Abstract

Recent findings have shown that at-risk students in grades k-12are being deprived of
challenges and of the chance to use complex thinking skills. The purpose of this study is to
determine the effect that the level of computer technology use in the classroom has on at-risk
students grades and attendance. A teacher technology survey is used to measure teacher use!
student use and overall use of technology in the classrooms. The sample for this study consists
of teachers from a "orthwest #hio high school. Results of the study indicate that teachers
technology use! students technology use! and overall technology use have no significant
positive effect on the grades and attendance of at-risk students. $n addition the study finds that
technology use is low among the teachers in the sample. These results suggest that for
technology to be effective and make changes in at-risk students grades and attendance!
schools must be prepared for technology use in the classroom. %eaders need to develop a
model that would include a shared vision! entire school community involvement! specific training
for staff and time for the training! a full time technology director and time for the staff to
communicate and share among peers for technology to be an effective tool in the classroom
curriculum
1. $ntroduction
Technology is around everything we do. &ut! does it have a place in the classroom' $n this
study! teachers had (ust received new computers over the past year and a half! and some
attended specific software classes the past summer. They were ready to infuse their classroom
lesson plans with a variety of technology. )tudents were assigned to create brochures! power
point presentations! and use video cameras along with i*ovies. This rush of technology could
be seen in almost all of the regular classes. As the school moves into the 2nd +uarter there is a
return slowly to traditional classroom instruction leaving power point presentations! use of
,ublisher and video production. )tudents are still using the word processor and a few scattered
technology pro(ects but the flurry of technology use is over. At-risk students grades drop along
with students attendance in some or for a few in all classes. The author anticipated this study to
show significance in the at-risk students attendance and grades based on current research
related to computers and students. The fact that there are computers in the classroom with an
abundance of software and that instructors have minimal professional development does not
mean that teacher technology use and student technology use will have an immediate and
sustained positive effect on student grades and attendance.
$n a traditional teacher-centered classroom! the students are the listeners and followers. The
teacher is the one given freedom to move about! to initiate actions and interactions! to ask
+uestions and to set limits on activity times. The teacher is the one who gave the facts and
defines the important ideas. The activity is generally the teachers domain -)andholt.! Ringstaff!
/ 0wyer!11123.*et. -11443 calls this teaching style 55real school. $n the 55real classroom!
students participate in the listening to teachers lecture! raising their hands to answer +uestions
or working independently on some written assignment 1.1. Traditional learning vs.
constructivism learning According to &racey -11113 and 6uban -11113 schools in America
during the 1147s that use this traditional teaching methodology shows increased scores in basic
skills such as reading and math. &ut information from Applebee! %anger! and *ullis -11413
reports8 )ixty-one percent of the 12-year-old students could not read or understand relatively
complicated material! such as that typically represented at the high school level. "early one-half
appear to have limited mathematics skills and abilities that go little beyond adding! subtracting!
and multiplying with whole numbers. *ore than one-half could not evaluate them procedures or
results of a scientific study! and few included enough information in their written pieces to
communicate their ideas effectively. Additionally! assessment results in oth curriculum areas
indicate that high school (uniors have little sense of historical chronology! have not read much
literature! tend to be unfamiliar with the uses and potential application of computers. -p. 293 The
difference between the rise in student test scores and the fall in student performance on
complex tasks is explained by the new accountability factor for teachers and administrators
-)andholt. et al.! 11123. )chools and teachers are limiting instruction to drill and practice which
emphasi.es the material that the national norms tests in order to meet the set level on
standardi.ed tests - )andholt. et al.! 11123. $n this period! students became better test takers
and but became worse at higher-order cognitive learning. This action of teaching to the test
brought about reform efforts to move teaching instruction from rote learning to problem solving!
concept development! and critical thinking. This new instruction philosophy is based on theory
of knowledge and learning which today is called 55constructivism -)andholt. et al.!11123.
6onstructivism views learning as a personal! reflective! and transformative process where
ideas! experiences! and points of view are processed into something new. $n this philosophy!
teachers are the facilitators for the students learning - )andholt. et al.! 1112 3 rather than the
instigators. $n the knowledge-constructed classroom! the students work together! sharing the
process of learning not only with their peers but with parents and others - )andholt. et al.!
11123.
2. At-risk students
:hen using the term 55at-risk there is a suggestion that there is a sense of urgency. At-risk
lends itself to meaning something that needs immediate attention or something serious might
occur. The ha.ards come from the schools that focused on trying to 55fit the 55at-risk student to
the educational system. :hen at-risk is not defined for the student! when the school does not
discover what aspect the 55at-riskstudent is at risk! the 55fit is likely not to work - :ehlage et al.!
11413. The label 55at-risk alludes to the fact that a student has a problem but schools are not
exactly certain of the origin of the problem. At-risk predictors are socioeconomic factors! health
factors! family and school factors. )chools typically use the following criteria for identifying at-
risk students8 failing grades! low ;,A! and<or high absenteeism of a student. The predicament
with using identifiers is that no at-risk student is the same. =ow a school prepares to teach
these students is the key for the at-risk students success in school -:ehlage et al.! 11413.
According to *eans et al. -11113 the dominant teaching methods for at-risk students focus on
basic skills! which are not providing the students with challenges. At-risk students need to b
challenged and encouraged to use complex thinking skills. Teachers need to encourage the
growth of reasoning! problem solving! and independent thinking for the at-risk students as they
do for regular students - *eans et al.! 11113. The research conducted by *eans -111>3 shows
that technology can help students including at-risk students learn and practice a variety of skills
and improves their attitudes to learning.
?. Technology in the classroom
Technology can help facilitate the knowledge-constructed classroom. A number of
researchers- &ork! 114@A %aboratory for 6omparative =uman 6ognition! 1141A ,apert! 1147A
Ragosta! 11423 views computers as having an influential effect on the teaching and learning
processes. They state that with the use of computers in the classroom! schools would become
more student-centered and that more individuali.ed learning would take place than ever before.
$n the student-centered classrooms of today! with the aid of the computer! students are able to
collaborate! to use critical thinking! and to find alternatives to solutions of problems -Baber!
11123. &ut the shift from teacher-centered delivery to a student-centered model potentially leads
to a resistance in change. )tudent-centered teaching is challenging educators to restudy their
teaching methods and student learning methods - Baber! 1112 3. Research done by 0wyer!
Ring- staff! and )andholt. -11113 indicates that computers can be used in collaboration for all
sub(ect areas! but that teachers have to take into account the different styles of teaching and the
students involved in this learning. This type of teaching re+uires a change in the teachers
method of teaching and learning! the amount of time needed to learn how to use the technology
and the location of models that work with technology - )heingold / =adley! 11173. "egroponte!
Resnick! and 6assell -11123 argue8that digital technologies can enable students to become
more active and independent learners. The $nternet will allow new 55knowledge-building
communities in which children and adults from around the globe can collaborate and learn from
each other. 6omputers will allow students to take charge of their own learning through direct
exploration! expression! and experience. This shifts the students role from 55being taught to
55learning and the teachers role from 55expert to 55collaborator or 55guide -p. 13
?.1. Apple classrooms of tomorrow
$n 114@! five Apple 6lassrooms of Tomorrow -A6#T3 are created in sites across the Cnited
)tates. These classrooms are a research collaboration between universities! public school and
Apple 6omputer! $nc. The research completed by )andholt. et al. -11123 on the A6#T study
encompasses 17 years of gathering information that includes teachers personal accounts of
their experiences in teaching in these classrooms. Results suggest that the impact of
technology on education has the potential to change education in a beneficial way if done under
certain circumstances. $n the A6#T classrooms! students use technology as a tool to collect!
organi.e! and analy.e dataA to enhance presentationsA to conduct simulations and to solve
complex problems. #ne of the changes seen over this time period is the change in the lower
achieving studentsDthe ones teachers could not reach with the teacher-centered learning.
These students began to respond positively to the alternate ways of expressing their
knowledge! which not only raises their self-esteem but their status with the teachers and their
peers -)andholt. et al.! 11123.
?.2. )tudent-learning with technology
6omputers are being used! in part! to enable teachers to improve the curriculum and enhance
student learning. #ne potential target is the at-risk student. Recent findings show that the at-risk
student is being deprived by not being challenged and not being given the chance to use
complex thinking skills-*eans et al.! 11113 .*eans et al. -111?3 suggests that technology in the
classroom could provide authentic learning opportunities to at-risk students. Teachers can draw
on technology applications to simulate real-world environments and create actual environments
for experiments! so that students can carry out authentic tasks as real workers would! explore
new terrains! meet people of different cultures! and use a variety of tools to gather information
and solve problems -*eans et al.! 111?! p. >?3.
)everal studies suggest that any student! including the at-risk student! who has technology
integrated into the curriculum! could potentially see a positive change in student classroom
grades! ;,A! and attendance. Research! which examines constructivist teaching and learning
models! indicates that technology brings complexity to the tasks that students perform and
raises student motivation -&aker! ;earhart! / =erman! 111>A 0wyer! Ringstaff! / )andholt.!
1117A *eans / #lson! 111> 3. Technology brings about changes to the classroom roles and
organi.ation. $t allows the students to become more self-reliant. )tudents may use peer
coaching! and teachers may function more as facilitators than lecturers -*eans! 11123.The
study conducted by)andholt. et al. -11123on the Apple 6lassrooms of Tomorrow -A6#T3 over a
17-year period shows changes in teacher and student interactions. Teachers are observed
more as being guides or mentors and less as lecturers. The cooperative and task-related
interactions among the A6#T students are spontaneous and more extensive than in traditional
classrooms. )tudent interest in computers did not decline with routine use. Teacher peer
sharing began to increase as students and teachers sought support from one another
- )andholt. et al.!11123. #ther changes that are seen during this study are that teachers began
teaming and working across disciplines. )chool schedules are made to accommodate unusually
ambitious class pro(ects by the administrators and the teachers - )andholt. et al.! 1112 3.
Teachers and students start to show mastery of technology and start to integrate several kinds
of media into lessons or pro(ects. 6lassrooms are a mix of traditional and nontraditional
learning. Teachers are changing the physical layout of the classroom along with daily schedules
to give students more time on pro(ects - )andholt. et al.! 1112 3. The A6#T study brought to
focus that meaningful use of technology in schools went beyond (ust putting computers in
classrooms. Technology is not a change agent for education. Technology when used as an
integrated tool with the curriculum could make a difference in education-)andholt. et al.! 11123.
?.?. &arriers to teachers use of computers
&arriers to using technology in education includes lack of teacher time! limited access and high
costs of e+uipment! lack or vision or rationale for technology use! lack of teacher training and
support! and current assessment practices that may not reflect what is learned with
technology-#TA! 111@3. The need for teacher training and the lack of expertise are ma(or
barriers to using the microcomputer and related e+uipment. :ith computer competence!
teachers anxiety decreases and their attitudes toward computers improves with hands-on
computer literacy courses. Teacher time facilitates the areas of being able to experiment with
new technologies! to share these experiences with other teacher! to prepare lessons using the
technology and to have the time to attend technology courses or meetings -&arron / ;oldman!
111>A &yrom! 11123. %earning how to use new technology includes the time the teacher needs
to become competent with the computer as a personal tool but also as an instructional tool
-&rand! 11143. Teachers need to train and develop their skills outside of the regular school day
so they can concentrate on instruction and training ob(ectives. After the teachers become
knowledgeable about using technology! they need time to transfer the skills learned into infusing
technology into the curriculum &rand! 11143. Training could come in many forms! inservices!
professional development! collaborative learning and in peer coaching. :hatever methods are
pursued! teachers need the time to learn at their speed and with their own learning styles
- &rand! 11143. A ma(or problem with technology in schools is that many schools could not
afford to have full- time school-level computer coordinators. This is an important step in having
technology work in schools - &yrom! 11123. Training and support within a school district may not
always be planned or may not meet the needs of the teachers. *any times the training may
focus on how to use e+uipment but will miss the importance of how to integrate the technology
into the curriculum. $n order to integrate computers into instruction! teachers must have access
to technology.
Cnfortunately! many teachers find hardware and software availability are limited in their schools.
The costs of upgrades! support! and training! hardware and software are often not considered in
school planning. *any times technology is placed too far from the classroom and much of the
hardware is too old to handle the new software applications. #lder schools found it difficult to
meet the wiring needs to use telecommunications - &yrom! 11123. Technology is difficult to
integrate into the curriculum. :hen teachers see how technology could benefit their students!
they might be willing to become part of the technology plan. )chools and districts need to meet
the vision of the new technologies with planning and leadership. Teachers must be included in
this process of understanding the curriculum uses and how to incorporate the technology into
the lessons. The need for keeping abreast with new technology changes is not communicated
many times to the teachers -&yr3. #ne element needed for learning is a teacher. A teacher is
the conductor needed for the integration of technology into the classroom. The fact is that to be
effective! technology must be ingrained into the broader education reform movement that
includes teacher training! curriculum! student assessment! and a schools capacity for change
- Roschelle! ,ea! =oadley! ;ordin! / *eans! 27773. Teacher support must encompass more
than training! it must include time to experiment! permission to change the way they do things!
and to make mistakes. There must be ample technological support! and support that allow
teachers to focus on pedagogy not the technology-Archer! 11143. :ith conditions where
teachers are individually comfortable and at least some- what skilled in using computers! where
they allocate time for students to use computers as part of class assignments! where e+uipment
is available and convenient to permit computer activities to flow seamlessly alongside other
learning tasks! and where teachers support a student-centered! constructivist pedagogy that
incorporates collaborative pro(ects defined partly by student interest! computers are becoming a
valuable and well-functioning instructional tool -&ecker! 27773.
Teachers had the unwieldy task of keeping up with new styles of learning! new program
changes and new technology. They need to prepare themselves and their students for those
changes.)chools need to aid in this preparation by addressing these changes through
professional development programs -:englingsky!11143. The study!
The 6ondition of Education8 1111! indicates that teachers do not think they are prepared to
handle some of the new demands but when there is professional development available they
feel more prepared. They also feel that with regular collaboration activities they can improve
their teaching styles. ,rofessional development according to :englinsky -11143 appears to be
tantamount to student achievement gains and if there is more elaborate training than (ust one
poorly run training day! students may even achieve higher gains.
>. )tudy
$n the literature reviewed for this study! common links for incorporating technology into the
classroom include teacher preparation! teaching instruction! and student-learning. The +uestion
of schools being ready for technology is connected to the incorporation of these areas in the
teaching students using technology. :ith that in mind! this causal comparative study has four
goals to examine8 -13 the effect of the overall classroom level computer technology use
-low<high on at-risk students class attendance and classroom gradeA -23 the effect of a teachers
computer technology use -low<high3 in the classroom on at-risk students class attendance and
classroom gradeA -?3 the effect of a teachers perception of a students computer technology use
-low<high3 in the classroom on at-risk students class attendance and classroom gradeA and ->3
the relationship between a teachers overall technology score and the at-risk students
attendance and grades.
>.1. *ethod
The Teacher Technology )urvey is used to gather information on how the teachers and his<he
students use the computers in the classroom during this time frame. The survey is developed by
Fannatta and #&annon -in press3 as a tool for ;oals 2777 ,reservice Technology $nfusion
,ro(ect. The survey instrument is designed to identify the teachers proficiency on computer
e+uipment and applications! and the fre+uency in which teachers and students use
tools<applications in the classrooms. This survey has been used numerous times with various
teacher samples and hasgenerated reliability coefficients -6ronbachs alpha3 ranging from
rG7.414@ to rG7.129@-Fannatta / #&annon! in press3.
9. )ummary and recommendations for practice
The current study results indicated the extremely low means of technology use among the
teachers. Technology training is needed for the teachers to apply technology as a tool for their
curriculum.Although technology is not a panacea for all educational ills! technology is an
essential tool for teaching -#TA! 111@3. To use technology as an effective instructional tool!
training and time is needed for teachers to infuse technology into their curriculum.
9.1. Technologyuse impacting student grades
All four research +uestions considered how technology use -low<high3 as defined by overall
use!teacher use and student use in the classroom effected at-risk students classroom grades.
$nferential statistics showed no significant affect on at-risk student grades for any of the
independentvariablesDteacher use! student use or overall technology use. Hor all the
independent variables of teacher use! student use and overall technology use! the 1st +uarter
grades are higher for high technology using teachers. &ut that trend did not continue into
second +uarter for any of the independent variables.
)ince low ;,A is a criterion for being identified at-risk at the studied school! it is logical that
these students had low grades. =owever! some of these students had no passing grades! which
is e+uivalent to a ;,A of .ero. The grade point average mean for the 99 at-risk students is
1.@2at the end of the school year 2777I2771. Any grade mean above a .ero is an improvement
for some of the identified at-risk students. 0uring the 1st +uarter mean grades for the high users
of tenology -*G1.273 are higher than the ;,A -*
G1.@23 of the previous school year. &ut! 2
nd
+uarter mean grades went down for high users
-*G1.123 and low users -*G1.?13. The overall grade mean for high use -*G1.2>3 and low use
-* G1.213 showed that the ;,A at-risk students for this year are lower than the ;,A mean of
last year. A possible explanation for this decline in grades is a greater use of technology in the
1st +uarter. The researcher informally observed that students are immersed in technology in
many of the classes8 ,ower ,oint slide shows! travel brochures! postcards and video interviews
are being created for presentations. 0uring the 2nd +uarter the classrooms slowly returned to a
more traditional style. )ome teachers! in informal discussions with the researcher! said they are
using drill and practice! word processing for writing! and $nternet for research pro(ects. :ithout
the use of technology infused in the classroom teachers would never know that with more
constructivist methods students could achieve at higher levels.
Hrom 0wyers -111>3 research on the A6#T classrooms! students use technology as a tool to
collect! organi.e! and analy.e dataA to enhance presentationsA to conduct simulations and to
solve complex problems. #ne of the changes seen over this 17-year study is the change in the
lower-achieving studentsA the ones teachers could not reach with the teacher-centered learning.
These students began to respond positively given the alternate ways of expressing their
knowledge! which not only raised their self-esteem but their status with the teachers and their
peers - )andholt. et al.11123. The at-risk students are likely to show improvement in academic
achievement when technology is used in the classroom appropriately - #TA! 11443. The
research conducted by)andholt. et al. -11123 suggests that the impact of technology on
education has the potential to change education in a beneficial way if done appropriately. The
conditions needed for appropriate use of technology to improve education are8 first! the
successful use of technology re+uires teachers to face their beliefs about learning and the
efficacy of different instructional activities. )econd! teachers view technology as one possible
tool that mustmused in the curriculum and instruction framework with meaning. Third! teachers
need to become risk takers! experiment with technology! help and share with peers. Hourth!
technology can be a catalyst for change! but the process of integrating technology is a long-term
challenge for the teachers -)andholt. et al.! 11123.$n closing on student grades and technology!
from the ten-year study conducted by 0wyer et al.-11123 on A6#T comes this statement8
55teachers also discovered that students who did not do well in a typical setting fre+uently
excelled when working with technology. %ow achievers had a chance to experience success
and began concentrating and applying themselves to their pro(ects -p. 1@3. This study supports
the findings in the present study indicating that the technology shouldbe incorporated into the
curriculum in meaningful! student-centered methods.
9.2. Technologyuse impacting student attendance
This studys four research +uestions examined the effect of the overall technology use -low<
high3! teachers computer technology use -low<high3! and students computer technology use
-low<high3 on student attendance. The relationship between the overall teacher technology
score and the at-risk students attendance is also investigated. )tudent attendance is
determined by the number of absences per +uarter and for the entire semester. The school
calendar reported that there are >@ student days in the 1st +uarter! >> student days the 2nd
+uarter! and 41 student days in the semester. All the independent variablesD teacher use!
student use! and overall technology useDshowed no significant effect on at-risk stu- dent
attendance. There are also no significant relationships found between overall teachers
technology score and at-risk students attendance and grades. Again the 1st +uarter attendance
means are lower for high technology using teachers for all the independent variables with a
range of means of ?.21I?.97 than low technology using teachers. $n the 2nd +uarter the results
reversed with a range of means of 2.>1I17.24 for the high technology using teachers. This
could be in con(unction with the use of technology in the classes during 1st +uarter where the
researcher informally observed students using ,ower ,oint! ,ublisher and multimedia software.
The present studys high school counselors identify at-risk students through grades and<or
attendance and many of these students had extremely high absenteeism. According to school
policy a student with over 17 absences is in danger of not passing the class and many of these
students exceeded that mark. Again! time is a ma(or factor in showing any changes for the at-
risk students attendance and grades in this present study. )ince this study only investigated the
impact of technology on student attendance and grades for a semester! change is not likely to
occur in such a limited time frame. Hurthermore! this school is beginning only its second year
with technology. Teachers are (ust beginning to learn how technology could be used as an
effective instructional tool. Technology use needed more time in the classroom to make any
significant changes.
:ith technology being in its infancy at this present school! few teachers are proficient enough to
use technology in meaningful and appropriate ways - &ecker! 27773. The lack of appropriate
technology use among the students might be another reason that students attendance and
grades saw no improvements. The current school schedule did not facilitate effective technology
use in the classroom. The school in this study had a @-day! seven @7 min class schedule.
Teachers must collect and return paper work and then try to assimilate various learning models
into the curriculum. The high number of absences indicates a minimal and ineffective use of
technology. This result is supported by the Texas Education Agency study -11113 that showed
that at-risk students! who may drop out! often had attendance issues as early as elementary
school. At-risk students who choose to be passively disengaged from the school setting may
show it through absenteeism. $n the analysis of the =igh )chool and &eyond database!
absenteeism is found to be the strongest predictor of dropping out of school - &ryk / Thum!
1141 3. The attendance variable is found that would separate a student from dropping out of
school and a lower achieving student who would graduate - Roderick! 111? 3. :hen a students
attendance changed in elementary school through middle school with an increase of 17 or more
days annually during those years! the student would drop out. 0wyer -111>3 found in the A6#T
research that with technology infused into the classroom!
student behavior and attendance improved after two years into his study. *eans et al. -111?3
stated that changes in student absenteeism! dropout rates! classroom interaction! and indepen-
dent learning are (ust a few changes that educators would see after teachers incorporate
technology into their curriculum. The present studys school is beginning its second year of
using technology! training is (ust being introduced to the teachers during the current year. The
changes technology could produce in students absenteeism are too early to expect.
9.?. 0eveloping a model
)ince the findings of the present study revealed that overall technology use for the teachers is
extremely low! it is encouraged that schools prepare their teachers with technology
training.&efore technology is placed in the classrooms! teachers need to receive basic training.
Afterwards! the training should be on-going and offered at different levels! such as basic!
moderate! and expert. %eaders need to find a model that will enable the school to transition into
technology with ease. $n Fannatta and #&annon -in press3 a model is developed to prepare
those who would be infusing technology. The components from the ,ro(ect ,$6T Training *odel
- Fannetta / #&annon! 2772 3 included8 -a3 shared vision where participants had a voice along
with leaders in setting goals and activities to bring about technology infusionA -b3 team
collaboration! supported each other in development and implementation of lesson plans using
technologyA -c3 one-on-one mentoring<collaboration participants went through training together!
helped each other with integrating technology into lessons plansA -d3 focused technology
training where participants are re+uired to attend a specific number of sessions with lessons on
integrating technology into les- sons! classroom management and methods of implementation
and assessment of technologyA -e3 communication of expectations is what is re+uired of the
participants along with long-term goals of technology infusion - Fannatta / #&annon! 27723.
:ith these components in place! the school and the teachers would be prepared to infuse
technology with the assurance that training! teaming and communications would be available
during the school year.
Effects of Technology on Classrooms and Students
Technology is becoming a bigger and bigger part of the world today. Technology has evolved
and become more central to teaching and learning. $ntegrating technology into the curriculum is
a priority in schools. :hen teachers first began to use computers in a classroom setting!
schools evaluate whether the use of educational technology had a significant and consistent
impact on student achievement. :hen people hear the word JtechnologyK! computers are the
first thing people think. =owever! there are many different types of technology other than
computers that can be used to improve student learning. There are different kinds of content
and serve different purposes in the classroom. )uch examples as word processing programs
that encourage communication and writing skillsA spreadsheet software promotes mathematicsA
database software promotes organi.ational skillsA modeling software enhances the application
of science skills -Csing Technology to $mprove Achievement! 11113. $t is without +uestion that
the introduction of a new medium of instruction like technology would have an enormous impact
on the traditional classroom.
Technology should be integrated as a tool to promote and extend student learning on a daily
basis. Technology use allows students to create! problem solve! research! collaborate! and
interact globally. )tudents that use technology as a tool and or a support for communicating with
others are in an active role rather than the passive role of recipient of information by a teacher
or reading textbooks. )tudents have the ability to learn and express themselves in their
individual learning style too.
:hen technology is introduced into a classroom! things change. $nstruction through computers
give students more control over their learning environments and access to a wider range of
materials to use in the learning process. Hor example! students are too confused or
embarrassed to ask +uestions because they dont want to show their ignorance but with
individuali.ed computer instruction! students can always immediately re+uest help if something
is unclear. 6omputers in classroom help to make it more interactive. They are extremely
effective with the struggling learners because they have unlimited patience. The computer can
also be used to educate the smarter students who easily get bored in a traditional classroom
since they reach their goal faster. :ith computers! students that finish a unit can go to the next
one immediately. Hor these bright students! the challenges that computers can offer encourage
self-directed learning. Also! the use of technology fosters collaboration among student.
The teachers role changes as well. Teachers often find themselves acting more as coaches
and less as lecturers. Teachers play the role of facilitator! setting pro(ect goals and spend more
time individuali.ing their instruction. As a result! students are given much more individual
attention due to the nature of some technologies.
There are many research studies validating the benefits of technology in the classrooms.
6lassrooms with the use of technology have students with positive attitudes! and a greater
inclination to learn! and an increase in student achievement too. *any different types of
technology and interactive learning process can be used to support and enhance learning8
&asic )kills $nstruction
6omputer assisted instruction to drill
*ulti-media software I teach to a variety of learning styles
Fideodiscs I strengthen basic skills
Fideo and audio technologies I bring material to life
0istance learning I at least as effective as traditional methods of instruction
All forms I develop new skills related to use of technology itself! necessary in workplace
Advanced )kills $nstruction
$nteractive educational technologies! including8
6omputer-generated simulations
Fideodiscs
$nternet
60-R#*
)tudents learn to8 organi.e complex information! recogni.e patterns! draw inferences!
communicate findings
%earn better organi.ational and problem-solving skills
Assessment of )tudent ,rogress
*ore comprehensive with multimedia
Assessments which re+uire students active participation
Electronic portfolios
)tudent *otivation
They like it better
$ncreased family involvement
$mproved teachers skills
$mproved )chool Administration and *anagement
:hen students see their teacher incorporating new technology and trying new things! they
become more engaged in the process. Technology allows students to see the whole world as a
resource with themselves being in charge of their destiny. $t also benefits students because they
have choices and opportunities to explore and share information to a greater extent than
available in a traditional classroom.
$n conclusion! technology is a versatile and valuable tool for teaching and learning and
becoming a way of life. Technology in the classroom is both beneficial to students and teachers.
$t creates new ways of obtaining and presenting information and gives students new ways of
analy.ing and understanding the world around them.
EHHE6T) #H TE6="#%#;L $"TE;RAT$#" $" M-12 )ETT$";)
A&)TRA6T
This review of literature assessed the use and effect of technology in the M-12 public school
setting. %ocal! state and federal governments annually invest billions of dollars to purchase
technologyA yet! there is s till a great deal of uncertainty and debate about the ability of
technology to improve classroom teaching and learning. )everal types of technologies are
available to enhance student learning in the classroom. Everything from audio and video
content
to handheld technologies and notebook computing has been used in classrooms! and new
:E& 2.7-based technology such as :ikis and &logs are emerging. :hile it is impossible for
any one researcher to present information for all technologies in use in public classrooms
across the Cnited )tates! the goal ofmthis review is to showmwhat is available! who is in control
of the
technology and how it can be used in the classroomto enhance the learning process. A primary
issue of concern for administrators and policy makers in determining whether or not to
implement technology is the lack of statistically significant data indicating the effectiveness of
current technologies. :hile not measured by +uantitative analyses of standardi.ed tests!
findings suggest that the positive influences of technology integration are revealed through more
+ualitative research.
Abstract
*any teachers struggle with motivating students to learn. This is especially
prevalent in social studies classrooms in which students perceive social studies
as boring -)chug! Todd! / &erry! 114>A )haughnessy / =aladyana! 114@3. This
article advocates the use of technology in social studies as a means to motivate
students by engaging students in the learning process with the use of a familiar
instructional tool that improves students self-efficacy and self-worth. The
potential that technology has to motivate students is discussed as it relates to
expectancy-value model of motivation which focuses three areas of motivational
theory -,intrich / )chunk! 111938 value -students beliefs about the importance or
value of a task3! expectancy -students beliefs about their ability or skill to perform
the task3! and affective -emotional reactions to the task and self-worth
evaluation3.

Recently! during fieldwork! the author was observing in a high school government class. The
social studies concepts discussed in the lesson were political parties! the role of campaigning!
and the impact of media on citi.ens decisions. The teacher integrated a variety of traditional
and constructivist instructional methods. )he incorporated a brief lecture! +uestioning strategies
to discuss readings! graphic organi.ers! and video clips of recent election campaign
commercials. 0espite her efforts to engage students! the class was chaotic. :hat follows is an
excerpt from the authors field notes describing the complexities of the classroom environment.
Twenty-five students are seated in pods of four. #ne girl in the back is putting on eyeliner and
eye shadow. )he fre+uently chats with two boys seated at her table. )he proceeds to mash .its.
Two girls and one boy sociali.e in the back of the class. They are more concerned about the
social complexities of the school rather than listening. =owever! periodically one will shout out a
correct answer without interrupting the flow of the social conversation. #ne girl! sitting in the
back of the class! totally isolates herself and has no verbal or nonverbal communication with her
peers or the teacher. A +uiet boy and two girls sit at a table located in the front of the class.
They do not share comments and appear to be intimidated by their peers.
A girl on the other side of the class begins to sing and continues to do so periodically throughout
the class time. Another girl gets up and walks around the room. )he is told to sit down! which
she does! and in five minutes gets up and walks around again. )he is struggling to stay in her
seat and is clearly unconcerned with the class discussion. A boy in the center of the class
covers his head with his hood! lays his head down! and goes to sleep. Two other girls at his
table are engaged in a conversation about who will be homecoming +ueen.
:hat is a teacher to do with a class like this' This is a perplexing situation! yet a common
dilemma teachers encounter. *any teachers struggle with the lack of student interest in the
content which translates into a lack of motivation to learn. This is especially prevalent in social
studies classrooms. Research indicates that students often are uninterested in social studies
because they perceive it as a boring sub(ect -)chug! Todd! / &erry! 114>A )haughnessy /
=aladyana! 114@3. )tudents tend to e+uate uninteresting with unimportantA thus! students are
not motivated to learn social studies content due to the lack of value of the content. Educators
suggest that lack of student interest in social studies is related to the instructional methods
utili.ed in disseminating information -*artorella! 11123.
This paper describes my investigation of technology integration in social studies instruction to
build an understanding of why technology is being used to teach social studies content. ;iven
the nature of social studies instruction and the need to engage students in the learning process!
$ selected motivational theory as a theoretical frame for this research.
*ethodology
A descriptive and exploratory case study -as described by Lin! 27723 was utili.ed to examine
the integration of technology for social studies instruction. This case study sought to unveil the
tacit knowledge! deconstructing student attitudes about technology and motivations for using
technology -,atton! 11173! to build an understanding of why technology is being used to teach
social studies content. Nualitative methods were employed to provide an in-depth description of
technology use in a natural setting. The purpose of this study was to interpret the phenomena
and the meanings that students brought to this setting and to describe them -0en.in / %incoln!
2777A ;lesne / ,eshkin! 1111A *arshall / Rossman! 11113.
The participant for this study was an in-service teacher. The secondary social studies teacher
taught 1th- and 17th-grade social studies classes. )he taught :orld =istory! Economic! %egal!
and ,olitical )ystems! and a tenth grade seminar that integrated the curriculum for English and
social studies. =er undergraduate degree was in early childhood education. )he later returned
to school for her second undergraduate degree of history with a minor in secondary education.
After teaching for 2 years! she obtained her masters degree in social studies education. $n
addition she has achieved recognition as the only nationally board certified social studies
teacher in her high school.
This case study is atypical because this teacher has excellent professional credentials and has
had much experience at integrating technology in social studies content. The uni+ueness of this
case study provides valuable insight into research on technology integration in the social studies
curriculum. This research addresses a recogni.ed need for examples of content specific
technology use in the social studies -*artorella! 1112A *ason! 2777-2771A *ason et al! 2777A
Fanfossen! 2771A :hite! 11113 and supports existing +ualitative research that emphasi.es the
benefit of looking at best practices in teaching -;rossman! 11173.
0ata sources for this study included interviews! observations! field notes! and artifacts! such as
technology work samples produced by the students! teacher curricula! and teacher lesson
plans. $nterviews! field notes! and classroom observations followed procedures outlined by the
work of )pradley -11473 and )chensul! )chensul! and %ecompte -11113. Hield notes were
condensed accounts of events observed in the classroom. *issing gaps in these data were
filled with data collected from teacher and student interviews.
&efore data collection and analysis began! study propositions were formulated. $n keeping with
Lins -27723 case study methodology! two propositions formed the core of the research
framework8 -a3 Technology improves students motivation to learn content and -b3 technology
augments the development of student work through providing students with organi.ational
frameworks! connecting students to resources! and supporting students creativity. The
integration of technology within the social studies provides crucial links in building content and
technological literacies.
6ollected data was linked to the propositions through comparison of common patterns -0en.in
/ %incoln! 2777A Lin! 27723! analy.ing emergent themes -)pradley! 11473! and triangulation
-0en.in / %incoln! 2777A Lin! 27723. After the data was collected! analysis of the data formed
links between the theoretical framework and the results of the case. A crosswalk of issues
showed the links between the study +uestions! data sources! data analysis! and theoretical
framework and also helped establish reliability for the study.
A 6loser %ook
To redress the initial +uestion of what a teacher is to do with these uninterested and
unmotivated students! a closer look at the case described is necessary. #nce the teacher in the
scenario described earlier finished with the classroom instruction! she assigned the students a
pro(ect of creating a ,ower,oint slide as a political campaign advertisement for their states
senatorial race. )tudents were expected to research their candidate of choice and develop an
advertisement utili.ing one of the various media strategies for which the teacher had provided
information. The teacher distributed a handout clearly identifying the types of campaign
advertisements and the expectations for the task. Then the class was off to the computer lab.
The hallway trip was no different than the classroom scenario provided! but something
happened when they entered the computer lab. )tudents immediately sat down at their
computers and promptly began their work. )tudents exuded self-confidence in their abilities! not
only to work with the technology but to master the content and successfully complete the task.
)tudents had no difficulty locating the websites for the candidates and finding the facts they
needed to construct their campaign advertisements. )tudents captured the key political stances
of each candidate. They also demonstrated an understanding of the various campaign
strategies. $n addition to understanding the content! students designed graphically appealing
and interactive campaign ads using ,ower,oint. )everal students knew about the intricacies of
the software program and tutored others on how to complete the desired special effects.
)tudents were collaborated and exchanged ideas. )tudents eagerly shared their work and ideas
with their peers.
)tudents were excited about learning and displayed pride in the ,ower,oint slides they created.
The slides included sound bytes! video clips! pictures! text! and animation. The product
outcomes were impressive! but what was even more impressive was the level of engagement.
All students actively created their products! learning about the candidates and the types of
campaign advertisements that are utili.ed in politics. $t was an ama.ing transformation. The
same students who were described earlier were now focused and on task. "ot only were they
actively involved in their pro(ect! they were learning social studies.
)tudents en(oyed working on the pro(ect with technology because they viewed technology as
more engaging and entertaining. All students reported en(oyment in the task because
technology made their work easier and more fun to do. #ne student commented! J$ like using
computers! the $nternet! and ,ower,oint because it is fun! fresh! and invigorating.K *any
students identified that technology made it possible for them to complete their work more +uickly
and efficiently. #ne of the most common reasons for en(oyment in the task was that computer
use made students work neater! enabled them to add nice graphics! and made the overall
presentations look professional. These feelings were captured in this students statement8 J$ like
using technology to do my work because you can do more with technology. Lou can make a
really cool presentation that wouldnt be possible without the technology.K
Additionally! students reported that using technology enabled them to find more information and
helped them understand what they were talking about in class. A student commented! J$ like
using computers to do school work! because it helps me get my thoughts out better.K Another
student replied! J$ like using computers because its easy to find lots of information about the
stuff we are discussing in class.K
#ne final point made by students was that working with computers gave them the opportunity to
refine their technology skills. )tudents identified that they felt confident in their ability to use
technology and liked having the opportunity to complete tasks that allowed them to work with
skills they already possessed. At the same time! students felt that the task was challenging and
re+uired them to take their skills to the next level.
#bservations
Technology offers many benefits to enhance education. *ost importantly! technology integration
has the potential to increase student motivation -Anderson! 27773. The case described presents
three elements of how technology positively impacts student motivation. These factors are
based upon expectancy-value model of motivation -,intrich / )chunk! 11193. Csing technology
changes the nature of the task! increases student self-efficacy! and improves student self-worth.
Hirst! task-value motivational theory addresses the +uestion! J:hy do $ approach the task'K $n
the case presented! students were actively involved in the pro(ect because they were working
with technology. )tudents felt confident in their ability to accomplish the task due to their
familiarity with the technology. The focus of the task shifted from social studies content to
technology use. )ince students were self-confident in their technology skills! they eagerly
approached the task. )tudents were excited about the opportunity to test their skills and viewed
the task as challenging and engaging. This was in contrast to the traditional classroom
environment! where students avoided the task either because it was boring or because they
believed that they lacked the skills necessary to be success in this environment.
Technology empowers students by engaging students in the learning process. The nature of the
task shifts from teacher centered to student centered. ;iven the flexibility of technology to
diversify tasks! the activity was designed to build upon students prior knowledge and to address
student interests. Research indicates that challenging and engaging academic tasks that build
upon students prior knowledge and enable students to construct their own understanding of the
content are more apt to enhance student motivation and increase student self-confidence in
their cognitive abilities -&rophy! 114?A *eece! 1111A *iller / *eece! 11113.
Additionally! the use of technology improves student interest due to students familiarity with the
technology. $ncreased en(oyment in learning is related to students natural affinity for computer-
based instructionA conse+uently! social studies can become a more attractive sub(ect when
computers and the $nternet are included as teaching tools -6assutto! 2777! pp. 177-1713.
Research touts technology use in social studies as a purposeful method of instruction to best
meet the needs of students and to promote student interest in the task -&erson! 1119A
*artorella! 1112A :hite! 11113.
)econd! expectancy motivational theory addresses the +uestion J6an $ use this technology or
am $ capable of accomplishing this task'K As identified in the case! students displayed more
self-confidence in the computer than in the traditional classroom setting. )tudents possessed
the skills necessary to successfully accomplish the assignment. They felt comfortable in the
secure environment that the computer lab offered. This nurturing learning environment enabled
students to accomplish more with technology than they could without it. )tudents were able to
generate attractive! creative! and content rich ,ower,oint slides. )tudents took pride in their
creations and eagerly shared their work with their peers.
According to Ames -11173 technology has the potential to increase student motivation by
increasing student self-efficacy. This was evidenced in a research study of the impact of
technology use on high school student learning conducted by Rochowic. -11193. 0ata identified
that using computers increases students self-efficacyA conse+uently! students develop a more
positive attitude toward learning. Rochowic. concluded that computers make learning more
relevant! meaningful! and en(oyableA conse+uently! academic frustration declines. )tudents
experience a greater en(oyment from learning content because they are confident in their ability
to accomplish the task when using technology.
Additionally! technology enables students to accomplish more than they could without the use of
technology. Technology affords students opportunities to access information and resources to
create products far beyond their perceived capabilities. Research identifies the benefits of
technology integration as the technical aspects to enhance the +uality of work! promote access
to resources! positively impact student learning! and promote student metacognitive skills
-=eafner / *c6oy! 2771A )cheidet! 277?3. :ith the improved output! students take pride in the
products they create! which increases their self-efficacy. This self-efficacy can have a positive
impact on overall student motivation. As &rophy -114?3 contended! student motivation improves
with students increased self-confidence in their abilities to complete the academic task.
Third! self-worth and affective motivational theory addresses the +uestion! J=ow do my feelings
about myself affect whether or not $ will attempt or avoid this task'K Csing technology enabled
these students to feel more self-confident in completing the assignment due to their familiarity
with technology. $nitially! the focus of learning shifted from social studies content to technology.
Technology integration camouflaged the learning process by drawing students into a fun activity
that relied on familiar technical skills. #nce students engaged in the task their attention shifted
to the content. :ith the integration of a familiar learning tool! students approached social
studies content that they had avoided in the traditional classroom setting. )tudents eagerly
approached the task when they were able to use an instructional tool with which they had the
knowledge! skill! and confidence in using. Hamiliarity with the technology also increases
students belief in their ability to accomplish the taskA conse+uently! students are more willing to
take risks and approach challenging tasks. This supports self-worth theory that students
perceptions of worthiness are e+uated with ability -6ovington! 2777A *idgley et al.! 11193.
Typical instructional approaches utili.ed in social studies classes emphasi.e ability-related
activities such as memori.ation and rote learning -*artorella! 11123. $n contrast! technology
facilitates the development of decision-making and problem-solving! data-processing! and
communication skills -"ational 6ouncil for the )ocial )tudies! 111>3. $nstruction that builds upon
these higher order tasks generates a collaborative learning environment that promotes self-
worth and enables students to overcome task-avoidance -6ovington! 114>3. Csing technology
to complete assignments changes the learning environment to focus on mastery learning while
promoting cooperative learning. 6lass is less structured and diminishes traditional views of
competition as a means to motivate.
:ithin this nurturing environment! students are able to rely comfortably on their peers to assist
with technical difficulties without fear of social embarrassment. )tudents avoid feelings of
worthlessness and social disapproval that accompany competitive learning environments
-,intrich / )chunk! 11193. As presented in the case! increased peer communication and
collaboration were positive outcomes of technology integration. )tudents felt secure in sharing
their knowledge and skills with their peers in the noncompetitive computer lab environment. This
behavior contrasted with behaviors exuded in the traditional classroom! where students avoided
tasks and engagement with their peers.
6autions
0espite the recogni.ed positive benefits of technology integration on improving student learning
as identified in this case study! caution is advised. *uch research exists that challenges the use
of technology as positively affecting student learning. The hesitancy of many schools and
teachers to openly embrace technology is! in part! related to their concern about the negative
effects of technology on students and the educational process. Research recogni.es various
negative outcomes of technology use as social isolation! all information is JgoodK misperception!
information overload! and the time consuming nature of technology -6lark! 111>A 6ornelius /
&oss! 277?A =eafner / *c6oy! 2771A )cott / #)ullivan! 2777A )alomon! 11123. These
tradeoffs of technology can be a detriment to student learning.
This article does not contend that technology is the only method for instruction nor it is the only
means of motivating students to learn social studies. Technology alone is insufficient to ensure
effective social studies education -)taley! 27773. =owever! effective technology integration
offers opportunities to enhance social studies instruction and to increase student motivation
while preparing students with the knowledge! skills! and values necessary to become good
citi.ens! which are the fundamental goals of the social studies.
Recommendations
:hen planning for instruction! social studies teachers need to strongly consider what motivates
students to learn. Too often teachers sacrifice student interest for content coverage. $n a high
stakes testing environment! social studies teachers are entrenched in methods that rely heavily
on lecture and discussion. This teacher-centered classroom structure does not offer much
opportunity for motivating students to take an interest in social studies content. )tudents have
no motivation to learn social studies beyond the common (ustification of Jit will be on the test.K
This lack of student interest inhibits student development of metacognitive skills! which greatly
impacts student achievement.
To develop a more nurturing and engaging learning environment that promotes cognitive
growth! social studies teachers need to incorporate instructional practices that are student
centered. &y focusing on students! teachers are able to encourage student interest! which
translates into increased student motivation to learn. This article advocates the use of
technology as a means to motivate students by engaging students in the learning process with
the use of a familiar instructional tool that improves students self-efficacy and self-worth. $f
teachers build students self-confidence! then students will more likely en(oy learning! which can
greatly impact student achievement.
Additionally! teachers should take into consideration that students are individuals and may
accomplish the same task for many reasons. 6onse+uently! social studies teachers should
incorporate various instructional methods that provide students with diverse! engaging! and
challenging tasks to meet the needs of all students. This is what technology affords educators
and why technology has the potential to impact student motivation positively and! subse+uently!
student learning. The potential that technology offers to positively affect student achievement is
sufficient reason to integrate technology as a means to motivate students to learn social studies.
6hange in )tudent and Teacher Roles
:hen students are using technology as a tool or a support for communicating with others! they
are in an active role rather than the passive role of recipient of information transmitted by a
teacher! textbook! or broadcast. The student is actively making choices about how to generate!
obtain! manipulate! or display information. Technology use allows many more students to be
actively thinking about information! making choices! and executing skills than is typical in
teacher-led lessons. *oreover! when technology is used as a tool to support students in
performing authentic tasks! the students are in the position of defining their goals! making
design decisions! and evaluating their progress.
The teacherOs role changes as well. The teacher is no longer the center of attention as the
dispenser of information! but rather plays the role of facilitator! setting pro(ect goals and
providing guidelines and resources! moving from student to student or group to group! providing
suggestions and support for student activity. As students work on their technology-supported
products! the teacher rotates through the room! looking over shoulders! asking about the
reasons for various design choices! and suggesting resources that might be used. -)ee
example of teacher as coach.3
,ro(ect-based work -such as the 6ity &uilding ,ro(ect and the )tudent-Run *anufacturing
6ompany3 and cooperative learning approaches prompt this change in roles! whether
technology is used or not. =owever! tool uses of technology are highly compatible with this new
teacher role! since they stimulate so much active mental work on the part of students. *oreover!
when the venue for work is technology! the teacher often finds him or herself (oined by many
peer coaches--students who are technology savvy and eager to share their knowledge with
others.
$ncreased *otivation and )elf Esteem
The most common--and in fact! nearly universal--teacher-reported effect on students was an
increase in motivation. Teachers and students are sometimes surprised at the level of
technology-based accomplishment displayed by students who have shown much less initiative
or facility with more conventional academic tasks8
The kids that don't necessarily star can become the stars. Pwith technologyQ. My favorite is this
boy . . . who had major problems at home. He figured out a way to make music by getting the
computer to play certain letters by certain powers and it changed the musical tone of the note
and he actually wrote a piece. He stayed in every recess. . . . When I asked him what he was
working on he wouldn't tell me. Then he asked if he could put his Hyper!ard stack on my
computer because it was hooked up to speakers. I said "sure" and at recess. . . he put it on my
computer and played his music and literally stopped the room. #nd for months he had kids
begging him at recess every recess to teach them how to make music. #nd for that particular
kid it was the world because he really was not successful academically and was having lots of
problems. . . . This really changed him for that school year. -Elementary school teacher
Teachers talked about motivation from a number of different perspectives. )ome mentioned
motivation with respect to working in a specific sub(ect area! for example! a greater willingness
to write or to work on computational skills. #thers spoke in terms of more general motivational
effects--student satisfaction with the immediate feedback provided by the computer and the
sense of accomplishment and power gained in working with technology8
$ids like the immediate results. It's not a result that you can get anywhere else e%cept on the
computer. . . . &or them it really is a big deal. Much more so than I ever though it was going to
be. --Elementary school teacher
Technology is the ultimate carrot for students. It's something they want to master. 'earning to
use it enhances their self(esteem and makes them e%cited about coming to school. --Hifth grade
teacher
The computer has been an empowering tool to the students. They have a voice and it's not in
any way secondary to anybody else's voice. It's an e)ual voice. *o that's incredibly positive.
Motivation to use technology is very high. --Elementary school teacher
$n many of these classes! students choose to work on their technology-based pro(ects during
recess or lunch periods. Teachers also fre+uently cite technologyOs motivational advantages in
providing a venue in which a wider range of students can excel. 6ompared to conventional
classrooms with their stress on verbal knowledge and multiple-choice test performance!
technology provides a very different set of challenges and different ways in which students can
demonstrate what they understand -e.g.! by programming a simulation to demonstrate a
concept rather than trying to explain it verbally3.
A related technology effect stressed by many teachers was enhancement of student self
esteem. &oth the increased competence they feel after mastering technology-based tasks and
their awareness of the value placed upon technology within our culture! led to increases in
studentsO -and often teachersO3 sense of self worth.
I see more confidence in the kids here. . . . I think it's not just computers it's a multitude of
things but they can do things on the computers that most of their parents can't do and that's
very empowering and e%citing for them. It's "I can sit down and make this machine pretty much
do what I want to" and there's something about that that gives them an e%tra little boost of
"Wow I'm a pretty special person." --Elementary school teacher
)tudents clearly take pride in being able to use the same computer-based tools employed by
professionals. As one teacher expressed it! R)tudents gain a sense of empowerment from
learning to control the computer and to use it in ways they associate with the real world.R
Technology is valued within our culture. $t is something that costs money and that bestows the
power to add value. &y giving students technology tools! we are implicitly giving weight to their
school activities. )tudents are very sensitive to this message that they! and their work! are
important.
The technology package provided the means by which teachers brought computers to every
class session! which helped situate the learning within an authentic context of technology
integration. Teachers participated within small groups that fostered social interaction and
dialogue and were provided with rigorous and complex tasks re+uiring the use of their
computers and the $nternet! thus advancing their understanding as they negotiated new
meanings within each new situation. )uch activities provided a model for what they were
expected to then implement in their own classroom. The R)T? professional development model
included four strands8 teaching-as-research! technology integration strategies! lesson content
development! and assessment
development. A discussion of each strand follows.
TEA6=$";-A)-RE)EAR6=
Teaching-as-research is the systematic use of research methods to develop and implement
teaching practices that advance the learning experiences and learning outcomes of students
and teachers -*athieu! 27773. $t involves developing foundational knowledge! then creating
goals for better student learning! defining measures of success! developing and implementing
best practice methods! collecting and analy.ing data! and making data-based teaching
decisions in harmony with selected goals. A critical feature of the R)T? model was to work
together with teachers in some of the research activities as a model for how they might! on an
ongoing basis! examine their own practice and determine the effectiveness of any new
classroom interventions or teaching strategies they might implement by applying data collection
and analysis strategies. The essence of situated learning is when experts and novices work
together for a common product or goal within an authentic context. This shared productive
activity developed by the 6enter for Research on Education! 0iversity / Excellence -Tharp!
Estrada! 0alton! / Lamauchi! 27773. :e included the teachers in several decision-making
conversations relative to our research direction for this pro(ect. :e also provided them with
opportunities to apply research techni+ues in their own practice and bring results back to share
with the group.
TE6="#%#;L $"TE;RAT$#" )TRATE;$E)
A significant block of instructional time was spent on demonstrating! discussing! and engaging
in the various levels of technology integration ranging from what we defined as low interactivity
such as using the :eb as a source of reading material or using computers for word processing!
to high interactivity! such as providing students with a more user-controlled interactive and
creative experience including the use of interactive software or :eb sites with dynamic content.
Teachers were provided with :eb sites and software showing examples of interactive
technology with varying degrees of interactivity that they explored and evaluated. )pecial
emphasis was devoted to exploring high interactivity :eb sites that re+uired students to enter
values for variables that resulted in changing outcomes that could serve as a data source for
later analysis.
0uring each session! teachers would share new technology integration ideas and resources
they had located during the time between sessions.
%E))#" 0EFE%#,*E"T
%esson development was accomplished by teams of teachers from at least three schools in
order to maximi.e the number of school settings across which data on the same lesson could
be collected! and to capitali.e on the potential power of social interaction among the teachers
-Fygotsky! 11243. Topics for the lessons were selected by the teachers from their regular
curriculum. Twenty-two lessons were developed by the teacher teams. 6ontent for each lesson
was reviewed by teacher peer groups and university educators for rigor! accuracy! and
alignment with state and district science standards. The lessons were then made available
online so that individual teachers could select and download the two lessons they would teach
during the year of our study. &ased on the technology instruction provided during the course!
teachers designed an integrated technology component for each lesson. Teachers had full
control over the type and the content of the technology component! with the only parameter
being that the technology component must function as a tool for teaching and learning the
science content and not for the technology to bethe content.
A))E))*E"T 0EFE%#,*E"T
Teachers were also provided with assessment training including test item development and test
blueprint design that would be used for the end-of-lesson test. The test blueprints specified that
each numbered item was to be of a specific type drawn from the cognitive and science content
domains. The levels for the cognitive domain items were patterned after the specifications for
the Trends in $nternational *ath and )cience )tudy assessment -T$*))! 277?3 and included
items for factual recall! conceptual understanding! and analysis<synthesis. $n addition! three
types of +uestions were developedDtrue<false! short answer! multiple choice. A final scenario
+uestion re+uiring problem solving skills including analysis and synthesis of science concepts
was also developed. Teacher teams then used this test blueprint on their own to develop end-
of-lesson tests for every lesson. )o! while the content of each test varied by lesson! the format
for the all tests was standardi.ed by using the blueprint. Hor example! item S2 on the blueprint
was to be a multiple choice item -type3 that tested conceptual understanding -cognitive domain
level3 of a given concept from the content domain. Tests were peer-reviewed for accuracy and
alignment with the test blueprint by groups of teachers during one of our class sessions.