REMOTE SENSING OF VEGETATION STRESS AND

INDICATORS

Makinde E. O
1
and Salami A. T
2

1
Space Applications & Environmental Science Laboratory
Institute of Ecology & Environmental Studies
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State.
estherdanisi@gmail.com ; +2348030799879

2
Head, Space Applications & Environmental Science Laboratory
Institute of Ecology & Environmental Studies
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State.
ayobasalami@yahoo.com ; +2348033761041

Abstract

The study used spectra indicators to determine the health status of
polluted vegetation. Global Positioning System with an accuracy of 5m were
used to identified stress areas. The identified impacted areas were mapped out
for the field and Multispectral satellite image (RapidEye, 2009 and 2011) study.
Control plot was established in relatively unstressed area. Spectra
measurements were taken using hyperspectral Analytical Spectral Device (ASD)
Handheld2 Spectrometer within a field of view (FOV) of 25. Spectral indicators
were calculated and the relationship between these spectral indices and
chlorophyll content of the vegetation were determined. The correlation
coefficients of 0.5 and higher were observed in plot B and Plot C of Ogun. Plot C
of Ogun of had a range of 0.6 -0.83 rho at p>0.01 for all the indices. The result of
the Analysis of Variance identified the best ratio and vegetation indices that
significantly differed between less stressed (control) and more stressed
(impacted) plots. RedEdge indices had an F-ratio of 4.564 at p<0.01 and 2.731 at
p<0.1 for VOG1.The image data analysis showed that there was a direct
relationship between different pollution levels and the chlorophyll content of F-
ratio 325.8 (p< 0.0001) and 93.36 (p < 0.001) for 2009 and 2011.The study
concluded that vegetation impacted by oil spill pollution are unhealthy.

Keywords: Vegetation Reflectance, Stress, Spectral Indices, Oil Spill


1 INTRODUCTION

The use of Remote Sensing/GIS applications to study vegetation dynamics and
its effects in the environment is on the rise in Nigeria. According to Natural
Resources Canada (2008), remote sensing is the science and art of acquiring
information (spectral, spatial, and temporal) about material objects, area, or
phenomenon, without coming into physical contact with the objects, or area, or
phenomenon under investigation. Studies involving the use of this technique
hass been used to assess and monitor changes in biodiversity in Nigeria. Salami
and Balogun (2006); Ati et al, (2010) monitored the biodiversity in Southern and
Northern Nigeria forest and the drived savana with NigeriaSat-1 and other
satellites. This technology uses energy transmitted to the earth as waves which
reflects, absorbs or transmits that energy. Remote sensors sensed this energy
and record it depending on the configuration of the instrument. Sensors such as
hyperspectral sensors record this energy simultaneously in dozens or hundreds
of narrow, adjacent spectral bands (Adams et al, 1993). Remotely sensed data is
a proven source of information for detailed characterization of vegetation type
(Luther et al, 2006), and condition (Rossini et al, 2006; Wulder et al, 2006).

The spectral characteristics of vegetation vary with wavelength. According to
Samvedan (2007), a compound in leaves called chlorophyll strongly absorbs
radiation in the red and blue wavelengths but reflect green wavelength and the
internal structure of healthy leaves act as diffuse reflector of near-infrared
wavelengths. Reflectance varies with wavelength for most materials because
energy at certain wavelengths is scattered or absorbed to different degrees.
These reflectance variations are evident when spectral reflectance curves (plots
of reflectance versus wavelength) for different materials (Smith, 2006). The
biometrical properties of vegetation in different wavelengths of electromagnetic
spectrum can be analysed as well used for modelling and simulation of
biophysical processes (Jarocinska and Zagajewski, 2010). Vegetation have
distinctive spectral characteristics as was observed by Gates (1970), who noted
that vegetation leaf reflects and transmit incident radiation in manner that is
uniquely characteristics of pigment cell containing water solution. Generally, the
spectral reflectance curve for green vegetation over the wavelength range 0.4 um
- 2.6 um (Belward and Valenzuela, 1991).

Vegetation indices derived from satellite image data have become one of the
primary information sources for monitoring vegetation conditions and mapping
land cover change (Teillet et al, 1998). Vegetation indices are mathematical
combinations of various bands (Jensen, 1983). Vegetation indices (VIs) to
monitor terrestrial landscapes by satellite sensors were first developed in the
1970s and have been highly successful in assessing vegetation condition,
foliage, cover, phenology, and processes such as evapotranspiration (ET) and
primary productivity, related to the fraction of photosynthetically active radiation
absorbed by a canopy (fPAR- fraction of Absorbed Photosynthetically Active
Radiation) (Kerr et al, 2003; Pettorelli et al, 2005; Huete et al, 2008). These
indices include Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (Rouse et al, 1973); Soil
Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) (Huete, 1988); Leaf Area Index (Surlock,
2001); Ratio Vegetation Index (RVI); and RedEdge Normalized Difference
Vegetation Index (RedEdgeNDVI).
Vegetation can be damaged when exposed to any form of pollution. Levell,
1975; Ewa-Oboho, 1988, 1994; Omodanisi et al,, 2011 noted that vegetation
when impacted by oil spill respond to the oiling stress, the extent of which
depends on the severity of the oiling. Detection of vegetation stress by remote
sensing techniques is based on the assumption that stress factors interfere with
photosynthesis or the physical structure of the vegetation and affect the
absorption of light energy and thus alter the reflectance spectrum of vegetation
(Ritley 1989; Pinter and Hatfield 2003). Thus, by reliably measuring the
reflectance spectrum, the health status of vegetation can be determined
(Oyundari, 2008). This study focused on the spectral reflectance of vegetation
and spctral indicators.

1.2 The Problem

Nigeria has the challenge of dealing with oil spills and its associated effect on the
environment and man. The network of oil pipelines are under constant threat of
rupture, sabotage, vandalism and terrorism resulting in oil spill, explosion and
deaths. Sabotage and oil pipeline breakage due to damages and ruptures are
some of the causes of oil spill in Ogun State. The pipelines laid along the
mainlines and booster pump stations to the storage depot in Mosimi depot, Atlas
Cove Jetty & Depot, and Satellite (Ejigbo Lagos) Depot have not been replaced
since it was laid for over 25 years. As a result, damages and rupture are
inevitable. Ruptures occur due to diminished pipeline integrity and the aging
process of the pipes. However, pipeline sabotage is still the largest contributor to
oil spill in Nigeria. Interfering with oil pipelines and installations through
vandalization/fuel scooping, oil bunkering and oil terrorism has assumed huge
dimensions and a variety of forms. This has increased the amount of oil spilled
into the environment that has gone unnoticed. Oil spill only becomes public when
it results in explosion and deaths that cannot be curtailed immediately by the
saboteurs. This oil spill can cause severe damage to the environment in general
and vegetation in particular when they leak into the soil thereby posing great
threat. Salami (1995) stated that the current situation is such that the new
pseudo-forest environment created by human colonization is unsuitable for the
sustenance of the forest ecosystem and this has resulted in the endangering of
some forest species. The influence of oil spill on the spectral reflectance of
vegetation in Arepo in Ogun states and the environs was monitored, assessed
and analyzed using Remote Sensing/Geographic Information System. Ogun
state was selected for the study due to certain limitations imposed by the
inaccessible and inhospitable terrain in most of the Niger Delta.



2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Study Area

This study was carried out in Arepo in Ogun State located within 700!N 335!E,
7.000N 3.583E and 700!N 335!E, 7.000N 3.583E. Ogun State on the other
hand is located in the rainforest vegetation belt of the Southwest Zone of Nigeria
and has a total land area of 16,409.26 square kilometers; it is bounded on the
West by the Benin Republic, on the South by Lagos State and the Atlantic
Ocean, on the East by Ondo State, and on the North by Oyo and Osun States.
Ogun is not only a creek and lagoon region, it is also blessed with a coastal plain
with the elevation increasing northwards from above 40m to 250m above the sea
level. The undulating plain is broken by the North West / South East sandstone
extending from near Aiyetoro in Yewa zone eastward to Ijebu-Igbo. There are
pockets of rocky outcrops dotting the landscape especially around Abeokuta.
With a good climatic pattern of evenly balanced wet and dry seasons, the State is
undoubtedly a fortunate one in terms of location from the point of view of
economic, tourist and natural resources potential.


Figure 1: Map showing the Study Area

2.2 Data Collection and Analysis

2.2.1 Spectral Measurement

Multispectral RapidEye satellite image of 5 m resolution for year 2009 and 2011
and a hyperspectral field instrument were used in 2012 for this study. These
images were then subjected to digital image processing (DIP). Field survey in this
study involves in-situ measurement of vegetation. In-situ sensing of spectral
characteristics involves the use of spectrometer because it collects spectral
signatures of features under natural conditions. ASD Field Handheld2
Spectrometer which is a portable, durable and accurate for field spectral
measurement was used for this study. The HandHeld2 minimizes field data
collection time while maximizing the quality of spectral results. The range of
reflectance measurement is over the full wavelength range 325-1075 nm).

Three identified impacted areas perpendicular to the pipeline of 30 m by 30 m
were selected on the field in Obafemi-Owode Local Government Area of Ogun
State and also identified on the both satellite images with the aid of a GPS. The
fields were identified as A, B and C in the Ogun. Control plot was established
in undisturbed vegetated areas away from but perpendicular to the pipeline
according to Williams and Lambert, (1959). Each identified field and the control
consisted of five transects of 30 m each in different distance from the pipeline;
and measurement was taken at every 2 m with about two to four reflectance
measurement per sample point. Reflectance spectral measurement was
preceded by baseline measurement by calculating the dark current and white
reference over a standardized white spectralon panel. The ASD field
spectroscopy measurement data were acquired in the standalone mode and
were pre-processed using HH2 Syn software from ASD Inc. Then ViewSpecPro
software application from ASD was then used to convert the spectrometers
binary files to ASCII text files using the ASCII Export function readable by other
programs for analyses (ViewSpec Pro, 2008). The bands of the image and field
spectroscopy were used to predict the leaf chlorophyll content. NDVI, RVI and
RedEdgeNDVI spectral indices, were calculated from the red and NIR
reflectance.

3. Results

3.1 Field Spectral Measurement

Spectral library were created for all the spectral field measurements to enable
averaging and analyses of indices. The measured spectra within 2 m radius had
a total of 10 sample points per transect which were further averaged to have a
representative spectra measurement per transect. Band wavelength from the
visible, red edge and NIR were used for the indices. This measurement estimated
the chlorophyll content in the plant species. The estimated chlorophyll content
was then used to assess the changes in the spectra of impacted vegetation. The
result of the analysis of the spectral measurement indicators is presented in table
1.

Table 1: Spectral Indices Measurement


(Source: Field Data 2012)

In Table 1, the field measurement revealed that RVI indices had the highest
chlorophyll value while VOG1 was next in the entire sampled plot. The charts
below show the varying level for which each of the indices responded in the plots.


NDVI RVI RedEdgeNDVI VOG1 OSAVI
PLOT A
Transect 1 0.858088 13.09322 0.695275757 3.176258 1.185906
Transect 2 0.874336 14.91541 0.697968481 3.020727 1.236917
Transect 3 0.819157 10.05933 0.594210017 2.639596 1.115696
Transect 4 0.806473 9.334484 0.609451356 2.664003 1.095777
Transect 5 0.792811 8.653034 0.61852706 2.743725 1.053641
PLOT B
Transect 1 0.831137 10.84389 0.682076936 3.103768 1.11913
Transect 2 0.808889 9.465122 0.634477076 2.817852 1.067645
Transect 3 0.748293 6.945734 0.604028668 2.714492 0.973807
Transect 4 0.860923 13.38049 0.63560214 2.700356 1.195991
Transect 5 0.823299 10.31853 0.593326032 2.593715 1.132303
PLOT C
Transect 1 0.332456 1.996059 0.589095704 2.678967 1.113193
Transect 2 0.798456 8.923405 0.550770306 2.577058 1.089542
Transect 3 0.858888 13.1731 0.632083162 2.76138 1.190843
Transect 4 0.835686 11.17182 0.621456843 2.788952 1.148612
Transect 5 0.832138 10.91458 0.603325778 2.692556 1.138237
CONTROL
Transect 1 0.875221 15.02836 0.707779408 2.945835 1.199275
Transect 2 0.838945 11.41812 0.652449478 2.781099 1.126647
Transect 3 0.881984 15.94686 0.692438693 2.9403 1.22459
Transect 4 0.885656 16.49114 0.718889087 3.08173 1.234341
Transect 5 0.863465 13.64825 0.699084038 2.900713 1.175251
3.1.1 Relationship of Spectral indices with Estimated Chlorophyll Content
The relationships of all the spectral indices used in this study with Chlorophyll
content were analysed in the plots and the control using Spearmans rank
correlation test (non-parametric) because the data did not follow the normal
distribution.

In the result of the correlation analysis in Table 2 shows all the indices had some
form of positive statistical correlation; only indices with correlation coefficients of
0.5 and higher were observed in plots B and C at p>0.01. The relationship
between the chlorophyll content and the spectral indices were statistically
significant at p>0.01. This could be as a result of the varying degree of pollution
that affects the reflectance of vegetation.


Table 2: Spearmans rank correlation analysis for relating indices with chlorophyll
content for the field data at p>0.01, rho correlation coefficient

INDICES

rho

PLOT A
OSAVI 0.37
VOG1 0.31

PLOT B
RedEdge NDVI 0.71
NDVI 0.66
RV1 0.66
OSAVI 0.6

PLOT C
NDVI 0.77
RVI 0.77
RedEdge NDVI 0.6
OSAVI 0.6
VOG1 0.83
NB: Only indices with a correlation coefficient of 0.3 and higher are listed
(Source: Field Data 2012)


The correlation coefficients of 0.5 and higher were observed in plot B and Plot C
of Ogun. Plot C of Ogun of had a range of 0.6 -0.83 rho at p>0.01 for all the
indices.
From the result of the Spearmans correlation (Table 2), the RedEdge indices
(becaudue to its uniqueness in Vegetation study ) and VOG1 were selected for
further analysis in the indicated plots and the control and Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) performed to find out if there was any significant difference between
less stressed and healthier vegetation or whether they were able to distinguish
relatively healthy from relatively unhealthy vegetation. The result of the analysis
identified the best ratio and vegetation indices that significantly differed between
less stressed (control) and more stressed (impacted) plots. RedEdge indices had
an F-ratio of 4.564 at p<0.01 and 2.731 at p<0.1 for VOG1.

3.2 Image Spectral Measurement

On the RapidEye satellite image that has five distinct spectral bands, the Red
band, RedEdge band and NIR band are unique for chlorophyll measurement in
images. It was estimated that the ground measurement of 30 m by 30 m for each
plot will cover 6 pixels on the satellite image. Thus, the identified impacted areas
on the field were subsequently identified on the images and spectral
measurement taken. Spectral vegetation indices of the NDVI, RVI and
RedEdgeNDVI were selected for measurement on the satellite images in the
study area. The multispectral indices used reflectance measurement from the
midpoint wavelength of the red, red edge and NIR bands which 657 nm, 710 nm
and 850 nm respectively. The result of the image measurement analysis in table
3 shows that RVI indices had the highest chlorophyll content values for the entire
plots for 2009 and 2011. However, there was a general decline from 2009 to
2011 in the chlorophyll content.

Table 3: Indices Measurement for Image Data

(Source: RapidEye Image Data 2009, 2011)


OGUN 2009

OGUN 2011

NDVI RVI
REDEDGE
NDVI NDVI RVI
REDEDGE
NDVI
PLOT A 0.760931 7.365782 0.302216 PLOT A 0.639405 4.546392 0.28086
PLOT B 0.796105 8.808955 0.388053 PLOT B 0.725684 6.290865 0.348621
PLOT C 0.78068 8.119114 0.373477 PLOT C 0.707461 5.836689 0.346928
CONTROL 0.804892 9.250729 0.541788 CONTROL 0.793198 8.671088 0.46395
NDVI, RVI and RedEdge were the indices computed from the band combination
of the multispectral image. Previous studies have shown that there is a positive
relationship between band indices and chlorophyll content, therefore, Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the relationship between the
chlorophyll content and pollution level in the impacted plots. There is a direct
relationship between different pollution levels and the chlorophyll content which
was statistically significant at 325.8 (p < 0.001) and 93.36 (p < 0.001) for 2009
and 2011 respectively.

3.3 Image and Field Spectral Measurement

Since each plot had 5 transect of measured spectra, the spectra were averaged
in each plot to have a representative measurement per plot. This was then used
to compare with the image measurement. In-situ reflectance was recorded using
ASD handheld2 spectrometer in the wavelength region of 325 nm to 1075 nm;
while that of the image is in the wavelength region of 440 nm to 850 nm. To
correlate the field and image data, the field data was resampled by averaging
intermediate points to match the satellite sensor bandwidth. The result of the field
data is presented in table 4.


Table 4: Result of the Three Indices of Both Field and Image



ANOVA was then used to statistically test the correlation between these indices
in the images data and the in-situ measurement to determine if there is a direct
relationship between the image data of 2009 and 2011 and the field
IMAGE 2009 IMAGE 2011 FIELD DATA 2012
NDVI RVI
REDEDGE
NDVI NDVI RVI
REDEDGE
NDVI NDVI

RVI

REDEDGE
NDVI
OGUN A 0.760931 7.365782 0.302216 0.639405 4.546392 0.28086 0.808061

9.419994 0.230316

OGUN B 0.796105 8.808955 0.388053 0.725684 6.290865 0.348621 0.723233 6.226295 0.172106

OGUN C 0.78068 8.119114 0.373477 0.707461 5.836689 0.346928 0.743653 6.801937 0.11278

CONTROL 0.804892 9.250729 0.541788 0.793198 8.671088 0.46395 0.810431 9.550228 0.286917
measurement of 2012. Table 5 shows that there is a direct relationship between
in-situ measurement, image data and the chlorophyll content at the same
wavelength which were statistically significant at p<0.0001 at varying F-ratio.

Table 5: ANOVA Result of in-situ Measurement, Image Data and the Chlorophyll
Content

F- Ratio p- Value

OGUN

Image 2009/Field Data 2012

Image 2011/Field Data 2012


101.8
48.65

.0001
.0001
(Source: RapidEye Image 2009, 2011, & Field Data 2012)


4. Discussion

From this study, the oil spill had impacted the vegetation thereby making it
unhealthy (stressed). Spectral indicators were used to determine the health
status of vegetation and further analysis were performed on the selected indices
and it was observed that there was a direct relationship between the chlorophyll
content and pollution level in the impacted plots which is statistically significant at
p<0.001. Giteleson and Merzlyak (2005) argued that the loss of chlorophyll
content can be attributed to long-term stresses in plants. When stressed (oil spill
impacted), the absorption of light by photosynthetic pigments in plant leave
decreases and infrared reflectance also decreases due to changes in the cell
structure of the plant. This leads to the reduced reflectance in the NIR and the
increase reflectance in the red, or the changes in the red edge (Oyundari, 2008).
The trend of result observed in the field were also seen in the images when the
spectral indices were used, although the multispectral imagery were years earlier.
Therefore, the spectral indices are standard indices that do not vary with data
type and time. This is in agreement with Noomen (2007), who noted that using
indices that are related to biomass makes the method generally applicable
because they are not data type and season dependent. Therefore, a spectra
reflectance index for monitoring oil spill induced stress and related contamination
on vegetation involves the use of VOG1, RedEdgeNDVI, NDVI and RVI indices.
These indicators are useful in areas where there has been no record of oil spill to
assess, analyse and monitor possibility of oil pipeline leakages/seepage
especially in pipeline corridors.



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Proceedings of Global Geospatial Conference 2013
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 4-8 November 2013