt a suffering like a fate.
(20) I am looking forward to seeing you.
(21) His chief hobby is gardening.

(22) His handling of the situation was masterly.
(23) Mary was fed up with his constant complaining about not earning enough.
(24) Who won the running competition?
(25) a walking stick
(26) blotting-paper

Cf. the town-hall, the bottle neck, slave driver
Non-Finites.
50

(27) The boy deserves punishing.
(28) I have completely forgotten asking John to do it.
3.2 Verbal properties of the gerund

(29) She adores dancing to rap music.
(30) She was always reminded of having made a faux pas.

But:
I remember seeing/having seen him at a party.

(31) She hates being told what to do.
(32) She loves telling others what to do.

(33) Building a bridge in that area must be difficult.

(34) I cant stand his being so reckless.

3.3 The noun vs. verbal gerund

(33) Forgive my interrupting you.
(34) Forgive me interrupting you.

(35) Arranging music can be difficult.
(36) The arranging of music is a major focus of graduate programme.

3.4 The gerund vs. the infinitive

(37) It's easier to read French than to speak it.
(38) Reading French is easier than speaking it.

(39) He insisted on our coming and it was impossible to refuse.

(40) They invited us to stay there overnight.
(41) Avoid using mobiles in the classroom.
(42) We intend to stay/ staying for a week or two.
(43) I regret to say / saying you are to blame.

Non-Finites.
51
3.5 The nominalising tendencies in English and the gerund

(44) She is having a bath. vs. She is bathing.

also:
have a nap/snack /dream
take a bow/leave/leak
give a laugh/smile

(45) his refusal to help He refuses to help.
(46) the truth of her statement Her statement is true.
(47) The critics hostile reception of the play The critics received the play in a hostile
manner.

(48) They prune trees tree pruning
(49) They take drugs drug taking
(50) They grow fruit fruit growing
(51) They climb mountains mountain climbing

also:
beekeeping, bookkeeping, shoemaking, bricklaying, proofreading


(52) They skate on ice. ice-skating
(53) They walk on ropes. rope-walking
(54) They walk in sleep/while sleeping. sleepwalking
(55) They hunt with spears. spear hunting
Non-Finites.
52
4. THE PARTICIPLES

(1) Her father going out, she asked him to bring her some fresh fruit.
(2) Her father gone, she returned to her work.

4.1 Verbal properties of the Participles

(3) Making the cake, she was singing.
(4) Having made the cake, she took a nap.
(5) The cake having been already made, she could take a nap.

(6) Noticing the smoke in the room, he ran out.


4.1.1 Time reference

simultaneity:
(7) The plane clashed, its engines exploding as it hit the ground.
(8) Noticing the smoke, he ran out.
(9) Opening the drawer, he took out a gun.

But:
(10) Drinking his coffee, he rushed out of his room.

explicit anteriority:

(11) Having drunk his coffee, he rushed out of his room.
(12) Having returned home, he was blissful.


The Past Participle:

(13) She bought a book written by Agatha Christie.
(14) the (long-)forgotten star the star nobody remembers any more
the star who has been forgotten for a long time

(15) handbags sold in our shop handbags that we sell
(16) the escaped prisoner the prisoner who had escaped
(17) a well-read person a person who has read a lot
(18) a well-spoken person a person who speaks well
(19) a widely read novel a novel that is read widely
(20) the newly-arrived guests The guests that (have) arrived
(21) *the arrived guests

Non-Finites.
53
4.1.2 Adverbial Participial Clauses

(i) related:
(22) Seeing her in despair, he immediately offered her his help.

(ii) unrelated:
(23) Judging from her appearance, she must be well-off.

(iii) absolute:
(24) The work done, she hurried home.

(iv) misrelated:
(25) Being stupid, I didn't want to answer his question.
(26) Barking furiously, HE let the dogs out.

4.1.3 Adverbial Participial Clauses

(27) Coming home, she gave him a ring.
(28) He said, "I dont give a damn", stressing each word separately.
(29) Suddenly blinded by the light, he didn't move.

(30) Forgetting his manners, he started shouting wildly.
(31) Grasping the child firmly, she pulled him with her.
(32) She went out, slamming the door.
(33) I fell, striking my head against the desk.

4.1.4 Attributive Participial Clauses


(34) He noticed the red-haired girl sitting in the corner.
(35) All the persons attacked by the mysterious raider live in the same neighbourhood.
(36) He noticed the red-haired girl sitting in the corner.
(37) *He noticed the girl her mother sitting in the corner.

(38) the red-haired girl who was sitting in the corner

But:
(39) People stealing in markets should be prosecuted. who steal in markets
(40) He is talking to a girl resembling Joan. who resembles Joan (stative)

(41) All the persons attacked by the mysterious raider live in the same neighbourhood.
all the persons who have been attacked by the mysterious raider

(42) It was only then that he noticed a strange man deeply lost in his thoughts.
a strange man who was deeply lost in his thoughts

Non-Finites.
54
4.2 Adjectival properties of the Participles

(43) They were shocked.
(44) the setting sun, the wounded person
(45) the greatest poet living
(46) the living and the dying, the wounded, the grown-up

4.3 Adverbial properties of the Participles

(47) The water was steaming hot. .
(48) It's piercing cold today.

4.4 The gradience from deverbal nouns via verbal nouns to participles

(49)
a) Some paintings of Browns were stolen.
b) Browns paintings of his daughter were stolen.

c) The painting of Brown is very skilful.
d) Browns deft painting of his daughter is a delight to watch.

e) Browns deftly painting his daughter is a delight to watch.
f) I dislike Browns painting his daughter.

g) I dislike Brown painting his daughter when she ought to be at school.
h) I watched Brown painting his daughter.
i) Brown deftly painting his daughter is a delight to watch.

j) Painting his daughter, Brown noticed that his hand was shaking.
k) Brown painting his daughter that day, I decided to go for a walk.
l) The man painting the girl is Brown.
m) The silently painting man is Brown.
n) Brown is painting his daughter.



Non-Finites.
55
5. CATENATIVE VERBS
5.1 GENERAL

(1) She needs to go away.
(2) The dog got killed.
(3) She came back, still thinking about the trip.

5.2 CATENATIVES + THE INFINITIVE ONLY

(4) I can't afford to wait any longer.
(5) They invited us to stay there overnight.
(6) I dislike ringing up people at such a late hour.

5.3 CATENATIVES + THE GERUND ONLY

(7) Avoid speaking too quickly in the classroom.
(8) If you do that, you'll risk losing your post.


5.4 CATENATIVES + THE PARTICIPLE

5.4.1 The present participle
CATCH, FIND, GET, HAVE, IMAGINE, KEEP (smb doing sth), LEAVE, SET

(9) The boss caught him sleeping at work.
(10) I found her crying.
(11) Imagine John winning the first prize.

5.4.2 The past participle
Causative HAVE/GET
(12) I had/got my flat repainted.


FEEL, HEAR, SEE
(13) John saw his name written on the board.
(14) I felt my hopes destroyed.

WANT, WISH, LIKE
(15) He likes his steak medium done.

FIND, KEEP, MAKE
(16) Tom was found wounded in the hut.

Non-Finites.
56
5.5 CATENATIVES + THE PARTICIPLE / THE INFINITIVE
5.5.1 different meaning

FEEL, HAVE, HEAR, NOTICE, OBSERVE, SEE, WATCH

(17) The police watched him coming/come out of the store.
(18) She had us studying/study that stuff for two months.
(19) She saw him crossing/cross the street.

5.6 CATENATIVES + THE INFINITIVE /THE GERUND
5.6.1 little or no difference in meaning

(20) We intend to stay/ staying for a week or two.

5.6.2 difference in meaning

HATE, LOVE, LIKE, PREFER + inf. =
+ ger. =

DISLIKE NOT LIKE DISLIKE only takes the gerund
NOT LIKE both, with different meaning

(21) I didn't like ringing him up. (= but I rang him all the same)
(22) I didn't like to ring him up. (= so I didn't)

FORGET, REGRET, REMEMBER + inf. =
+ ger. =

(23) I regret to say you are to blame.
(24) I regret saying you were to blame.
(25) I regret having said you were to blame.


MEAN + inf. =
+ ger. =


(26) I mean to call on him next Monday.
(27) This means waiting and hoping for the best.

Non-Finites.
57

FANCY + inf. =
+ ger. =
+ that cl. =

(28) They fancied themselves to be Europeans.
(29) I don't fancy spending the entire holiday on that boring island.
(30) I fancy that he won't be coming.

TRY + inf. =
+ ger. =

(31) Try to do it yourself.
(32) Try doing it yourself.

TEACH + inf. =
+ ger. =

(33) She taught him to swim.
(34) She taught him swimming.

BE AFRAID + inf. =
+ of+ger. =

(35) He was afraid even to turn his head.
(36) He was afraid of being asked unpleasant questions.

But: She was terribly afraid of offending anyone. (COBUILD Dict.)

DESERVE, WANT, NEED + inf. =
+ ger. =

(37) You deserve to shoot first.
(38) You deserve shooting first.

ADVISE, ALLOW, PERMIT, RECOMMEND + inf. =
+ ger. =

(39) She recommended me not to give in.
(40) She recommended not giving in.

GO ON, LEAVE OFF, STOP

(41) He stopped smoking.
(42) He stopped to smoke.

A detailed analysis of the catenatives:
- Blaganje Konte pp 335-352;
- Quirk 1185-1216.
Reported Speech.
58
REPORTED SPEECH

1. Processes Involved in Reported Speech

(i) speaker
(ii) addressee
(iii) circumstances (time, place)
(iv) message or illocutionary power.

(1) Hello, said George to Mary in the pub yesterday evening.

Do not forget:
(iv) the locutionary act;
(v) the illocutionary act;
(vi) the perlocutionary act.

SPEECH ACT 1 reporting SPEECH ACT 2
speaker 1 speaker 2
addressee 1 addressee 2
circumstances 1 circumstances 2
message 1 message 2 = speech act 1


possible combinations
speaker 2 speaker 1 addressee 1 person X
addressee 2 addressee 1 speaker 1 person X
circumstances 2 partly or completely
same as circumstances 1
(partly or completely)
different from circumstances 1


Reported Speech.
59
2. Changes.

2.1 grammatical changes
Different clause patterns:
(2) What do you want to know? He asked me what I wanted to know.

The use of the conjunctions:
(3) I am happy. She said (that) she was happy.
(4) Do you know her? She asked me if / whether I knew her.

Punctuation signs:
(5) She said: I am happy. She said that she was happy.
(6) She asked: Are you happy? She asked me if I was happy.

2.2 situational changes

2.2.1 Person deixis.

SPEECH ACT 1 SPEECH ACT 2

S1 A1 message S2=S1 A2=A2 (Mary to Jane)
(7) Mary Jane "I know my duty, you'd better
mind your business!"
I only said I knew my duty and you'd better
mind your business.

S1 A1 message S2=A1 A2=S1 (Jane to Mary)
(8) Mary Jane "I know my duty, you'd better
mind your business!"
You said that you knew your duty and I'd better
mind my business.

S1 A1 message S2=A1 A2=SX (Jane to George)
(9) Mary Jane "I know my duty, you'd better
mind your business!"
Mary/She said that she knew her duty and I'd
better mind my business.

S1 A1 message S2=SX A2=AX (George to John)
(10) Mary Jane "I know my duty, you'd better
mind your business!"
Mary said to Jane that she knew her duty and
Jane had better mind her business.
Reported Speech.
60
2.2.2 Spatial deixis.


CLOSENESS REMOTENESS
(11) demonstratives: Do you like these apples? Do you like those apples?
(12) adverbs of place: Do you like it here? Did you like it there?
(13) adverbs of time: What are you doing now? What were you doing then?

Situation A:

SPEECH ACT 1
situation:
In the shop, examining different sorts of oranges. Mary: I want to buy these oranges.



SPEECH ACT 2
report 1: report 2:
Mary insisted that she wanted to buy these oranges. Mary insisted that she wanted to buy those oranges.

Situation B:
Mrs. Smith situation Saturday, 10 a.m., at her place
I am having a couple of friends coming here tonight.

report 1 situation: Saturday, noon, in a pub
Mrs. Smith said she is having a couple of friends coming there tonight.

report 2 situation: the following Sunday, at Mrs. Smiths place
Mrs. Smith said she was having a couple of friends coming here last night.

report 3 situation: a week later, in the pub
Mrs. Smith said she was having a couple of friends coming there that night.
Reported Speech.
61
Some most frequent situational changes:
now then, at that moment
today that day
yesterday the day before, the previous day
tomorrow the day after, the next/following day
this/these... that/those...
last... the previous...., the ...... before
next... the next/following ......
.... ago ...... before
here there

2.3 partly grammatical, partly situational changes
2.3.1 The sequence of tenses.

Present Past
Past Past Perfect
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Past Perfect remains Past Perfect
Future Future-in-the-Past
Future Perfect Future-Perfect-in-the-Past
Present Conditional usually remains Present Conditional
sometimes Past Conditional
Past Conditional Past Conditional

I wrote that letter.
(14a) He said that he had written the letter.
(14b) He had said that he had written the letter.
(14c) If he were me, he would most probably say that he had written the letter.
(14d) If he had known the consequences, he would have said that he had written the letter.

I am innocent. I dont even know this man.
(15a) He insists that he is innocent, claiming that he doesnt even know the suspect.
(15b) He insisted that he was innocent, claiming that he didnt even know the suspect.

Reported Speech.
62
2.3.1.1 situationally motivated non-observance of the sequence of tenses.

THE PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE

(16) I read in that book that the Sun is 92 million miles away.
(17) I read in that book that the Sun was 92 million miles away.
(18) Your teacher told me you can speak French fluently.
(19) Your teacher told me you could speak French fluently.
(20) I was told that Jerry is in prison.
(21) I was told that Jerry was in prison.

THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE and THE GOING TO STRUCTURE

(22) Im leaving on Monday.
He said he is leaving on Monday.
He said he was leaving on Monday.

(23) Im going to buy a new car this year.

He said he is going to buy a new car this year.
He said he was going to buy a new car this year.

THE FUTURE TENSE

(24) He told me this morning that he will go with us tomorrow.

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

(25) I was very sorry to learn from your wife that you have been ill recently.

2.3.1.2 grammatically motivated non-observance of the sequence of tenses

THE PAST INDEFINITE and PROGRESSIVE TENSES

(25) Did you notice whether Clementine was made up or not?
Margot asked me if I had noticed whether Clementine was made up or not.

(26) Mel told Norma the news when they had / were having dinner.
Jerry said that Mel had told Norma the news when they had / were having dinner.
Reported Speech.
63
(27) "Yesterday Terry and I went to look at the house that he was thinking of buying. It was rather a nice house
and had a lovely garden but Terry decided against it because it was opposite a cemetery."

Lily told me that the previous day Terry and she had gone to look at the house that he was thinking of
buying. She thought it was rather a nice house and had a lovely garden but Terry had decided against
it because it was opposite a cemetery.

(28)
Bill: But I don't know your wife.
James: You do. You met her at ten o'clock last Friday in the lounge. You fell into conversation, you bought her a
couple of drinks, you went upstairs together in the lift. In the lift you never took your eyes from her, you found you
were both on the same floor, you helped her out, by her arm. You stood with her in the corridor, looking at her.
You touched her shoulder, /Harold Pinter: The Collection/

Bill said he didn't know James's wife, but James explained to him that he had met her the previous
Friday in the lounge. They fell into conversation and he bought her a couple of drinks ...

(29) I came to Canada in 1939.
He said he came to Canada in 1939.

(30) I wish I knew the answer.
He said he wished he knew the answer.

(31) I wish I had known the answer at the exam yesterday.
He said he wished he had known the answer.

2.3.2 modality in reported speech

the MODAL AUXILIARIES would, should, might, could, ought, used to

(32) He could be at his friends'.
His mother said he could be at his friends'.

However:
(33)I could speak 4 languages when I was a child.
Allen boasted he had been able to speak 4 languages when he was a child.

Reported Speech.
64
the MODAL AUXILIARIES be, have, do

(34) I have to do it.
Peter told me that he had to do it.

the MODAL AUXILIARY must

- obligation, necessity: normally unchanged / have to
(35) I must do it as soon as possible.
He said that he must / had to do it as soon as possible.
(36) I must see the dentist tomorrow.
He said that he must / would have to see the dentist the following day.
- permanent commands: always unchanged
- deduction / logical necessity: always unchanged

mustnt

- negative obligation, prohibition: unchanged or wasnt / werent to
(37) You mustnt go.
Peter said that you mustnt / werent to go.
- permanent prohibitions: unchanged

the MODAL AUXILIARY can changes into could

the MODAL AUXILIARY could remains unchanged, except when it denotes ability.
- future time reference: unchanged / WOULD BE ABLE
(38) I could do it tomorrow.
He said that she could / would be able to do it the next day.

- past: unchanged / HAD BEEN ABLE TO
(39) He could be at his friends'.
His mother said he could be at his friends'.
- permission: unchanged / BE ALLOWED TO
(40) She was happy when she realized that she could / was allowed to go to the party.

Reported Speech.
65
the MODAL AUXILIARY may changes into might
the MODAL AUXILIARY might normally remains unchanged
the MODAL AUXILIARY will changes into would
the MODAL AUXILIARY would normally remains unchanged
the AUXILIARY shall changes into should for the 1
st
person and would for the 2
nd
and
3
rd
person when denoting pure future
the MODAL AUXILIARY shall changes into should
(41) Shall I go now?
She asked if she should go.

the MODAL AUXILIARY should normally remains unchanged
the MODAL AUXILIARY need normally remains unchanged
- neednt changes into not have to when expressing the absence of obligation:
(42) She neednt go.
She said that she didnt have to go.
(43) She neednt go next week.
She said that she wouldnt have to go the following week.

the MODAL AUXILIARY ought (to) normally remains unchanged
the MODAL AUXILIARY dare normally remains unchanged
the MODAL AUXILIARY used normally remains unchanged

2.3.3 conditional sentences

2.3.3.1 Open condition for the present / future

(44) Ill tell you if I hear from him.
She said she would tell me if she heard from him.

2.3.3.2 Rejected / Hypothetical condition for the present / future

(45) Id tell you if I heard from him.
She said she would tell me if she heard from him.

Reported Speech.
66
(46) She said she would have told me if she had heard from him.
2.3.3.3 Rejected / Hypothetical condition for past

(47) I wouldve told you if Id heard from him.
She said she would have told me if she had heard from him.

2.4 interpretative changes

(48) Well it is surprise to meet you here today!
She exclaimed what a surprise it was to meet him there that day.

(49) She' s been taken ill - a stroke.
Alice told him that she had been taken ill, that she had had a stroke.

(50) Mom, I, I, give me a rest.
Peter asked his mother to give him a rest.

(51) Thats a very good er very good precaution to take, yes.
He agreed with me that that was a very good precaution to take.

(52) Dad, I dont think you sh-, I think you should leave Chris home Saturday.
She suggested to her father that he should leave Chris home Saturday.
(53) About a hundred, two hundred years ago we had ninety-five per cent of people i in this country
were employed in farming.
/CORRECT - ninety-five per cent of people in this country employed in farming./
He stated that about a hundred, two hundred years ago we had (had) ninety-five per cent of people
in this country employed in farming.

3. From report to narrative text

3.1 possible procedures

(54)
A: He's gone to see Mrs. Tanner.
B: Who?
A: Hugh Tanner's mother.
Reported Speech.
67
She answered that he had gone to see Mrs. Tanner. He didn't understand the answer, so she repeated it adding
that Mrs. Tanner was Hugh Tanner's mother.

(55)
Gwendolen: And to spare you any possible disappointment, Mr Worthing, I think it only fair to tell you quite
frankly beforehand that I am fully determined to accept you.
/The Importance of being E./
Gwendolen told him frankly that that she was determined to accept him.

(56)
Oh - how can you describe her?
She was trying to find the right words to describe Hugh's mother.

(57)
Oh yes of course Cliff
The Colonel remembered Cliff.

(58)
I have never said anything - there was no point afterwards - but I have always believed that she went too far over
Jimmy.
He also confessed that he had never said anything because there had been no point afterwards, ...

(59)
Of course, she was extremely upset at the time - we both were - and that explains a good deal of what happened.

He explained that his wife had been extremely upset at that time, just like himself, and he saw that as a
reason for what had happened.

Reported Speech.
68
3.2 two comparisons of different strategies

ORIGINAL TEXT:

JIMMY: God, how I hate Sunday! It's always so depressing, always the same. We never seem to
get any further, do we? Always the same ritual. Reading the papers, drinking tea, ironing. A few
more hours, and another week gone. Our youth is slipping away. Do you know that?
CLIFF (throws down paper): What's that?
JIMMY (casually): Oh, nothing, nothing. Damn you, damn both of you, damn them all.
CLIFF: Let's go to the pictures. (To Alison.) What do you say, lovely?
ALISON: I don't think I'll be able to. Perhaps Jimmy would like to go. (To Jimmy.) Would you
like to?
JIMMY: And have my enjoyment ruined by the Sunday night jobs in the front row? No, thank
you. (Pause.) Did you read Priestley's piece this week? Why on earth I ask I don't know. I know
damned well you haven't. Why do I spend nine pence on that damned paper every week?
Nobody reads it except me. ...
Osborne: Look back in anger

Report A:
Jimmy was sitting in an armchair. Everything was still. Suddenly he broke the silence. He was
nervous. He said, how he hates [!] Sunday! It was always so depressing, always the same. They
never seemed to get any further. Always the same ritual. Reading the papers, drinking tea, ironing.
A few more hours, and another week was gone. Their youth was slipping away. He asked Cliff if
he was aware of that fact. Cliff was reading a newspaper and didn't hear his question. Jimmy saw
this his friend didn't want to speak to him, so he started swearing. Cliff suggested going to the
pictures and he wanted to know if Alison agreed. But Alison rejected him saying that she didn't
think she would be able to and turned to Jimmy with the question if he would like to go. Jimmy
didn't like the idea. He said that he didn't want to have his enjoyment ruined by the Sunday night
jobs in the front row. He changed the topic of conversation and asked Cliff if he had read
Priestley's piece that week. But immediately he said to himself why on earth he asked he didn't
know. [!] He knew damned [!] well Cliff hadn't. And why did he spend nine pence on that
damned paper every week? Nobody read it except him. ....

Report B:
Jimmy Porter, a university graduate, lived together with his wife Alison and his friend Cliff Lewis
in an attic flat of a large town in the central part of England. Due to their different social
background and also partly due to Jimmy's complicated character, they were not getting on very
well. Jimmy was teasing his wife, nagging at his friend and complaining about their lives and
modern English society. He was especially talkative and annoying on Sundays, because all three
of them had the day off and didn't know how to spend it. One Sunday Jimmy again started his
usual complaints, saying that he hated Sundays, because it was always so depressing, always the
same. It seemed to him that they never got any further, the ritual was always the same: reading
papers, drinking tea, ironing. He felt helpless about the fact that there were only some more
hours left and then another week had gone. He claimed that their youth was slipping away and
asked his room-mates if they knew that. But, being used to his monologues, Cliff and Alison
didn't pay much attention to what he was talking about, so Jimmy's question merely made Cliff
throw down the paper he was reading, but he hadn't even heard what Jimmy had just said. Jimmy
Reported Speech.
69
was also used to such a response, he only mumbled something to himself and then cursed his
friends and the rest of the world. Cliff suggested going to the pictures. He turned to Alison and
asked for her opinion. Alison answered that most probably she wouldn't be able to, but she
thought perhaps Jimmy would like to go and she asked him about that. Jimmy rejected her
suggestion, because he didn't want to have his enjoyment ruined by the Sunday night jobs in the
front row. A pause followed, and he already went on talking. He asked if they had read Priestley's
piece that week and immediately answered his question himself saying that he didn't know why
on earth he asked them because he knew damned well that they hadn't read
it. He wondered why he spent nine pence on that paper every week since nobody read it except
him. ...

3.3 an example of radical narrativisation

ORIGINAL TEXT
HEROD: Good morning.
WISE MEN: Your Majesty. [They make a formal bow. Harold considers them carefully].
HEROD: Gentlemen... from Persia, I believe.
BLACK WISE MAN: The Empire of our Great King encloses more than one land.
HEROD [a little irritated by this enigmatic answer, but attempting the same tone]: The greatness of a king
may be measured less by his hands than by the devotion of his subjects.
YOUNG WISE MAN: Better five men of righteous life than a multitude of evildoers.
BLACK WISE MAN: Evil is more of the mind than of the actions. The slothful man is in many ways
found worse than the murderer.
OLD WISE MAN: If we can say that we live, then surely we must die. Who shall number the self-
deceivings of the human heart?
J. Arden and M D'Arcy: The Business of Good Government

Report A:
Herod wished the Wise Men good morning. They greeted him respectfully and made a formal
bow. After considering them carefully Herod concluded they were gentlemen from Persia. Black
Wise Man explained that the Empire of their great king enclosed more than one land. Herod was
a little irritated by the enigmatic answer, but attempting the same tone he remarked that the
greatness of a king might be measured less by his lands than by the devotion of his subjects.
Young Wise Man agreed saying fine men of righteous life were better than a multitude of
evildoers, and Black Wise Man added evil was more of the mind than of the actions, as the
slothful man was in many ways found worse than the murderer. Old Wise Man continued that we
surely must die if we can say that we live, and wondered who would number the self-deceivings
of the human heart
Passive Voice.
70
PASSIVE VOICE

1. DEFINITION OF VOICE

(1) Miss Marple investigated the body.
(2) The body was investigated by Miss Marple.
(3) The body was investigated.

Sentence analysis:


sentence

participants
(1) =
ACTIVE
(2) =
AGENTED PASSIVE
(3) =
AGENTLESS PASSIVE


Miss Marple





the body



2. THE ACTIVE vs. PASSIVE OPPOSITION IN ENGLISH

2.1. Formal Comparison
On the phrase level:
(4) The house is getting rebuilt.
(5) My uncle is getting old.
(6) I have to get dressed before eight oclock.
(7) I am getting confused.

On the clausal level:
NP1(agent) + act.VP + NP2(patient) NP2(patient) + pass.VP (+by NP1(agent))

2.2. Functional Comparison (use)
information selection
information packaging
the Functional Sentence Perspective /lenitev po aktualnosti/

Topic Transition Focus
(Comment)
what the clause is about what we want to say about the topic
old information new information = main sentence stress
Passive Voice.
71

(8) Miss Marple found the body.
a/
b/
c/

(9) The body was found by Miss Marple.
a/
b/

3. FORMAL RESTRICTIONS ON THE USE OF THE PASSIVE

3.1. Verb Constraints
3.1.1. Active only
agree, become, belong, contain, depend, equal, fit, have, hold, lack, matter, possess, resemble, suit, taste (STATIVE
MEANING ONLY!)

Compare:
(10) This can holds two gallons. *Two gallons are held (by this can).
(11) George held Mary. Mary was held by (George).

3.1.2. Passive only
be born, be drowned (no agent is involved):

(12) He was born in Geneva. *?His mother bore him in Geneva.
(13) The man fell into the water and was drowned. * and someone drowned him.

repute, rumour, say, see, think + inf. (usually)

(14) George is reputed / rumoured / said / thought to be a good student.
3.1.3. Prepositional Verbs

(15) The problem / *the tunnel was gone into by the engineers.
(16) The expected result / *the splendid stadium was arrived at.
3.1.4. Intransitive Verbs + Adjunct

(17) Nobody has lived in this village for years. This village hasn't been lived in for years.
(18) Napoleon slept in this bed. This bed was slept in by Napoleon.

Passive Voice.
72
3.2. Object Constraints
3.2.1. Object = NP

Coreference (typically marked with indexes i, j, k ).
(19) John
i
could see himself
i
in the mirror. *Himself could be seen in the mirror.
(20) We
i
could hardly see each other
i
in the fog. *Each other could hardly be seen in the fog.
(21) The woman
i
shook my
j
hand. My hand was shaken.
(22) The woman
i
shook her
i
head. *Her head was shaken.

BUT:
(23) Each could hardly be seen by the other.
3.2.2. Object = Clause

(24) George thought that Mary was attractive. *That Mary was attractive was thought. /finite/
(25) George hoped to meet her. *To meet her was hoped. /non-finite/
(26) George hated seeing her. *Seeing her was hated. /non-finite/

a/ the introductory subject it:

(27) It was thought that Mary was attractive.

b/ raised subject.

(28) Mary was thought to be attractive.

3.2.3. Idiomatic Expressions

(29) The ship set sail. *Sail was set.
(30) We changed buses. *Buses were changed.
(31) George kicked the bucket. *The bucket was kicked.

3.3. Meaning Constraints
(32) a/ Every schoolboy knows one joke at least.
b/ One joke is at least known by every schoolboy.

(33) a/ George cannot do it.
b/ It cannot be done (by George).

(34) a/ You must reprimand every one of them.
b/ Every one of them must be reprimanded.
Passive Voice.
73

(35) a/ Why wouldn't Miranda ride the grey mare?
b/ Why wouldn't the grey mare be ridden by Miranda?

(36) a/ The president of USA has twice visited Harvard.
b/ Harvard has twice been visited by the president of USA.

3.4 Tense / Aspect Constraints

(37) The conservatives won the election. The election was won by the Conservatives.
(38) The conservative have not been winning seats lately. ?Seats have not been being won by the
Conservatives lately.
4. THE PASSIVE SCALE
(1) This violin was made by Stradivari. CENTRAL PASSIVES
(2) This conclusion is hardly justified by the results.
(3) Coal has been replaced by oil.
(4) This difficulty can be avoided in several ways.

(5) We are encouraged to go on with the project. SEMI-PASSIVES
(6) Leonard was interested in linguistics.

(7) The building is already demolished. PSEUDO-PASSIVES
(8) The modern world is getting more highly industrialised and mechanised.

4.1. Central (True) Passives
a/ direct active-passive relation:
(9) Stradivari made this violin. This violin was made by Stradivari

b/ BY-phrase (the agent or the instrument?). Compare:
(10) Coal has been replaced by oil. Oil has replaced coal. (agent)
Man has replaced oil by coal. (instrument)
(11) Coal has been replaced with oil.

c/ the agentless passive
(12) This difficulty can be avoided in several ways. We/You/Anybody... can avoid this difficulty.

4.2. Semi-passives
BE + past participle (verbal + adjectival)
verbal:
(13) We are encouraged to go on with the project. The results encourage us to go on .
(14) Leonard was interested in linguistics. Linguistics interests Leonard.

adjectival:
a/ coordination with an adjective
(15) We are encouraged and content to go on with the project.
(16) Leonard was interested in and keen on linguistics.

Passive Voice.
74
b/ modified by "quite, rather, very"
(17) We are rather encouraged to go with the project.
(18) Leonard was quite interested in linguistics.

c/ "be" can be replaced by a linking verb like ""feel, seem, sound..."
(19) We feel encouraged to go with the project.
(20) Leonard seemed interested in linguistics.

more adjectival:
a/ the -ed form has no corresponding active form
(21) George was uninterested in the result. *The result uninterested George.

b/ the agent-like phrase is not introduced by BY (but by some other preposition ABOUT , AT,
OVER, TO, WITH ...)
(22) We were all worried about the complications. The complications worried us all.
(23) I was surprised at her behaviour. Her behaviour surprised me.
(24) This edition was not known to earlier scholars. Earlier scholars did not know this edition.

4.3. Pseudo-passives

(25) The building is already demolished. *by the City Council.
*The City Council already demolishes the building.
The City Council has already demolished the
building.

(26) In 2000, the Democrats were defeated.
a/ true passive:
b/ pseudo-passive /statal passive:

Similarly:
(27) Mary was dressed.
(28) The cup was broken.

The true passive meaning can be singled out if:
a/ the agent is added
(29) In 2000, the Democrats were defeated by the Republicans.

b/ the progressive aspect is used:
(30) In 2000, the Democrats were being defeated.

NOTE:
The pseudo-passive with intransitive verbs of motion and completion:

(31) By the time we get there, he'll be gone.
(32) I 'll soon be finished with this job.
(33) Mary is come. (archaic) Mary has come.

Passive Voice.
75
4.4. Notional Passives
intransitive active verbs, also known as ''ergative verbs'':
(34) The clock winds at the back. (=can be wound up at the back)
(35) His latest book sells terrific. (=is sold)


5. CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING BETWEEN THE ACTIVE AND THE
PASSIVE

5.1 Relative Informative Weight of Agent and Patient
a/ Agent unknown, unspecified
b/ Agent as new information to be placed in the focus position

(36) Both violence and deception are means not only to unjust coercion, but also to self-defence and survival. They
have been feared and circumscribed by law and custom, when seen from the perspective of those affected by
lies and by assaults. In religion and in ethics alike, they have been proscribed, and advice has been given on
how to cope with the oppression in their wake. But they have also been celebrated through the ages when seen
from the perspective of the agent, the liar, the forceful man. The hero uses deceit to survive and to conquer.
When looked at from this point of view, both violence and deceit are portrayed with bravado and exultation.
/Lying, p.29/

(37) In the 14th century BC Ashur-uballit led the revived Assyrians into Mitanni after that state had been
shattered by Hittite invaders.

5.2. Textual
a/ cohesion, topic continuity,
b/ complexity of the agentive NP

(38) Just how unaware we are of the difficulties inherent in handling love and marriage sensibly is illustrated by
the enormous difficulty we have when trying to decide on two of the most important questions that will ever
confront us in a lifetime. The first one is 'At what age should I marry?', and the second one is 'Whom
should I marry?' Neither one of these questions has been answered by research in any definitive way. At the
present time, these matters are handled mostly by the heart, not by the head.

(39) Maslow suggested we are all driven by five motives. The most basic motivations are the strongest and when
they have been reasonably satisfied we develop interest in the next set of motivations and so on up the
pyramid until we come to the fifth level of motivation. In their rank of importance they are as follows:
(How to love and be loved, pp.2-3)

5.3. Psychological
a/ Agent intentionally concealed

(40) We managed to solve the problem of fertilizers, but a lot remains to be done about pesticides.


(41) Eric says you are very clever. flattering for the listener
(42) You are said to lack the necessary aggressiveness. unpleasant for the listener
Passive Voice.
76

(43) IVY: Miss Poppy. You're not to marry Mr. Metcalfe he's a liar, and a blackmailer, and he cheated at
cards, when he was in the Guards.
POPPY: How dare you, Ivy youre dismissed.
JAMES: With respect, Miss Poppy, everything that Ivy has said is true.
POPPY: I refuse to believe it - youre dismissed as well.
TEDDY: Come on Rose - let's go.
ROSE: We can't. The old lady's got back in the car again.
TEDDY: James, take Lady Lavender back to London.
ALF: He can't, Sir, Miss Poppys dismissed him.
TEDDY: Well, Im engaging him again.
(You rang, milord?)
5.4. Stylistic (language registers)

(44) The Conference was further informed that additional notes for use in underlying cause coding and the
interpretation of entries of causes of death had been drafted and were being reviewed. As these notes were
intended to improve consistency in coding, the Conference agreed that they would also be incorporated in the
Tenth Revision. (the ICD-10)
Bibliography.
77
Bibliography


Textbook:
Blaganje, Dana and Ivan Konte (1998) Modern English Grammar. Ljubljana: DZS.


Exercise books:
Chalker, Sylvia (1992) A Students English Grammar Workbook.
Close, R.A. (1988) A University Grammar of English: Workbook. London: Longman.
Gethin, Hugh (1992) Grammar in Context. Proficiency Level English. New edition.
Harlow: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd.
Graver, B.D. (1996/ 1986) Advanced English Practice. 3
rd
edition. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
A.J. Thomson - A.V. Martinet (1986) A Practical English Grammar. Exercises 2. Oxford: OUP.
Vince, Michael (1994) Advanced Language Practice. Oxford: Heinemann.


ADDITIONAL MATERIALS:

Reference grammar books:
Biber, Douglas in sod. (1999) Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English.
London: Longman.
Quirk, Randolph et al. (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.
London: Longman.


Other grammar books:
Bloor, Thomas and Meriel Bloor (1995) The Functional Analysis of English. London:
Arnold.
Broughton, Geoffrey (1990) Penguin English Grammar A - Z for Advanced Students.
London: Penguin Books. With a separate book of exercises.
Downing, Angela and Philip Locke (1992) A University Course in English Grammar. New
York: Prentice Hall.
Greenbaum, Sidney (1996) The Oxford English Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Greenbaum, Sidney in Randolph Quirk (1990) A Student's Grammar of the English
Language. London: Longman.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 2
nd
ed. London:
Arnold.
Leech, Geoffrey and Jan Svartvik (1994) A Communicative Grammar of English. 2
nd
ed.
London: Longman.
Martin, J.R., Christian Matthiessen and Clare Painter (1997) Working with Functional
Grammar. London: Arnold.
Quirk, Randolph and Sidney Greenbaum (1988) A University Grammar of English.
London: Longman. With an accompanying book of exercises by R.A. Close /see
below/
Sinclair, John et al. (1990) Collins Cobuild English Grammar. London: Collins
Swan, Michael (1995) Practical English Usage. 2
nd
ed. Oxford: OUP.
Swan, Michael and Catherine Walter (1997) How English Works. A Grammar Practice
Bibliography.
78
Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press.


Other books on the verb - general:
Aitken, Rosemary (1989) Teaching Tenses. Walton-on-Thames: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd.
Leech, Geoffrey (1987) Meaning and the English Verb. London: Longman.
Lewis, Michael (1986) The English Verb. London: Language Teaching Publications.
Palmer, Frank (1987) The English Verb. London: Longman.

Other books on the verb - specialised (advanced):
Allerton, D.J. (1982) Valency and the English Verb. New York: Academic Press.
Binnick, Robert (1991) Time and the Verb. Oxford: OUP.
Comrie, Bernard (1976) Aspect. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dahl, Osten (1985) Tense and Aspect Systems. Oxford: Blackwell.
Declerck, Renaat (1991) Tense in English: Its Structure and Use in Discourse. London:
Routledge
Declerck, Renaat (1997) When-Clauses and Temporal Structure. London: Routledge.
Fox, Barbara and Paul Hopper, eds. (1994) Voice: Form and Function. Amsterdam:
Benjamins.
Klaiman, M.H. (1991) Grammatical Voice. Cambridge: CUP.
Michaelis, Laura (1998) Aspectual Grammar and Past-Time Reference. London: Routledge.
Mindt, D. (1998) An Empirical Grammar of the English Verb: Modal Verbs. Berlin: Cornelsen.
Orenik, Janez (1994) Slovenski glagolski vid in univerzalna slovnica. Ljubljana: SAZU.
Palmer, Frank (1987) Mood and Modality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Perkins, Michael (1983) Modal Expressions in English. London: Frances Pinter
Smith, Carlota (1991) The Parameter of Aspect. Dordrecht: Kluwer
Thelin, Nils, ed. (1985) Verbal Aspect in Discourse. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Verkuyl, Henk (1993) A Theory of Aspectuality. Cambridge: CUP.


Other reference books:
Asher, R. et al., eds. (1993) The Encyclopaedia of Language and Linguistics. (10 vols.).
Pergamon and Aberdeen University Press.
Crystal, David (1987) The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language. Cambridge: CUP
Trask, R.L. (1993) A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms. London: Routledge.
Table of Contents.
79
Table of Contents.

CONDITIONALITY AND CONDITIONAL SENTENCES ................................................................... 1
1 General. ........................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Terminology. .......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 The conditional verbal form. ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 The conditional clause / sentence.............................................................................................. 1
2 Classification of conditional sentences. ...................................................................................................... 2
3 Subordinators and other syntactic devices................................................................................................. 2
3.1 Subordinators......................................................................................................................................... 2
3.2 Syntactic devices. ................................................................................................................................... 3
3.2.1 Inversion. ....................................................................................................................................... 3
3.2.2 Other possibilities. ........................................................................................................................ 3
4 Usage notes..................................................................................................................................................... 3
5 Other related functions of conditional clauses.......................................................................................... 4
5.1 Rhetorical conditional clauses ............................................................................................................. 4
5.2 Indirect condition.................................................................................................................................. 4

MODALITY........................................................................................................................................................... 6
1 General ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
2 Ways of Expressing Modality. ..................................................................................................................... 7

MODAL TENSES. ............................................................................................................................................... 8
1 General ............................................................................................................................................................ 8
2 The use of the modal tenses. ....................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Conditional clauses. .............................................................................................................................. 8
2.2 The use of the Modal Past tenses. ...................................................................................................... 8
2.2.1 after it's (high) time, if only, wish ......................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 after as if / as though, suppose, imagine, would rather......................................................... 9

MODAL VERBS. ................................................................................................................................................11
1. General. .........................................................................................................................................................11
2. epistemic vs. deontic modality. ..................................................................................................................12
2.1 The scale of epistemic modality..........................................................................................................12
2.1 The scale of deontic modality. ............................................................................................................12
3. Modal verbs the usage. ............................................................................................................................13
3.1. CAN/COULD.....................................................................................................................................13
3.1.1 epistemic CAN/COULD:.........................................................................................................13
3.1.2 deontic CAN/COULD: ............................................................................................................14
3.1.3 dynamic CAN/COULD:...........................................................................................................14
3.2. MAY /MIGHT....................................................................................................................................15
3.2.1 epistemic MAY/MIGHT: .........................................................................................................15
3.2.2 deontic MAY/MIGHT:.............................................................................................................16
3.2.3 dynamic MAY. ............................................................................................................................17
3.3. MUST....................................................................................................................................................20
3.3.1 Epistemic MUST........................................................................................................................20
3.3.2 Deontic MUST............................................................................................................................20
3.4. HAVE TO............................................................................................................................................22
3.4.1 Epistemic HAVE TO................................................................................................................22
Table of Contents.
80
3.4.2 Deontic HAVE TO....................................................................................................................22
3.5. BE + the infinitive...............................................................................................................................23
3.5.1. Epistemic BE + the infinitive..................................................................................................23
3.5.2 Deontic BE + the infinitive ......................................................................................................23
3.6. WILL / WOULD...............................................................................................................................25
3.6.1 Epistemic WILL .........................................................................................................................25
3.6.2 Deontic WILL.............................................................................................................................25
3.6.3 Dynamic WILL...........................................................................................................................26
3.7. SHALL / SHOULD..........................................................................................................................27
3.7.1 Epistemic SHALL / SHOULD...............................................................................................27
3.7.1 Deontic SHALL / SHOULD...................................................................................................27
3.8. OUGHT TO........................................................................................................................................28
3.9. NEED...................................................................................................................................................29
3.10. DARE..................................................................................................................................................30
A: REVISION EPISTEMIC MODALITY.................................................................................................31
B: REVISION DEONTIC MODALITY....................................................................................................32
C: REVISION DYNAMIC MODALITY...................................................................................................32
D: REVISION MODAL VERBS AND NEGATION.............................................................................33

NON-
FINITES....................................................................................................................................................31
1. General .........................................................................................................................................................34
1.1 Characteristics of non-finites.............................................................................................................34
1.2 -ing forms different grammatical categories ................................................................................36
1.2.1 Gerunds or Participles?..............................................................................................................37
1.3 Catenative verbs ..................................................................................................................................38
1.4 Tense distinctions of non-finite forms ............................................................................................39
1.4.1 Comparison of finite and non-finite forms ............................................................................39
1.4.2 Present vs. Perfect Infinitive.....................................................................................................39
1.4.3 Present vs. Perfect Participle.....................................................................................................39
1.4.4 Present vs. Perfect Gerund .......................................................................................................40
1.5 The subject of non-finite forms........................................................................................................40
1.5.1 not expressed...............................................................................................................................40
1.5.2 expressed......................................................................................................................................41
2. The infinitive ...............................................................................................................................................43
2.1 Verbal Properties of the Infinitive....................................................................................................43
2.2 Nominal Properties of the infinitive ................................................................................................45
2.2.1 on the level of sentence structure.............................................................................................45
2.2.2 on the level of phrase structure ................................................................................................45
2.3 The bare infinitive...............................................................................................................................47
2.4 The split infinitive ...............................................................................................................................47
2.5 The representative (anaphoric) to.....................................................................................................48
2.6 Loose adjunct.......................................................................................................................................48
3. The gerund...................................................................................................................................................49
3.1 The nominal properties of the gerund: ............................................................................................49
3.2 Verbal properties of the gerund........................................................................................................50
3.3 The noun vs. verbal gerund...............................................................................................................50
3.4 The gerund vs. the infinitive..............................................................................................................50
3.5 The nominalising tendencies in English and the gerund...............................................................51
Table of Contents.
81
4. The participles.............................................................................................................................................52
4.1 Verbal properties of the Participles..................................................................................................52
4.1.1 Time reference ............................................................................................................................52
4.1.2 Adverbial Participial Clauses.....................................................................................................53
4.1.3 Adverbial Participial Clauses.....................................................................................................53
4.1.4 Attributive Participial Clauses...................................................................................................53
4.2 Adjectival properties of the Participles ............................................................................................54
4.3 Adverbial properties of the Participles.............................................................................................54
4.4 The gradience from deverbal nouns via verbal nouns to participles...........................................54
5. Catenative verbs..........................................................................................................................................55
5.1 general ...................................................................................................................................................55
5.2 catenatives + the infinitive only........................................................................................................55
5.3 catenatives + the gerund only ...........................................................................................................55
5.4 catenatives + the participle ................................................................................................................55
5.4.1 The present participle.................................................................................................................55
5.4.2 The past participle ......................................................................................................................55
5.5 catenatives + the participle / the infinitive .....................................................................................56
5.5.1 different meaning........................................................................................................................56
5.6 catenatives + the infinitive /the gerund ..........................................................................................56
5.6.1 little or no difference in meaning .............................................................................................56
5.6.2 difference in meaning.................................................................................................................56

REPORTED SPEECH......................................................................................................................................58
1. Processes Involved in Reported Speech .................................................................................................58
2. Changes. .......................................................................................................................................................59
2.1 grammatical changes ...........................................................................................................................59
2.2 situational changes ..............................................................................................................................59
2.2.1 Person deixis................................................................................................................................59
2.2.2 Spatial deixis. ...............................................................................................................................60
2.3 partly grammatical, partly situational changes.................................................................................61
2.3.1 The sequence of tenses. .............................................................................................................61
2.3.2 modality in reported speech......................................................................................................63
2.3.3 conditional sentences .................................................................................................................65
2.4 interpretative changes.........................................................................................................................66
3. From report to narrative text ....................................................................................................................66
3.1 possible procedures.............................................................................................................................66
3.2 two comparisons of different strategies...........................................................................................68
3.3 an example of radical narrativisation................................................................................................69

PASSIVE VOICE................................................................................................................................................70
1. Defintion of voice ......................................................................................................................................70
2. The active vs. passive opposition in english...........................................................................................70
2.1. Formal Comparison...........................................................................................................................70
2.2. Functional Comparison (use) ...........................................................................................................70
3. Formal restrictions on the use of the passive.........................................................................................71
3.1. Verb Constraints ................................................................................................................................71
3.1.1. Active only ...............................................................................................................................71
3.1.2. Passive only..............................................................................................................................71
3.1.3. Prepositional Verbs.................................................................................................................71
Table of Contents.
82
3.1.4. Intransitive Verbs + Adjunct ................................................................................................71
3.2. Object Constraints .............................................................................................................................72
3.2.1. Object = NP............................................................................................................................72
3.2.2. Object = Clause ......................................................................................................................72
3.2.3. Idiomatic Expressions............................................................................................................72
3.3. Meaning Constraints..........................................................................................................................72
3.4 Tense / Aspect Constraints...............................................................................................................73
4. The passive scale.........................................................................................................................................73
4.1. Central (True) Passives......................................................................................................................73
4.2. Semi-passives ......................................................................................................................................73
4.3. Pseudo-passives..................................................................................................................................74
4.4. Notional Passives ...............................................................................................................................75
5. Criteria for choosing between the active and the
passive......................................................................75
5.1 Relative Informative Weight of Agent and Patient........................................................................75
5.2. Textual .................................................................................................................................................75
5.3. Psychological.......................................................................................................................................75
5.4. Stylistic (language registers) ..............................................................................................................76

BIBLIOGRAPHY...............................................................................................................................................77