1

CONTROL OF GRID CONNECTED SOLAR

PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM



A DISSERTATION

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree
of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY

in

ALTERNATE HYDRO ENERGY SYSTEMS

By

ZAMEER AHMAD







ALTERNATE HYDRO ENERGY CENTRE
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE 247667 (INDIA)
JUNE, 2013


2

CANDIDATES DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this dissertation
report entitled Control of Grid Connected Solar Photovoltaic System submitted
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of
Technology with specialization in Alternate Hydro Energy Systems, submitted in
Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee is an
authentic record of my own work carried out during a period from July 2012 to June
2013 under the supervision of DR. S.N.Singh, senior scientific officer, Alternate
Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee.
The matter embodied in this dissertation report has not been submitted by me
for the award of any other degree or diploma.

Date: 10 June, 2013
Place: Roorkee (Zameer Ahmad)



This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to
the best of my knowledge.



(S.N.Singh)
Senior scientific officer,
Alternate Hydro Energy Centre,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
Roorkee-247667 (Uttarakhand)





3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to my guide DR. S.N.Singh,
senior scientific officer, Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, for providing me all the necessary guidance and inspirational
support throughout this dissertation work. I can never forget his caring words and
support in the difficult times. They have displayed unique tolerance and
understanding at every step of progress, without which this dissertation work would
not has been in the present shape.
I wish to express my profound gratitude to Dr. R. P. Saini, Head, Alternate
Hydro Energy centre, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee for providing all
the facilities, which would have made it possible for me to complete this dissertation
work.
I also owe a great deal of appreciation to all faculty members and staff of
Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee who
have helped me directly or indirectly for the completion of this dissertation.
I would also like to thank all my friends for their help and encouragement at the
hour of need. As a final personal note, I am most grateful to the Almighty for
showering blessings on me and my family members who are inspirational to me in
their understanding, patience and constant encouragement.



Date: 10 June, 2013 (Zameer Ahmad)









4

ABSTRACT

In modern contest the world is moving from conventional energy sources to the
renewable one. It is due to its greater abundance and environment friendly
characteristics. Solar energy is one of the most promising renewable resources that
can be used to produce electric energy through photovoltaic process. A significant
advantage of photovoltaic (PV) systems is the use of the abundant and free energy
from the sun.
Power electronic devices used as interface between renewable power and its
user. It makes the power generated by renewable sources suitable for utilization.
Solar power contribution in power generation has been increasing very fast and
cost of power generated by solar photovoltaic is falling rapidly. Solar photovoltaic
cell converts solar energy directly into dc power. Power is mostly transmitted and
utilized in ac form because of advantages associated with it. To convert the dc power
into ac, a highly efficient converter is required for optimum utilization of energy.
Power electronic devices can be used for this purpose, because they are highly
efficient, light weight, small size, very fast and most reliable. Power electronic
devices used as a switch.

Power electronics devices required control signal for its operation. These
signals may require continuously or at the time of switching. There are many
controllers which generate control signal and has its own advantages and
disadvantages.
The characteristic of solar photovoltaic cell is such that it has a point on curve which
corresponds to maximum power. So it becomes necessary to design a controller which
not only convert dc power of solar to ac but convert peak power.

This work demonstrates a new method that can be used for transferring solar
energy into the grid. This consists of designing of line commutated inverter and
microcontroller based control circuit. The microcontroller has been used to design the
control circuit because of its greater reliability, flexibility and versality. Besides the
delay angle can be controlled according to requirement by just changing the program
not the hardware setup.
5


CONTENTS


TITLE Page No
Candidates Declaration i
Acknowledgement ii
Abstract iii
Contents iv
List of Figures vii
List of Tables ix
List of abbreviations x
List of symbols xi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 GENERAL 1
1.2 ENERGY CLASSIFICATION 2
1.2.1 Non-Renewable energy resources 2
1.2.2 Renewable energy resources 2
1.2.2.1 Status of renewable energy in India 3
1.3 SOLAR ENERGY 4
1.3.1 Solar photovoltaic system 4
1.3.1.1 Photovoltaic energy conversion 4
1.3.1.2 Photovoltaic technology 4
1.3.1.3 Grid-Connected PV Systems 5
1.4 8051 MICROCONTROLLER 6
1.4.1 Basic architecture of 8051 microcontroller 6
1.4.2 Features of 8051 7
1.4.3 Timers of 8051 7
1.5 POWER ELECTRONICS 8
1.5.1 Power electronic devices 8
1.5.2 Power converter topologies 9
1.6 OBJECTIVES OF DISSERTATION 10
1.7 ORGANIZATION OF DISSERTATION REPORT 10
6

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 11
2.1 CONTROL OF GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS 11
2.2 PEAK POWER POINT TRACKING 12
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY AND FLOWCHARTS 14
3.1 METHODOLOGY 14
3.1.1 Flowchart of the proposed method 15
3.2 SYNCHRONIZATION 16
3.2.2 Synchronization flowchart 16
3.2.3 Program of Synchronization 17
3.3 CONTROL PULSE OR TRIGGERING PULSE 18
3.3.1 Triggering Pulse Flowchart 18
3.3.2 Program For Triggering Pulse 19
3.4 INTERFACING 20
3.4.1 Interfacing program of ADC with 8255 20
CHAPTER 4 SOFTWARE MODEL OF SPV CELL 21
4.1 MATHEMATICAL MODELING 21
4.2 MATLAB SIMULINK MODEL 23
4.2.1 PV module characteristics 23
4.3 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING 25
CHAPTER 5 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 32
5.1 INTRODUCTION 32
5.2 COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 33
5.3 DEVELOPED MODEL 35
5.4 DESCRIPTION OF CONTROL UNIT COMPONENTS 36
5.4.1 8051 advanced microprocessor development kit 36
5.4.2 Zero crossing detector 37
5.4.4 Analog to digital converter 37
5.4.5 Isolation for control pulse 38
5.5 POWER UNIT CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION 40
5.5.1 Single phase fully controlled converter 40
CHAPTER 6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 41
6.1 ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR 41
6.2 DELAY TIME CALCULATION 42
7

6.3 SYNCHRONIZATION 43
6.4 TRINGGERING PULSES 44
6.5 OUTPUT VOLTAGE WAVEFORM 47
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE 49
7.1 CONCLUSIONS 49
7.2 FUTURE SCOPE OF THE WORK 50
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 51
REFERENCES 52


























8


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Description Page No.
1.1 Renewable energy resources 2
1.2 Photovoltaic energy conversions 4
1.3 Technology used for PV cells 5
1.4 Main components of grid-connected photovoltaic systems 5
1.5 Basic architecture of 8051 6
1.6 Timer registers 7
1.7 Basic power electronics system 8
1.8 Power semiconductor devices 8
1.9 Ratings of Power semiconductor devices 9
3.1 Single Phase Fully Controlled Converter with RLE load 14
3.2 Flow chart of the proposed method 15
3.3 Flowchart of the synchronization 16
3.4 Flowchart of Triggering pulses 18
4.1 Electrical equivalent circuit of PV cell 21
4.2 Model of solar photovoltaic module 23
4.3 Characteristic curve 24
4.4-4.16 I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at different solar
insolation and different temperatures
26
4.17 Voc vs. Vmpp 30
4.18 Actual Pmax and Pmax tracked 31
4.19 Power loss in fixed Vmpp and actually tracking of Vmpp 31
5.1 Main circuit diagram 33
9

5.2 Photograph of developed model 35
5.3 Photograph of solar module used 35
5.4 8051 microcontroller kit 36
5.5 Zero crossing detector (a) circuit diagram, (b) photograph 37
5.6 Circuit diagram of ADC (a) circuit diagram, (b) photograph 38
5.7 Driver and Buffer circuit (a) circuit diagram, (b) photograph 39
5.8 Single Phase Fully Controlled Converter with RLE load 40
6.1 Output of zero crossing detector 41
6.2 Output of Zero Crossing Detector as square wave 41
6.3 Synchronized pulse 43
6.4 Triggering pulse with 5ms delay 44
6.5 Triggering pulse with 6 ms delay 45
6.6 Triggering pulse with 7 ms delay 45
6.7 Triggering pulse with 8 ms delay 46
6.8 Triggering pulse with 9 ms delay 46
6.9 Output Voltages and Load Current Waveform for different
Triggering angles
47
6.10 Output voltage waveform and source current waveforms 48










10



LIST OF TABLES


Table No. Description Page No.
1.1 Status of renewable energy in India 3
1.2 Conversion efficiency of cell 5
1.3 Four basic types of converters 9
4.1 Parameters of ELDORA40 Solar Module 23
4.2 Major Characteristics of MPPT Tequenique 25





















11



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS


Abbreviations Meaning
SPV Solar Photovoltaic
MPPT Maximum Power Point Track
DC Direct Current
AC Alternating Current
ROM Read Only Memory
RAM Random Access Memory
CPU Central Processing Unit
I/O Input Output
ADC Analog To Digital Converter
ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit
DPTR Data Pointer Register
TMOD Timer Mode
SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier
P&O Perturb And Observe
IncCond Incremental Conductance
ZCD Zero Crossing Detector
PPI Programmable Peripheral Interface
OP-AMP Operational Amplifier
IC Integrated Circuit









12



LIST OF SYMBOLS

Symbols Meaning
I
A
PV Array Output Current
V
A
PV Array Output Voltage
I
ph
Solar Cell Photocurrent
I
RS
Reverses Saturation Current
q Electron Charge
N PN Junction Ideality Factor
k Boltzmann's Constant
T
C
Absolute Operating Temperature
R
S
Cell Intrinsic Series Resistance
K
I
SCC Temperature Coefficient
I
SC
Short Circuit Current
S Solar Insolation in W/m
2

V
OC
Open-Circuit Voltage
R Resistance
L Inductor
E Energy Source
T Thyristor
G Gate Of Thyristor
V
0
Output Voltage
V
m
Peak Of Voltage







13

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
The present day electronics world is moving towards miniaturization and low
priced equipments. At the risk of making a trite observation, the last two decade of
advances in microcontrollers, processors, and programmable logic have opened up
tremendously exciting possibilities for enhancing performance, applicability, and
economy of power electronics appliances. Thus implementing a digital circuit in place
of analog circuit attracts all the benefits associated with digital circuits.
In modern contest the world is moving from conventional energy sources to the
renewable one. To overcome the problems associated with generation of electricity
from fossil fuels, renewable energy sources can be participated in the energy mix.
One of the renewable energy sources that can be used for this purpose is the light
received from the sun. This light can be converted to clean electricity through the
photovoltaic process. The use of photovoltaic (PV) systems for electricity generation
started in the seventies of the 20
th
century and is currently growing rapidly worldwide.
It is due to its greater abundance and environment friendly characteristics.
Power electronic devices are working as an interface between grid and solar
power output. Power electronics refers to control and conversion of electrical power
with the help of power semiconductor devices, which used as switch. Advent of
silicon controlled rectifier led to the development of new area of applications [1].
Simple triggering circuit can be realised by R or Resistance and Capacitance
network. They are not expensive and little power required for its operation. However
the control and hence the load output voltage susceptible to device temperature
variations. Moreover feedback control incorporation is not easy.
Although RC trigger circuits are simple and economical they depend on gate
trigger characteristics of thyristers used, and they cannot be used easily in feedback
controlled systems or where automation is needed. In a controller a group of thyristers
or power semiconductor devices are required to be switched at different switching
instants for different duration and in a particular sequence. Different three phase
converters, for example dual converters, cycloconverters, and regenerative reversible
drive, may require 12 to 36 such devices [2].
14

Thus switching a large number of these power devices with different control
strategy by a simple triggering circuit is almost impossible. Moreover incorporation
of feedback and/or different control approaches for same load drive system requires
an intelligent controller. Therefore the advanced triggering circuits become necessary.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES
The energy resources are generally classified into two categories:
(i) Non-Renewable Resources of Energy
(ii) Renewable Resources of Energy
1.2.1 Non-Renewable Resources of Energy
Non-Renewable Resources are those natural resources which are exhaustible
and cannot be replaced once they are used. Non renewable resources are as follows:
(i) Coal
(ii) Petroleum
(iii) Natural gal
(iv) Uranium etc.
1.2.2 Renewable Energy resources:
Renewable sources of energy are never-ending and can be used to generate
energy again and again. Renewable energy resources are categorised as given in
Figure 1.1.














Fig.1.1: Renewable energy resources [3]
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Solar Wind Small hydro Biomass
Geothermal
Solar thermal
Solar
photovoltaic
Tidal
Wave
Ocean thermal
15

1.2.2.1 Status of Renewable Energy in India
India has a vast potential of renewable energy sources and a number of
technologies have been developed to harness them. A number of industrial bases have
been created in the country in the various renewable energy technologies such as solar
thermal, solar photovoltaics, wind, small hydro, biomass etc [5]. An aggregate
capacity of 28951 MW has been installed 0n 31-03-2013 based on these technologies
[4]. The status of renewable energy in India is given in table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Status of renewable energy in India [4]

16

1.3 SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy can be exploited in two ways:
(i) Solar thermal;
(ii) Solar photovoltaic
1.3.1 Solar Photovoltaic system
1.3.1.1Photovoltaic energy conversion
It works on the principle of simple PN junction. PV cell converts sun energy
into direct current. To get required dc power cells are connected in series and parallel
to get required power level. When cells are connected in series increases the voltage
while in parallel connection increase the current [6]. Figures 1.2 shows photovoltaic
energy conversion.

Figure 1.2: Photovoltaic energy conversions [6]


1.3.1.2 Photovoltaic technology
PV cell technology is mainly classified into two categories, namely, crystalline
silicon, as shown in Figure 1.3. Majority of PV cells are made of crystalline silicon;
and thin film technology is newer and increasing in popularity. Conversion efficiency
of cells is given in Table 1.2.

17


Fig.1.3: Technology used for PV cells [7]
Table 1.2: conversion efficiency of cell [8]
PV Cell Technology Module efficiency
Mono- crystalline 20-27%
Poly-crystalline 14-18%
Copper indium gallium selenide 10-13%
Amorphous silicon 5-7%

1.3.1.3 Grid-Connected SPV Systems
The building blocks of a grid-connected photovoltaic system are shown in
Figure 1.4. The system is mainly composed of a matrix of PV arrays, which converts
the sunlight to DC power and a power conditioning unit that converts the DC power
to AC power. The generated AC power is injected into the grid and/or utilized by the
local loads. In some cases, storage devices are used to improve the availability of the
power generated by the PV system.

Fig. 1.4: Main components of grid-connected photovoltaic systems [9]

18

1.4 8051 MICROCONTROLLER
A Microcontroller is a programmable digital processor with essential
peripherals. Both microcontrollers and microprocessors are complex sequential digital
circuits meant to carry out job according to the program / instructions.
Basically it is used for automatic control actions. It is used to control the function of
machine using fixed program that is stored in ROM/EPROM and that does not change
over the life time.
(i) CPU (microprocessor)
(ii) RAM
(iii) ROM
(iv) I/O ports
(v) Timer
(vi) ADC and other peripherals

1.4.1 Basic architecture of 8051 microcontroller
Pin diagram of 8051 is given in Figure 1.5.


Fig. 1.5: Basic architecture of 8051[10]
The whole configuration is obviously thought of as to satisfy the needs of the
most of the users working on development of automation devices. The fixed amount
of on-chip ROM, RAM, and number of I/O ports makes them ideal for many
applications in which cost and space are critical.

19

1.4.2 Features of 8051
The silent features of 8051 microcontroller are as follows:
(i) 8 bit ALU.
(ii) 16 bit PC and DPTR.
(iii) 8 bit stacks pointer and 8 bit PSW.
(iv) 4K internal ROM
(v) 128 bytes Internal RAM.
(vi) Two 16 bit timers
(vii) Two External and three internal interrupt sources.
(viii) 0-12 MHz clock.
(ix) 40 pin DIP package [11].

1.4.3 Timers of 8051
There two basic registers of timer, which are shown in figure 1.6.


(a)


(b)
Fig.1.6: Timer registers: (a) Timer 0 Registers (b) Timer 1 Registers [12]





20

1.5 POWER ELECTRONICS
Power Electronics is technology associated with efficient conversion and
control of electric power by power semiconductor devices. The goal of power
electronics is to control the flow of energy from electric source to load. Block
diagram of power electronic system is given in Figure 1.7.

Fig.1.7: Basic power electronics system [13].

Power electronics devices are very popular because of the following reasons:
(i) High efficiency: the efficiency of power electronic converter is very high. It is as
high as 99%.
(ii) Compactness: power electronic controllers are lighter in weight and occupy less
space.
(iii) High speed: power electronic controllers are very fast in comparison to other
controller.
(iv) Reliability: probability of failure is low and life is longer.
1.5.1 Power electronic devices
Power semiconductor devices are used as a switch to control the power supply
to load. Various types of power semiconductor devices are given in figure 1.8

Fig. 1.8: power semiconductor devices [14]
21


Ratings of Power semiconductor devices are shown in figure 1.9.



Fig.1.9: Ratings of Power semiconductor devices [15]

1.5.2 Power Converter Topologies
There can be four basic types of converters depending upon the function
performed as given in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Four basic types of converters [16]
CONVERSION
FROM/TO
NAME FUNCTION
DC TO DC CHOPPER Constant to Variable DC
and Variable to Constant
DC
DC TO AC INVERTER DC to AC of Desired
Voltage and Frequency
AC TO DC CONVERTER AC to Unipolar Current
AC TO AC CYCLOCONVERTER AC of desired Frequency


22

1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE WORK
The present day electronics world is moving towards miniaturization and low
priced equipments. At the risk of making a trite observation, the last two decade of
advances in microcontrollers, processors, and programmable logic have opened up
tremendously exciting possibilities for enhancing performance, applicability, and
economy of power electronics appliances. Thus implementing a digital circuit in place
of analog circuit attracts all the benefits associated with digital circuits
Following are the objectives of the present study:
(i) Tracking the peak power of solar PV cell by developing a correlation
between Voc and Vmpp.
(ii) Design and implementation of advanced microcontroller based controller
for controlling power electronics devices.
(iii) Experimental setup to transfer the maximum solar PV power to grid.

1.7 ORGANIZATION OF DISSERTATION REPORT
To achieve the aforementioned objectives and facilitate the presentation of the
results obtained in this work, the dissertation work is organized as follows:
Chapter 2 deals with the Literature Review of the recent achievements and current
research activities in the field of the grid-connected PV systems and its control,
Maximum Power Point Tracking.
Chapter 3 deals with methodology and flowchart of the proposed system.
Chapter 4 deals with Matlab simulink based modeling of the SPV
Chapter 5 based on the review presented in Chapter 2, this chapter introduces
experimental setup of a new method that can be used to control and transfer the solar
photovoltaic energy to grid. The details of each components of the setup are also
presented in this chapter.
Chapter 6 presents the output of different circuitry of experimental setup.
Chapter 7 covers conclusion and future scope.





23

CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW OF CONTROL OF GRID CONNECTED PV
SYSTEM
In modern contest the world is moving from conventional energy sources to the
renewable one. It is due to its greater abundance and environment friendly
characteristics. Control of grid connected comprised of two structures, MPPT control
and inverter control. Many methods have been proposed and discussed in literature.
Carrasco et al. [17] proposed Power-Electronic Systems for the Grid Integration of
Renewable Energy Sources and presented new trends in power electronics for the
integration of wind and photovoltaic (PV) power generators. A storage system
technology was introduced for the resources whose output changes.
Kazantzakis et al. [18] proposed a method to integrate the photovoltaic system into
distribution network operations. Distributed PV generator was used to improve the
stability of system by appropriate control. Power modulation should be such that
power quality remains within specified limit.
Magureanu et al. [19] proposed a real solution for Renewable energy sources
connection into distribution. Direct current link was proposed and simulated. A new
method for load sharing and droop control was presented.
Nayar et al. [20] presented the bi-directional inverters application in the field of PV,
diesel generators and battery storage.
Gonzalez-Moran et al. [21] proposed and described a photovoltaic direct current
source model. PV o/p could be supplied to inverters, which connected to grid.
Proposed model considered all the parameters that could affect o/p of PV.
Mei Shan Ngan et al. [22] discussed two categories of maximum power point
tracking algorithm algorithms. Also, the advantages and disadvantages of each
maximum power point tracking algorithm were reviewed. Also compared the results
obtained by the algorithms used.
Martina Calais et al. [23] presented an overview on different multilevel topologies
and investigated their suitability for single-phase grid connected photovoltaic systems.
24

Gianfranco Chicco et al [24] discussed the operation of grid connected photovoltaic
(PV) systems and provided a detailed performance comparison of different inverter
technologies for connecting the photovoltaic systems to the grid.
Massimo Aiello et al. [25] calculated total harmonic distortion theoretically and
experimentally in order to show which of the currently defined distortion factors was
best suitable to detect supply pollution.
Hirotaka Koizumi et al. [26] developed a novel microcontroller for grid-connected
photovoltaic (PV) systems. A 100-W-class module-integrated converter prototype
model composed of the proposed controller and a flyback inverter had been built and
tested.
G. Brando et al. [27] proposed an architecture that included a Power Electronic
Transformer which was practically an isolated high-frequency link AC/AC converter
that substitutes a conventional transformer. A maximum power point tracking control
technique was presented and result obtained was validated by simulation.
Javier Chavarra et al [28] presented an energy-balance control strategy for a cascaded
single-phase grid-connected H-bridge multilevel inverter linking n independent
photovoltaic (PV) arrays to the grid.
D.C. Riawan et al. [29] presented a scheme for transferring power from the
photovoltaic (PV) modules to a storage battery using a solar charge controller based
on a Cuk dc/dc converter.

2.2 PEAK POWER POINT TRACKING

The maximum power that can be delivered by a PV panel depends greatly on
the insulation level and the operating temperature. Therefore, it is necessary to track
the maximum power point all the time. Many researchers have been focused on
various MPP control algorithm to lead the operating point of the PV.

P. HUYNH et al. [30] analyzed Stability and dynamics of a series configuration peak-
power tracking (PPT) system. Analysis of multiloop control in the PPT mode was
discussed.
Yongho Kim [31] presented a new peak power tracker (PPT) which forces a
photovoltaic system to extract the maximum power from solar arrays, regardless of
the change of load demand, insolation and temperature.
25

G. Brando et al. [32] proposed a control setup to transfer the maximum power of
photovoltaic cell to the grid without use of sensor in all weather condition. The
control technique was presented and validated by simulation implemented on a
photovoltaic system with H-bridge 5-levels converter.
Theodore Amissah et al. [33] proposed an artificial neural network maximum power
point tracker (MPPT) for solar electric vehicles. The maximum peak power tracking
was based on a highly efficient boost converter with very high efficient power
electronic device insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) power switch. The reference
voltage for maximum peak power tracking was obtained by artificial neural network
(ANN) with gradient descent momentum algorithm.
Eftichios Koutroulis et al. [34] developed a new maximum peak power tracking
system, consisting of a Buck-type chopper, which was controlled by a
microcontroller-based entity. The major difference between the method used in the
proposed maximum peak power tracking system and other techniques used in the past
was that the photovoltaic module output power was used to directly control the dc/dc
converter, thus it made system simple.
Verma et al. [35] a fuzzy logic controller (FLC) was utilized to extract the maximum
power point (MPP) of a photovoltaic system through control of a power electronic
device IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) switch of the boost converter. This
system was used for compensation of neutral harmonic currents, current, reactive
power and to provide load balancing. Performance of the proposed fuzzy logic
controller was fast in finding the maximum peak power tracking than the conventional
techniques used for maximum peak power tracking.









26

CHAPTER-3
METHODOLOGY AND FLOWCHARTS

3.1 METHODOLOGY
The main idea of the proposed method is to use fully controlled converter with
RLE load in inversion mode. When negative polarity of dc source (battery, solar
photovoltaic cell or array, etc.) is connected with cathode of thyristors 1 and 3 as
shown in fig 3.1. it act as a line commutated inverter.
The convertor operates in inversion mode only when triggering pulse is greater
than 90 degree and there is an inductive load in the output circuit.
The heart of this system is microcontroller based advanced triggering circuit.
Microcontroller is programmed to generate triggering pulses such that maximum
power of solar photovoltaic cell or array is supplying to grid.
I-V characteristic of solar photovoltaic cell is such that there is a peak power
point on the characteristic. The voltage corresponding to peak power is called
maximum power point voltage. As solar photovoltaic cell is a current source. Current
varies almost directly proportional to solar irradiation while open circuit voltage has a
weak link with solar insolation and cell temperature. So To extract the maximum
power, peak power point voltage is being tracked.



Fig.3.1: Single Phase Fully Controlled Converter with RLE load




27

3.1.1 Flowchart of Proposed Method
The general layout of the proposed method is presented in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.2: Flow chart of the proposed method


28

3.2 SYNCHRONIZATION
3.2.1 Flowchart of the synchronization
Flowchart of the synchronization is shown below.



Fig.3.3: Flowchart of the synchronization


29

3.2.1 PROGRAM FOR SYNCHRONIZATION
MOV A, #90H PORT A INPUT, PORT B AND C AS OUTPUT OF 8255
MOV DPTR, #0FF03H ADDRESS FOR CONTROL WORD
MOVX @DPTR, A
MOV DPTR, #0FF00H
BACK: MOVX A, @DPTR
JZ BACK JUMP IF A=0
MOV A, #00H
INC DPTR INCREASING DPTR ADDRESS TO 0FF01H
MOVX @DPTR, A
MOV 89H, #01H TIMER0
MOV 8AH, #7DH
MOV 8CH, #0FFH
SETB 8CH TIMER START
HERE: JNB 8FH, HERE
CLR 8CH
CLR 8DH
MOV A, #0FFH
MOVX @DPTR, A
MOV 89H, #10H TIMER1
MOV 8BH, #0EDH
MOV 8DH, #0FFH
SETB 8EH TIMER1 START
HERE1: JNB 8FH, HERE1
CLR 8EH
CLR 8FH
MOV A, #00H
MOVX @DPTR, A
MOV DPTR, #0FF00H
GO: MOVX A, @DPTR
JNZ GO
LJMP BACK


30

3.3 FLOWCHART OF TRIGGERING PULSES

3.3.1 Flowchart of Triggering pulses for inverter





Fig.3.4: Flowchart of Triggering pulses




31

3.3.2 Program for Flowchart of Triggering Pulses
MOV A, #90H
MOV DPTR, #0FF03H
MOVX @DPTR, A
MOV DPTR, #0FF00H
MOV A, #00H
BACK1: MOVX @DPTR, A
JZ BACK1
MOV A, #00H
INC DPTR INCREASING DPTR ADDRESS TO 0FF01H
MOVX @DPTR, A
LCALL DELAY1
MOV A, #0FFH
MOV DPTR, #0FF01H
MOVX @DPTR, A
LCALL DELAY2
MOV A, #00H
MOV DPTR, #0FF00H
BACK2: MOVX A,@DPTR
JNZ BACK2
MOV A, #00H
MOV DPTR, #0FF02H
MOVX @DPTR, A
LCALL DELAY1
MOV A, #0FFH
MOV DPTR, #0FF02H
MOVX @DPTR, A
LCALL DELAY 2
MOV A, #00H
LJMP BACK1
DELAY 1: MOV 89H, #01H
MOV 8AH, #66H
MOV 8CH, #0E6H
SETB 8CH
32

HERE1: JNB 8DH, HERE 1
CLR 8CH
CLR 8DH
RET
DELAY 2: MOV 89H, #10H
MOV 8BH, #66H
MOV 8DH, #0FCH
SETB 8EH
HERE2: JNB 8FH, HERE2
CLR 8EH
CLR 8FH
RET

3.4 INTERFACING
3.4.1 Interfacing program of ADC with 8255
MOV A, #90H ;( PA is input, PB and PC is output)
MOV DPTR, #address ; load control register; port address
MOVX @DPTR, A ; issue control word
MOV DPTR, # address ; PA address
MOVX A, @DPTR
INC DPTR INCREASING DPTR ADDRESS
MOVX @DPTR, A
INC DPTR INCREASING DPTR ADDRESS
MOVX @DPTR, A
Interfacing enables the electronic chip to work intelligently and work
accordingly as program is made. 8051mic can be interfaced in many ways such as by
means of interrupts, by means of ports of 8051 or by means of 8255 PPI in which the
chip 8255 is first interfaced and physical quantities are interfaced by means of the
ports. Using this technique as several advantages such as multiple handling of output
and input is possible. Every data used as an input has to be in digital form and output
has to be processed before giving it to the desired place. Since in our case the input is
supply signal and output is square wave so we do not need A/D converter rather a
zero crossing detector to sense the zero crossing of supply system.

33

CHAPTER 4
SOFTWARE MODEL OF SPV CELL


4.1 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE SPV CELL/MODULE
Incident solar radiation produces current so it becomes effectively a current
source. Current depends on solar radiation incident. It has a PN junction so there must
be a diode. When current flow through material it encounter a resistance in its path.
This resistance is a series resistance. There will be a resistance between material and
metal. This shunt resistance is due to recombination of electron hole pairs. So the
electrical equivalent circuit can be represented as shown in figure4.1.

Fig.4.1: Electrical equivalent circuit of PV cell [8]

From Figure 4.1 output current is derived as given in equation (4.1).
IN
P
I
PH
N
P
I
S
exp {q(V/N
S
+IR
S
)/(N
P
KT
C
N)}-1]-(N
P
V/N
S
+IR
S
)/R
SH
(4.1)

Where:
I: PV array output current
V: PV array output voltage
I
ph
: Solar cell photocurrent
I
RS
: Solar cell reverses saturation current (aka dark current)
q: Electron charge, 1.60217733e
-19
C
N: PN junction ideality factor, between 1 and 5
k: Boltzmann's constant, 1.380658e
-23
J/K
R
S
: Cell intrinsic series resistance
R
P
: Cell intrinsic shunt or parallel resistance

34

The current generated photon by Iph is in fact related with solar insolation S as:

I
ph
= [I
SC
+K
I
(T
C
-T
ref
)] S (4.2)

Where
K
I
: Cells short-circuit current temperature coefficient
I
SC:
short circuit current at 25

C
T
cell
: cells temperature
S: solar insolation in W/m
2


PV Cell under Varying Temperature
I
S
=I
RS
(T
Cell
/T
r
)
3
exp [qE
G
(1/T
r
-1/T
Cell
)/KN] (4.3)
Where
I
S
: cells saturation current
I
RS:
reverse saturation current
E
G
: band-gap energy


I
RS
=I
SC
/ [exp (qv
OC
/KNN
S
T
C
)-1]

(4.4)
V
OC: PV
open-circuit voltage.
















35


4.2

Simulink Model of solar photovoltaic module
The equations (4.1), (4.2), (4.3) and (4.4) have been used to develop a Matlab
simulink model of solar photovoltaic cell/module/array as given in Figure 4.2.



Fig.4.2: Model of solar photovoltaic module

4.2.1 PV MODULE CHARACTERISTICS
IV and PV characteristic curve are obtained by simulation of the developed
model for the parameters given in table 4.1 for ELDORA40 module is given in
Fig.4.3.

Table 4.1: Parameters of ELDORA40 Solar Module at solar radiation 1000W/sqm,
AM 1.5 and 25

C cell temperature
PARAMETER VALUE
Maximum power (Pmax) 37 W
Voltage at Pmax (Vmax) 17.2V
Current at Pmax (Imax) 2.2A
Short circuit current (Isc) 2.4A
Open circuit voltage (Voc) 21V
36



Fig.4.3: Characteristic curves of the module
The results obtained by the simulation of model are same as the parameters given by
manufacturer.


















0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)
P vs V
I vs V
1000 W/sqm
700 W/sqm
400 W/sqm
100 W/sqm
100 W/sqm
400 W/sqm
700 W/sqm
1000 W/sqm
37


4.3 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING
There are many algorithms for tracking of maximum power point of solar cell
as the summary is presented in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Main Characteristics of MPPT Tequenique [36]

38

The current and voltage characteristics of solar cell are non- linear. Maximum
power changes with change in solar insolation and cell temperature.
In this study, a relation between open circuit voltage and voltage corresponding
to maximum power has been developed. For developing relationship between Vmpp
and Voc, parameters of the solar PV module ELDORA40 as given in Table 4.1 have
been used.

The model given in Figure 4.2 is simulated for various values of solar insolations (0-
1100 W/m
2
) and cell temperatures and obtained results are shown in Figures 4.4-
4.16. Open circuit voltage (Voc) and corresponding maximum power point voltage is
read from the graphs.

Fig.4.4: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 25 W/m
2
solar insolation

Fig.4.5: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 50 W/m
2
solar insolation
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.1
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
11
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
18 deg C
25 deg C
35 deg C
45 deg C
Vmpp
Voc
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
35 deg C
18 deg C
25 deg C
45 deg C
Voc
Vmpp
39


Fig.4.6: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 100 W/m
2
solar insolation

Fig.4.7: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 200 W/m
2
solar insolation


Fig.4.8: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 300 W/m
2
solar insolation

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
18 deg C
35 deg C
Voc
Vmpp
25 deg C
45 deg C
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
11
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
18 deg C
35 deg C
25 deg C
45 deg C
Vmpp
Voc
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
11
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
18 deg C
35 deg C
25 deg C
45 deg C
Vmpp
Voc
40


Fig.4.9: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 400 W/m
2
solar insolation


Fig.4.10: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 500 W/m
2
solar insolation


Fig.4.11: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 600 W/m
2
solar insolation

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
35 deg C
18 deg C
25 deg C
45 deg C
Voc
Vmpp
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
35 deg C
Voc
18 deg C
25 deg C
45 deg C
Vmpp
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
35 deg C
25 deg C
18 deg C
45 deg C
Vmpp
Voc
41


Fig.4.12: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 700 W/m
2
solar insolation


Fig.4.13: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 800 W/m
2
solar insolation


Fig.4.14: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 900 W/m
2
solar insolation

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
35 deg C
18 deg C
Vmpp
25 deg C
45 deg C
Voc
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
35 deg C
18 deg C
25 deg C
45 deg C
Vmpp
Voc
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
35 deg C
Vmpp
Voc
18 deg C
25 deg C
45 deg C
42


Fig.4.15: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 1000 W/m
2
solar insolation

Fig.4.16: I-V, P-V and dp/dv-V characteristics curves at 1100 W/m
2
solar insolation
As it is clear from the above characteristic curves that Voc and Vmpp depends
on solar insolations and cell temperatures.
The values of Voc and Vmpp are read from the above curves and plotted to
develop a relation as given in Figure 4.17.

Fig.4.17: Voc vs. Vmpp
The Figure 4.17 shows a linear relation between Voc and Vmpp that can be
represented by a linear equation as given in equation (4.5).

Vmpp=0.817Voc+0.0055 (4.5)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
35 deg C
Voc
Vmpp
18 deg C
25 deg C
45 deg C
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
p
o
w
e
r

(
W
)


I vs V
dp/dv vs V
P vs V
35 deg C
Voc
18 deg C
25 deg C
45 deg C
Vmpp
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Voc (V)
V
m
p
p
(
V
)
43

Can be approximated as,
Vmpp=0.817Voc (4.6)
To implement this by using microcontroller two modules of similar
characteristics are required. Open circuit voltage of one module is multiplied by the
factor 0.817 and given to reference of the ADC. Now the voltage of the module
whose maximum power is being tracked is sensed and feed to one of the channel of
ADC.adc compare the voltages and sends an error signal to microcontroller.
Programming is done such that when the sensed voltage is equal to the reference
voltage a control pulse is generated.
In literature there is a fixed voltage method to track the maximum power. In
this study mp has been tracked by this method also. The Vmpp has been fixed by
using equation (4.6) by multiplying the average value of Voc.
Actual maximum power, maximum power actually tracked and maximum power
obtained by fixed Vmpp method have been shown in Figure 4.18.

Fig.4.18: Actual Pmax and Pmax tracked
Loss of power when these two methods are used is given in Figure 4.19. It can be
seen that power loss is minimum when power is tracked by implementing equation
(4.2).

Fig. 4.19: Power loss in fixed Vmpp and actually tracking of Vmpp
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
A
c
t
u
a
l

m
a
x
i
m
u
m

p
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
solar insolation (W/sqm)
M
a
x
i
m
u
m

p
o
w
e
r

t
r
a
c
k
e
d

(
W
)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
Actual maximum power
Maximum power tracked
maximum power by fixed Vmpp
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
11
P
o
w
e
r

l
o
s
s

(
W
)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
11
solar insolation (W/sqm)
P
o
w
e
r

l
o
s
s


(
W
)
Actually tracked
Fixed Vmpp
44

CHAPTER-5
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP


5.1 INTRODUCTION
The main objective of this chapter is to explain the components of the
experimental setup. Brief function of each component has been described. The whole
setup is divided into two units. The one unit which is of low power and control the
power flow is called control unit and the other unit is of high power which contains
power electronic devices thyristers is known as power unit.
The experimental setup comprises of the following components:
1. 8051 advanced microcontroller kit
2. Analog to digital converter
3. Zero crossing detectors
5. Driver and buffer circuit
6. Single phase fully controlled converter
7. Solar module

The control unit which generates control pulses of desired delay to control the
flow of power are comprised of the following components:
(i) 8051 advanced microcontroller kit
(ii) Analog to digital converter
(iii) Zero crossing detectors
(iv) Driver and buffer circuit
The detail description of each component with circuit diagrams and photographs
have been discussed. The complete circuit diagram of the proposed work is given in
Figure 5.1.









45

5.2 COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM


Fig. 5.1 (a)
46




Fig 5.1: Main circuit diagram




47

5.3 DEVELOPED MODEL
The complete experimental setup of the control of grid connected photovoltaic
system is shown in Fig.5.2 and photograph of the solar module used is given in
Fig.5.3.

Fig.5.2: (a)

Fig.5.2: (b)
Fig.5.2: Developed model of the proposed work


Fig.5.3: Solar module used in experiment
48

5.4 DESCRIPTION OF CONTROL UNIT COMPONENTS

The control unit comprises of the following components:
(i) A microcontroller kit
(ii) A/D converter
(iii) A Zero crossing detector
(iv) Driver and Buffer circuit

5.4.1 8051 Advanced Microprocessor Development Kit
The development kit has the following components:
(i) 8 bit, 12 MHz, 8051 microcontroller,
(ii) Two timers-8253: which are used to provide desired delay.
(iii)Two 8255 parallel I/O interface as photograph is shown in Figure 5.2.






Fig. 5.4: 8051 microcontroller kit



8255 PPI
TIMER
8051
CONTROL
PULSE
ADC
INTERFACE
49

5.4.2 Zero Crossing Detector
The proposed circuit of zero crossing detectors is shown in Fig.5.3. ZCD is
used to sense the zero crossing of supply voltage. It acts as a reference signal for
control pulse.

(a)



(b)
Fig.5.5: Zero crossing detector (a) circuit diagram, (b) photograph

5.4.4 Analog to Digital Converter
ADC is most widely used device for data acquisition. In physical world
everything is analog so we need ADC to convert analog signal into digital for
processing through microcontroller. Circuit diagram of ADC is shown in Figure 5.4.
TRANSFORMER
220/12V
OP-AMP 741
IC-7805
OUTPU
T TO
ADC
50


(a)




(b)
Fig 5.6: Circuit diagram of ADC (a) circuit diagram, (b) photograph

5.4.5 Isolation for Control Pulse
In most of the circuits, there is a potential difference between the gates of the
various thyristers, as well as between the control circuit and thyristers. The setup will
consist of linear ICs (OPAM) and digital IC microcontroller, PPI. Basically these are
low voltage and low power circuits. The power circuits which consist of thyristor is
high power circuit. Therefore it becomes necessary for the output channel of the gate
pulse generating circuit to be isolated from one another as well as from thyristers. The
isolation can be provided either by a small high frequency transformer or by an opt-
coupler ICs. Similarly control electronics which control the conduction period of each
OUTPUT FROM
ZCD
OUTPUT TO
8255
ADC
51

thyristor, gives as output of very low power. In general in most of cases output power
is not sufficient to drive the gate directly. Therefore a amplifier circuit is required.
For isolation between control and power circuit, use of pulse transformer is
common. Figure 5.5 shows a driver and buffer circuit. A high frequency positive
pulse from an oscillator is applied to an AND gate continuously. These pulses are
enabled to reach the base of transistor only when the input drive control signal is high.
Transistor basically acts as a switch to energize the primary winding of the pulse
transformer corresponding to each pulse. In secondary winding pulses of almost same
strength are produced due to transformer action.

(a)




(b)
Fig. 5.7: Driver and Buffer circuit (a) circuit diagram, (b) photograph
GATE
PULSE
ISOLATION
TRANSFORMER
OSCILATOR
GATE PULSES
FROM
MICROCONTROLLER
52

5.5 POWER UNIT CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
The power circuit, which consist thyristors, is a high voltage circuit (normally
of the order of several hundreds of volts).
Power unit comprises of the following components:
1. Line commutated inverter and
2. Solar photovoltaic
5.5.1 Single Phase Fully Controlled Converter
Single Phase Fully Controlled Converter with RLE load is shown in Figure 5.8.

(a)


(b)
Fig. 5.8: Single Phase Fully Controlled Converter with RLE load (a) circuit diagram,
(b) photograph













SCR
SNUBBER
CIRCUIT
53

CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR
The output of zero crossing detector is given in figure 6.1. output of zero
crossing detector is not only detecting the zero crossing of supply but also produce a
high pulse of 5 V corresponding to the positive cycle of the supply as given in figure
6.2. Negative pulse is blocked by diode.



Fig.6.1: Output of zero crossing detector




Fig.6.2: Output of Zero Crossing Detector as square wave
54

6.2 DELAY TIME CALCULATION
Timer clock frequency F
C
= 1/12 of the crystal frequency F
XT
;
Crystal frequency=11.0592 MHz
F
c
= 11.0592 MHz / 12 = 921.6 kHz.
Time period Tc = 1/921.6 kHz = 1.085us.
Delay time = number of counts 1.085us.

Calculation of the values to be loaded into the TL and TH registers:
(i) Required delay is divided by 1.085 us
(ii) Value obtained in (i) is subtracted from 65536
(iii)Value obtained in (ii) is converted into hex as ABCD
(iv) Load TL = AB and TH = CD






















55

6.3 SYNCHRONIZATION
Control pulse generated by the microcontroller must be synchronized with
supply. If control pulse is not synchronized with supply frequency the power circuit
triggered wrongly. It is clear from the output shown in figure 6.3 that pulse generated
by microcontroller is synchronized with supply frequency.



(a)






(b)

Fig.6.3: synchronized pulse (a) synchronized with +ve cycle (b) synchronized with -
ve cycle
OUPUT OF ZCD
CONTROL PULSE

56

6.4 TRIGGERING PULSES
The topology of inverter used in the proposed work is fully controlled full wave
inverter. This topology of inverter has bridge of four thyristers. Four triggering pulses
are required to trigger the thyristors of this topology. The thyristers T1 and T2 are
triggered simultaneously with same type of gate pulse G1 and G2 and other two
thyristers T3 and T4 required gate pulse G3 and G4 complementary to the gate pulses
of thyristers T1 and T2.
The control or triggering pulses generated experimentally various delay time is being
depicted below.
The converter circuit work as an inverter only when thyristers are trigger after
90 degree and there is an inductive load connected to circuit. Triggering pulse of any
delay can be generated by microcontroller by feeding suitable value to timer just by
changing the program without any change in hardware. The waveform record of
control pluses generated by controller for various time delays is given in Fig. 6.4, 6.5,
6.6, 6.7 and 6.8.

(a)

(b)
Fig.6.4: control pulse with 5ms delay (a) generated by controller for G1 and G2 (b)
generated by controller for G3 and G4
57


(a)

(b)
Fig.6.5: control pulse with 6 ms delay (a) generated by controller for G1 and G2 (b)
generated by controller for G3 and G4.

(a)

(b)
Fig.6.6: control pulse with 7 ms delay (a) generated by controller for G1 and G2 (b)
generated by controller for G3 and G4
58


(a)

(b)
Fig.6.7: control pulse with 8 ms delay (a) generated by controller for G1 and G2 (b)
generated by controller for G3 and G4


(a)


(b)
Fig.6.8: control pulse with 9 ms delay (a) generated by controller for G1 and G2 (b)
generated by controller for G3 and G4


59

6.5 OUTPUT VOLTAGE WAVEFORM
The output wave forms obtained experimentally are given in figure 6.9 and
6.10. It is clear from the negative value of output voltage wave form that power is
being transferred to grid from the solar photovoltaic panel connected to the load side.









Fig. 6.9: Output Voltages and Load Current Waveform for different Triggering
angles
OUTPUT VOLTAGE LOAD CURRENT
60







Fig.6.10: Output voltage waveform and source current waveforms













SOURCE CURRENT
VOLTAGE ACROSS LOAD
61

CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

7.1 CONCLUSIONS
The use of microcontroller based control circuit provides us large number of
advantages. It reduces size and cost of controller significantly. The efficient control of
delay angle is the main advantage.
Besides this it provide more versality and greater scope for further
improvement just by changing the program but not hardware configuration.

This work is carried out by breaking it into several steps for its smooth and
successful completion.
The first stage consisted of generating control pulse which corresponds to peak
power of solar photovoltaic module.

The first stage, a synchronized control pulse for an ac to dc converter/ inverter
for the full wave was generated. After getting satisfactory results then delay program
was changed to generate a control pulse whose delay angle was adjusted beyond 90
degree to operate converter in inversion mode, at this condition the converter supplies
the energy from solar photovoltaic cell to grid.
The developed relation between open circuit voltage and voltage corresponding
to maximum power point is unique for a module. Peak power tracked by this method
is very accurate.

. The performance of controller is found satisfactory. In general switching
control mode as well as specific application mode for solar photovoltaic grid
interactive inverter. The wave form records shows accuracy of delay of control pulse
and also show the satisfactory performance of whole setup.





62

7.2 FUTURE SCOPE OF THE WORK
Following study can be carried out in future:
1. Following analysis can be carried out before field implementation:
(i) Total harmonic distortion of grid power quality
(ii) Power inversion analysis
(iii) Developed method for tracking of Pmax implement experimentally
(iv) Cost analysis
2. Programming microcontroller for the grid interactive in all weather condition for
three phase system.
3. The developed relation between Voc and Vmpp should be derived by
experimental setup.
4. Controller can be used for the control of FACTS devices by little modification.
5. This controller can be applied in HVDC transmission.






























63

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS


1. Zameer Ahmad and S.N. Singh, Modeling and Control of Grid Connected
Photovoltaic System-A Review International Journal of Emerging Technology
and Advanced Engineering (ISSN 22502459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal,
Volume 3, Issue 3, March 2013).

2. Zameer Ahmad and S.N. Singh, Extraction of the Internal Parameters of Solar
photovoltaic Module by developing Matlab / Simulink Based Model International
Journal of Applied Engineering Research, ISSN 0973-4562 Vol.7 No.11 (2012).

3. Zameer Ahmad and S.N. Singh, Microcontroller Based Advanced Triggering
Circuit for Converters/Inverters (Submitted).



























64

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