Introduction To Networking

1.
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING
Definition:-
A network is a system that transmits any combination of voice, video and/or data between
users. A network can be defined by its geographical dimensions and by which the users
PC access it.
A network consists of a:
he network operating system (!indows "/#$$$
%
/&p' on the users PC
(client' and server.
he ca!es connecting all network devices (users PC, server, peripherals, etc.'.
All supporting network components (hubs, routers and switches, etc.'.
Comp"ter Network means an interconnecte# co!!ection o$ a"tonomo"s comp"ters.
Re%"irement o$ Networking
Reso"rce s&aring) o make all programs, e*uipment, and especially data available to
anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of the resource and the
user.
'ig& re!iai!ity) As all files could be replicated on two or three machines, so if one of
them is unavailable (due to hardware failure', the other copies could be used.
(ca!ai!ity) +t is the ability to increase system performance gradually as the workload
grows ,ust by adding more processors.
Summer Training Report On Computer Networking
A computer network can provide a powerful comm"nication me#i"m along widely
separated employees.
he use of networks to enhance human)to)human communication will probably prove
more important than technical goals such as improved reliability.
hese are the re*uirement with respect to companies but computer networking is re*uired
even in the normal day to day life as we have to access the internet to get information
about what all new happening in the world, to have communication with people staying
far away using the e mail service.
hese are the reasons that forced the inventories to invent the networking devices, models
and protocols etc.
And the birth of "etworking took place in -.// when for the first time 0amuel %orse
send the first telegraph message.
2. Types of Network
)*N ()OC*) *RE* NETWORK+
hese are privately owned networks within a single building or campus of up to a few a
kilometers in si1e.
2A"s are distinguished from other networks by three characteristics:
-' heir si1e.
#' heir transmission technology.
3' heir topology.
2A"s are restricted in si1e, which means that the worst)case transmission time is
bounded and known in advance.
2A"s often use a transmission technology consisting of a single cable to which all the
machines are attached.
2A"s run at speeds of -$ to -$$ %bps, have low delays, and make very few errors.
)*N (ETU,
IEEE has produced several standards for 2A"s. hese standards collectively known as
IEEE -./ .
+444.$#.3 (4thernet', +444.$#./ (oken 5us', +444.$#.6 (oken 7ing'
WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK)
+t is a Computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area, often a country
or continent. ypically a !A" consists of two or more 2ocal Area "etwork.
Computers connected to !A" are often connected through public networks such as
telephone systems. hey can also be connected through leased lines or satellites. he
largest !A" in e8istence is +nternet.
!A"s run at speed of ma8imum # to -$ %bps.
WAN SETUP
9or most !A"s, the long distance bandwidth is relatively slow: on the order of kilobits
per second
(kbps' as opposed to megabits per second (%bps' for
local)area networks (2A"s'. 9or e8ample, an 4thernet 2A" has a -$ %bps bandwidth: a
!A" using part or all of a - carrier has a bandwidth of -.6// %bps .
hree types of approaches are used to connect !A"s:
-' Circuit switching, which provides a fi8ed connection (at least for the duration of a call
or session', so that each packet takes the same path. 48amples of this approach include
+0;", 0witched 6<, and 0witched -.
#' Packet switching, which establishes connections during the transmission
process so that different packets from the same transmission may take different routes
and may arrive out of se*uence at the destination. 48amples
of this approach are &.#6, frame relay, and A%.
3' 2eased lines, which can provide a dedicated connection for private use
0 NETWORK 1ODE)(
)ayering Concepts an# 2ene$its
%any benefits can be gained from the process of breaking up the functions or tasks of
networking into smaller chunks, called layers, and defining standard interfaces between
these layers. he layers break a large, comple8 set of concepts and protocols into smaller
pieces, making it easier to talk about, to implement with hardware and software, and to
troubleshoot.
he following list summari1es the benefits of layered protocol 0pecifications:
=umans can more easily discuss and learn about the many details of a protocol
specification.
0tandardi1ed interfaces among layers facilitate modular engineering.
A better environment for interoperability is created. >ne vendor can write software that
implements higher layers?for e8ample, a !eb browser?and another can write software
that implements the lower layers?for e8ample, %icrosofts built)in CP/+P software in
its operating systems.
7educed comple8ity allows easier program changes and faster product evolution.
>ne layer uses the services of the layer immediately below it. herefore, remembering
what each layer does is easier. (9or e8ample, the network layer needs to deliver data from
end to end. o do this, it uses data links to forward data to the ne8t successive device
along that end)to)end path.'

/ O(I NETWORK 1ODE)
he >0+ model describes how information makes its way from application programs
through a network medium to another application program in other computer. +t divides
one big problem in to seven smaller problems . 4ach problem is addressed by one of the
seven layers of the >0+ model.
3"nctions o$ Network )ayers in 2rie$4
*,,)IC*TION )*5ER
@sed for applications specifically written to run over the network
Allows access to network services that support applications:
;irectly represents the services that directly support user applications
=andles network access, flow control and error recovery
48ample apps are file transfer, e)mail, "et 5+>0)based applications

,RE(ENT*TION )*5ER

ranslates from application to network format and vice)versa
All different formats from all sources are made into a common uniform format
that the rest of the >0+ model can understand
7esponsible for protocol conversion, character conversion, data encryption /
decryption, e8panding graphics commands, data compression
0ets standards for different systems to provide seamless communication from
multiple protocol stacks
"ot always implemented in a network protocol
(E((ION )*5ER
4stablishes, maintains and ends sessions across the network
7esponsible for name recognition (identification' so only the designated parties
can participate in the session
Provides synchroni1ation services by planning check points in the data stream AB
if session fails, only data after the most recent checkpoint need be transmitted
%anages who can transmit data at a certain time and for how long
48amples are interactive login and file transfer connections, the session would
connect and re)connect if there was an interruption: recogni1e names in sessions
and register names in history
TR*N(,ORT )*5ER
Additional connection below the session layer
%anages the flow control of data between parties across the network
;ivides streams of data into chunks or packets: the transport layer of the receiving
computer reassembles the message from packets
CrainC is a good analogy AB the data is divided into identical units
Provides error)checking to guarantee error)free data delivery, with on losses or
duplications
Provides acknowledgment of successful transmissions: re*uests retransmission if
some packets dont arrive error)free
Provides flow control and error)handling
CP, A7P, 7A7P:
NETWORK )*5ER
ranslates logical network address and names to their physical address (e.g.
computer name AAB %AC address'
7esponsible for addressing and determining routes for sending
%anaging network problems such as packet switching, data congestion and
routing
+f router cant send data frame as large as the source computer sends, the network
layer compensates by breaking the data into smaller units. At the receiving end,
the network layer reassembles the data
hink of this layer stamping the addresses on each train car
I,: A7P: 7A7P, +C%P: 7+P: >09P:
D*T* )INK )*5ER
urns packets into raw bits -$$-$- and at the receiving end turns bits into
packets.
=andles data frames between the "etwork and Physical layers
he receiving end packages raw data from the Physical layer into data frames for
delivery to the "etwork layer
7esponsible for error)free transfer of frames to other computer via the Physical
2ayer
his layer defines the methods used to transmit and receive data on the network.
+t consists of the wiring, the devices use to connect the "+C to the wiring, the
signaling involved to transmit / receive data and the ability to detect signaling
errors on the network media
)ogica! )ink Contro!
4rror correction and flow control
%anages link control and defines 0APs
,'5(IC*) )*5ER
ransmits raw bit stream over physical cable
;efines cables, cards, and physical aspects
;efines "+C attachments to hardware, how cable is attached to "+C
;efines techni*ues to transfer bit stream to cable
5 IP ADDRESSING
INTRODUCTION
4very machine on the internet has a uni*ue identifying number, called an +P
Address. A typical: +P address looks like this:
#-<.#D.<-./6
I, *DDRE(( is a 3#)bit number, usually written in dotted decimal form, that uni*uely
identifies an interface of some computer. his 3#)bit number is divided into / octets each
separated by a decimal. >ut so many values certain values are restricted for use as typical
+P address. 9or e8ample, the +P address $.$.$.$ is reserved for the default network and the
address #66.#66.#66.#66is used for broadcast.
4ach +P address is split into # sections:
-' "etwork address
#' =ost address
+ndividual +P address in same network all have a different value in the host part of
address, but they have identical value in network part, ,ust as in town there are different
street address but same E+P code.
here are five +P classes:
C!ass * F his class is for very large networks, such as a ma,or international company.
+P addresses with a first octet from - to -#< are part of this class. he other three octets
are each used to identify each host.
"et =ost or "ode
6/. #/.6/./3
)oopack) he +P address -#D.$.$.- is used as the loopback address. his means that it
is used by the host computer to send a message back to itself. +t is commonly used for
troubleshooting and network testing.
C!ass 2) Class 5 is used for medium)si1ed networks. A good e8ample is a large college
campus. +P addresses with a first octet from -#. to-G- are part of this class. Class 5
addresses also include the second octet as part of the "et identifier. he other two octets
are used to identify each host.

"et =ost or "ode
-/6.#/ 63.-G.
C!ass C) Class C addresses are commonly used for small to mid)si1e business. +P
addresses with a first octet from-G# to ##3 are part of this class. Class C addresses also
include the second and third octets as part of "et identifier. he last octet is used to
identify each host.
"et =ost or "ode
-G<.6/.3/ .<
C!ass D) +t is used for multicast. +t has first bit value of -, second bit value of -, third bit
value of - and fourth bit value of $. he other #. bits are used to identify the group of
computers the multicast messages is intended for.
"et =ost or "ode
##/ #/.6/.-/6
C!ass E) +t is used for e8perimental purpose only.
"et =ost or "ode
#/$. #3./6.-$6

,ri6ate I,
+t is not necessary that every time we make a network we are connected to some +0P
(+nternet 0ervice Provider'. 0o in that case we re*uire some private +P also which can be
used in indigenous networks .+n each class a range of +P addresses have been defined for
this purpose
C2A00 A -$.$.$.- to -$.#66.#66.#//
C2A00 5 -D#.-<.$.- to -D#.3/.#66.#6/
C2A00 C -G#.-<..$.
1*(KING
Computers use a mask to define si1e of network and host part of an address. %ask is a
3#)bit number written in dotted decimal form. +t provides us the network address when
we perform a 5oolean A"; of mask with the +P address. +t also define number of host
bits in an address.

Class of
address
0i1e of
network
Part of
address,
in bits
0i1e of
=ost
Part of
address,
in bits
;efault %ask
for 4ach Class
of "etwork
*
. #/ #66.$.$.$
2
-< -< #66.#66.$.$
C #/ . #66.#66.#66.$

(U2NETTING
5asically it is a process of subdividing networks into smaller subnets.
+n case we have #)3 small networks but we cant buy +P address for each and every
network. 0o here we use the basic concept of 0@5"4+"H i.e. using one public +P
address we will give them +P address and make them independent networks. 9or this we
take some bits of host address and use them for network address so we have different
independent networks
Address 9ormat when 0ub netting +s @sed (class A,5,C resp.':
. #/)8 8
"etwork 0ubnet =ost
-< -<)8 8
"etwork 0ubnet =ost
#/ .)8 8
"etwork 0ubnet =ost
And due to this mask changes to subnet mask and now the network address also includes
subnet address.
E7amp!e
+f subnet mask is #66.#66.#/$.$
And an +P address for a computer is given as -/#.-<.6#./
-/#.-<.$.$ is network address
$.$./..$ is the subnet address
$.$././ is the host address of the computer
-$$$---$.$$$-$$$$.$$--$-$$.$$$$$-$$ is A";ed with
--------.--------.----$$$$.$$$$$$$$
and output is -$$$---$.$$$-$$$$.$$--$$$$.$$$$$$$$
here first two octets represents "etwork address and third octet represents subnet address.
+t can be compared with a postal address as there is only one E+P code ("etwork
address', different streets (0ubnet address', and different house number (=ost address'.
(ome termino!ogies t&ose are "se# wit& Networking mo#e!s4
Co!!ision Domain8 +t is the group of PCs in which collision will occur when two PC will
transmit data simultaneously.
2roa#cast Domain8 +t is the group of PCs those will receive same broadcast message.
C(1*9CD (Carrier (ense 1"!tip!e *ccess9 Co!!ision Detection+8 +n this protocol
when a PC wants to transmit any packet it sense the carrier i.e. the path ,if no other PC is
using the carrier then only it sends. +f two PCs start sending data simultaneously collision
will occur. 5oth PCs will wait for some random time and then initiate the same process.
1*C (%edia Access Control' . he +444 .$#.3 (4thernet' and .$#.6
(oken 7ing' are the %AC sub layers of these two 2A" data)link protocols.
2"rne#8in a##ress4 he <)byte address assigned by the vendor making
the card. +t is usually burned in to a 7>% or 44P7>% on the 2A" card and begins with
a 3)byte organi1ationally uni*ue identifier (>@+' assigned by
the +444.
)oca!!y a#ministere# a##ress4 hrough configuration, an address that is used instead of
the burned)in address.
Unicast a##ress4 9ancy term for a %AC that represents a single 2A"
+nterface.
4 NETWORKING DEVICES
"etworking devices do various kind of ,obs like transferring the data to signals, providing
connectivity to different network devices, transferring the data in form of packets or
frames form one device to other. hese are the central connections for all the network
e*uipments and handle a data type known as frame or packet. Actually frames/ packet
contain data and the destination address of where it is going. !hen a frame is received, it
is amplified and then transmitted on to port of destination PC. 5ut different networking
components do this ,ob in diff form at diff layers.
NETWORK INTER3*CE C*RD
A "etwork +nterface Card ("+C' is a circuit board that plugs into both clients and servers
and controls the e8change of data between them (A specific software IdriverJ must be
installed depending on the make of the "+C. A physical transmission medium, such as
twisted pair or coa8ial cable interconnects all network interface cards to network hubs or
switches. 4thernet and oken 7ing are common network interface cards. odays cards
supports -$base and -$$base with automatic recognition.
'U2
!hen the need for interconnecting more then # devices together then a device known as
hub comes to picture. 5asically hub is a layer one device. i.e. it operates on the physical
layer of the >0+ model. +t is designed to do broadcasting i.e when it gets any frame it
broadcasts it to every port irrespective that whether it is destined for that port or not. =ub
has no way of distinguishing which port a frame should be sent. 5roadcasting results in
lot of traffic on the network which lead to poor network response. +f two PC
simultaneously transmit there data packets and both are connected to a =@5, then
collision will occur, so we can say, it creates a single collision domain. >n the other hand
all PCs connected to a hub will get a same message so a single broadcast domain will be
created.
A -$$/-$$$ %bps hub must share its bandwidth with each and every one of its ports. 0o
when only one PC is broadcasting, it will have access to the ma8 available bandwidth. +f,
however, multiple PCs are broadcasting, then that bandwidth will need to be divided
between all of these systems, which will degrade the performance. hey are usually =alf)
;uple8 in nature.
(WITC'
=ubs are capable of ,oining more than two PC but having some demerits like if two PC
would want to communicate at a time then there would be a collision and the both PC
would have to send the data once again. his shortcoming of =ub is overcame by
0witches. 0witches are intelligent devices which work on the 2ayer# of the >0+ model.
5asically a switch keeps a record of %AC addresses of all the devices connected to it.
@sing this information, it builds a %AC address table. 0o when a frame is received, it
knows e8actly which port to send it to, which increases the network response time.
5asic !orking Principle of 0witch.
-. At the time of initiali1ing the switch the %AC address table is yet to be built up.
!hen a frame is send by some of the PC, it recognises the source %AC address
and update the %AC address table.
#. +f the destination is available in the %AC table then forward to the corresponding
PC.
3. +f the destination %AC address is not present in the table then forwards in all the
port available e8pect the incoming one. he designated PC will respond for the
data and it will send the acknowledge for the data received. his acknowledged
data will be e8amined by the switch and the %AC address table would be up
dated accordingly.

+f two PC simultaneously transmit there data packets and both are connected to a
0!+C=, then collision will not occur, so we can say, it creates a multiple collision
domain.
he switch supports broadcast. =ence we can call switches create single broadcast
domain and multiple collision domains.
A -$$/-$$$%bps switch will allocate a full -$$/-$$$ %bps to each of its ports. 0o
regardless of the no of PCs transmitting user will always have access to ma8 amt of
bandwidth. hey are usually 9ull);uple8 in nature.
ROUTER
0witch and the =ub can only interconnect devices in a single 2A". 9or interconnecting
two 2A" or two or more different networks anther device known as router is used. +ts
main ,ob is to route ( sends ' packets to other networks and to do the routing
( establishing paths between networks ' it uses the +P address. A router is typically
connected to at least two networks, commonly two 2A"s or !A"s or a 2A" and its
+0Ps network. 7outers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks
connect. 7outers to determine the best path for forwarding the packet are using
forwarding tables.
+t is a layer 3 device i.e it operates at network layer of >0+ model. he working principle
of the router is totally different from a switch. 7outer makes a table known as ro"ting
ta!e: which contains all the +P address in the network, the information for +P address
router obtains directly ( all configured +P address on it ' or indirectly ( from neighbour
routers '. !hen a packet is received it compares the destination +P address of the packet
with the available +P addresses in its 7outing table. +f the +P address is not available in
the routing table then it simply discard the packet instead of flooding in all the ports like
a switch.(;etailed +nformation about router in chap '
Comparison etween '": 2ri#ge: (witc& ; Ro"ter
Feature Hu !r"#$e Sw"t%& Router
Nu'er of
roa#%ast
#o'a"(s Segment 1 1
1 per
router
interface
Nu'er of
%o))"s"o(
#o'a"(s 1
1 per
bridge
port
1 per switch
port
1 per
router
interface
Forwar#s *AN
roa#%asts+ 1 Yes Yes No
Forwar#s *AN
'u)t"%asts N/A Yes
Yes; can be
optimized for
less
forwarding No
OSI )ayer use#
w&e( 'ak"($
forwar#"($
#e%"s"o( N/A Laer 2 Laer 2 Laer !
I(ter(a)
pro%ess"($
,ar"a(ts N/A
Store"
and"
forward
Store"and"
forward# cut"
through#
$ragment$re
e
Store"
and"
forward
Fra'e-pa%ket
fra$'e(tat"o(
a))owe#+ N/A No No Yes
.u)t"p)e
%o(%urre(t
e/ua)0%ost pat&s
to sa'e
#est"(at"o(
a))owe#+ N/A No No Yes
< ROUTER
ROUTER INTERN*) CO1,ONENT(
2ike a computer, a router has a CP@ that varies in performance and capabilities
depending upon router platform. +t has typically / types of memory in it.:
RO1) +t is used to store the routers bootstrap startup program, operating system
software, and power)on diagnostic tests programs. !e can also upgrade our 7>%
3)*(' 1E1OR5) +t holds operating systems image(s'. 9lash memory is erasable,
reprogrammable 7>%. >ur +>0 software is present in this memory and we can upgrade
it also. 9lash content is retained even when we switch off or restart the router.
R*1) +t is used to store operational information such as routing tables, routers running
configuration file. 7A% also provides caching and packet buffering capabilities. +ts
content is lost when we switch off or restart the router. !hen we configure the router at
that time actually we are writing in 7A%.
N=R*1) +t is used to store the routers startup configuration file. +t does not lose data
when power is switched off. 0o the contents of startup configuration files are maintained
even when we switch off or restart the router.
ROUTER>( NETWORK INTER3*CE(
Et&ernet or Token Ring inter$ace are configured to allow connection to a 2A".
(ync&rono"s seria! inter$aces are configured to allow connections to !A"s.
I(DN 2RI inter$aces are configured to allow connection to an +0;" !A".
All cisco routers have a conso!e port that provides an 4+A/+A)#3# asynchronous serial
connection. Console port can be connected to computers serial connection to gain
terminal access to router.
%ost routers also have an a"7i!iary port that is very similar to console port but, is
typically used for modem connection for remote router management.
CON3IGURING T'E ROUTER
here are three methods for configuring the router:
-' hrough console port:) he console port is used for configuring a router locally
with the help of a PC or a 2aptop. he console port of the router is connected to
the serial i.e C>% port of the router. he detailed configuration is given in the
section.
#' hrough the A@& port:) he au8 ( au8iliary ' port is accessed from a modem
located faraway from a router through the P0" ( Public 0witched elephone
"etwork ' and the configuration is done.
3' hrough elnet:) 2ine vty ( virtual terminal ' $ to / are used for the configuring
the router by telnet.
Con$ig"ring Ro"ter t&ro"g& Conso!e port
!e use =ypererminal Program to open a conso!e session and log into the router locally.
his console connection allows to connect to and to communicate with router without
having to connect to the network to which it belongs. "ow, the PC becomes the console
that allows to enter commands and communicate directly with the router. o set up a
console session, we use the workstations !indows =ypererminal (terminal emulation'
program. "ow first of all we configure the C>% port settings, then log into the router to
interact with the +>0 command line interface (C2+'. hese are the com port settings:
G<$$
.
"
-
>n/off
After pressing enter or >K to accept these settings, we came across a blank window.
his is a session window.
he 9ollowing steps are adopted to access a router through the console port with a
!indows based PC.
Access =yper terminal:) 0tart %enu Programs Accessories Communication
=yperterminal

L
Connect to the device of the PC
C>% - 0etting
'yper termina! (creen
*$ter connecting t&e ro"ter t&at wi!! oot an# a$ter ooting t&e $o!!owing
proce#"res wi!! e a#opte#.
Ro"ter? ena!e
"ow automatically prompt asking for password will appear on the screen like this:
,asswor#4
"ow write password over here. his is done to secure access to router. After this
Ro"ter@
will appear on the screen this shows that we are in privileged mode and now we try to
enter in configuration mode.
Ro"ter@ con$ig"re termina!
his is done to enter configuration mode.
"ow starts the configuration of router
"ow we will assign +P address to each and very interface connected to router. 0ubnet
mask should be given with a proper care. 9ollowing steps are to be followed:
9or configuring Et&ernet inter$ace:
Ro"ter@ config terminal
Ro"ter (con$ig+ @ interface ethernet $
Ro"ter (con$ig8i$+ @ ip address ##3...-6-.- #66.#66.#66.$
Ro"ter (con$ig8i$+ @ no shutdown
Ro"ter (con$ig8i$+@e8it
9or configuring seria! inter$ace:
Ro"ter (con$ig+@ interface serial $
Ro"ter (con$ig8i$+@ ip address #$/.#$/.D.- #66.#66.#66.$
Ro"ter (con$ig8i$+@ no shutdown
Ro"ter (con$ig8i$+@e8it
Ro"ter (con$ig+@ interface serial -
Ro"ter (con$ig8i$+@ ip address -GG.<.-3.# #66.#66.#66.$
Ro"ter (con$ig8i$+@ no shutdown
Ro"ter(con$ig8i$+@ e8it
ROUTING ,ROTOCO)(
ROUTING IN3OR1*TION ,ROTOCO) (RI,+
7+P is a dynamic, distance vector routing protocol. 7+P uses @;P port 6#$ for route
updates. 7+P calculates the best route based on hop count. his makes 7+P very fast to
converge
7+P sends full table updates at regular intervals specified by the route)update timer (3$
seconds is the default'. his means that a 7+P router summari1es all routes it knows along
classful boundaries and sends the summary information to all other 7+P routing devices.
7+P updates can contain up to #6 messages.
7+P +%470
+%47 ;49A@2 C>"7>20
"p#ate3$ sec. +nterval between route update advertisements
timeo"t -.$ sec. +nterval a route should stay MliveM in the routing table. his
counter is reset every time the router hears an update for this route.
3!"s& #/$ sec. =ow long to wait from the time the route was received to
delete a route (<$ seconds after timeout'.
he routing)update timer controls the time between routing updates. ;efault is usually 3$
seconds, plus a small random delay to prevent all 7+P routers from sending updates
simultaneously.
he route)timeout timer controls when a route is no longer available. he default is
usually -.$ seconds. +f a router has not seen the route in an update during this specified
interval, it is dropped from the routerMs announcements. he route is maintained long
enough for the router to advertise the route as down (hop count of -<'.
he route)flush timer controls how long before a route is completely flushed from the
routing table. he default setting is usually -#$ seconds.
2*(IC RI, CON3IGUR*TION
According to the recollection of +net;aemon, configuring a Cisco router for a basic 7+P
configuration would look something like this:

routerB enable
Password:
routerN conf t
router(config'Ninterface ethernet $
router(config)if'N ip address -G#.-<../#.-
router(config)if'N interface ethernet -
router(config)if'N ip address -G#.-<../3.-
router(config)if'N e8it
router(config'N router rip
router(config)router'N network -G#.-<../#.$

router(config)router'N network -G#.-<../3.$
router(config)router'N e8it
router(config)router'N O1
routerN
he e8ample above assumes that the interfaces that will be running 7+P have +P
addresses on them that fall within the -G#.-<../#.$, and -G#.-<../3.$ class C ranges.
IGR,
+H7P is a distance)vector routing protocol that considers a composite metric which, by
default, uses bandwidth and delay as parameters instead of hop count. +H7P is not limited
to the -6)hop limit of 7+P. +H7P has a ma8imum hop limit of -$$, by default, and can be
configured to support a network diameter of #66.
!ith +H7P, routers usually select paths with a larger minimum)link bandwidth over
paths with a smaller hop count. 2inks do not have a hop count. hey are e8actly one hop.
+H7P is available only on Cisco routers
+H7P will load)balance traffic if there are several paths with e*ual cost to the destination
+H7P sends its routing table to its neighbors every G$ seconds. +H7PMs default update
period of G$ seconds is a benefit compared to 7+P, which can consume e8cessive
bandwidth when sending updates every 3$ seconds. +H7P uses an invalid timer to mark a
route as invalid after #D$ seconds (three times the update timer'. As with 7+P, +H7P uses
a flush timer to remove a route from the routing table: the default flush timer is set to <3$
seconds (seven times the update period and more than -$ minutes'.
+f a network goes down or the metric for the network increases, the route is placed in
holddown. he router accepts no new changes for the route until the holddown timer
e8pires. his setup prevents routing loops in the network. he default holddown timer is
#.$ seconds (three times the update timer plus -$ seconds'.
IGR, Timer De$a"!t Time
@pdate G$ seconds
+nvalid #D$ seconds
=olddown #.$ seconds
9lush <3$ seconds
I, *CCE(( )I(T
+P access lists cause a router to discard some packets based on criteria defined by the
network engineer. he goal of these filters is to prevent unwanted traffic in the network
?whether to prevent hackers from penetrating the network, or ,ust to prevent employees
from using systems
that they should not be using.
Key features of access lists:
P Packets can be filtered as they enter an interface, before the routing decision.
P Packets can be filtered before they e8it an interface, after the routing decision.
P Deny is the term used in Cisco +>0 software to imply that the packet will be filtered.
P Permit is the term used in Cisco +>0 software to imply that the packet will not be
filtered.
P he filtering logic is configured in the access list.
P At the end of every access list is an implied Ideny all trafficJ statement. herefore, if a
packet does not match any of your access list statements, it is blocked.
Access lists have two ma,or steps in their logic: matching and action. %atching logic
e8amines each packet and determines whether it matches the
access8!ist statement. As soon as an access8!ist statement is matched, there are two
actions to choose from: deny and permit. ;eny means to discard the packet, and permit
implies that the packet should continue on its way.
N*T CO11*ND
he nat ("etwork Address ranslation' command translates a set of +P addresses to
another set of +P addresses.
0Q"A&: nat ( if_name) nat_id local_ip [netmask]
(if_name) he internal network interface name.
nat_id he +; number to match with the global address pool.
local_ip he +P address that is translated. his is usually the inside network
+P address.
netmask "etwork mask for the local +P address.
here are two types of "Aing:
-' 0tatic: 9or e8. here is a google server and we dont want to make its +P address
public so we change its +P address using nat command in firewall and now user
will logon to this new +P . his results in more security as every time it has to pass
through firewall.
#' ;ynamic: +f there are lots of PCs in a network and all want to access the internet
, it is not easy that every PC is being provided with independent public +P so at
firewall level we change every PCs pvt +p with public +P.
48amples:
nat (inside' - -$.-$.-$.$ #66.#66.#66.$
nat (inside' - -D#.-<.-.$ #66.#66.#66.$
(WITC'ING (ER=ICE(
@nlike bridges, which use software to create R manage a filter table,switches use
application specific integrated circuit to build R maintain filter table.5ut its still okay to
think of a layer # switch as a multiport bridges because their basic reason for being is
same: to break up collision domain.

2ayer # switching and bridges are faster than routers because they dont take up time
looking at the "etwork layer header information. +nstead, they look at frames hardware
address before deciding to either forward, flood or drop the frame.
0witches create private, dedicated collision domain and provide independent b.w. on each
port, unlike hub. 9ig. shows five host connected to a switch) all running -$ mbps half
duple8 to server.
2ayer # switching provide the following:
=ardware based switching (A0+C'
!ire speed
2ow latency
2ow cost
!hat makes layer# switching so efficient is that no modification to the data packets
takes place. he device only reads the frame encapsulating the packets which makes the
switching process considerably and less error prone than the routing process.
Plus layer # switching increase the b.w. for each user because again each connection into
the switch is its own collision domain. his feature makes it possible for u to connect
multiple devices to each interface.
)imitations o$ )ayer / (witc&ing
2ayer # switches have the same limitations as bridge networks. 0ince we commonly stick
layer # switching into the same category as bridged networks, we also
tend to think it has the same hang)ups and issues that bridged networks do. Keep in mind
that bridges are good and helpful things if we design the network correctly, users spend
.$ percent of their time on their local segment. 5ridged networks break up collision
domains, but the network is still one large broadcast domain. 0imilarly, layer # switches
(bridges' cannot break up broadcast domains, which can cause performance issues and
limit the si1e of your network. 5roadcasts and multicasts, along with the slow
convergence of spanning tree, can cause ma,or problems as the network grows. 5ecause
of these problems, layer # switches cannot completely replace routers in the internetwork.
keeping t&eir $eat"res as
well as their limitations in mind. And to design well with bridges, these are the two most
impor)
tant considerations:
!e absolutely must break up the collision domains correctly.
he right way to create a functional bridged network is to make sure that its users
spend
5ridged networks break up collision domains, but remember, that network is still one
large broadcast domain. "either layer # switches nor bridges break up broadcast domains
by default?something that not only limits your networkMs si1e and growth potential, but
also can reduce its overall performance.
5roadcasts and multicasts, along with the slow convergence time of spanning trees, can
give
you some ma,or grief as your network grows. hese are the big reasons layer # switches
and
bridges cannot completely replace routers (layer 3 devices' in the internetwork.

W)*N (WIRE)E(( )*N+
+n a traditional 2A" each computer physically connects to the network via wires and a
network port. A !ireless 2ocal Area "etwork (!2A"' is a network that provides the
same services but without the need for physical connections between the computers and
the network. !ireless 2A"s offer many advantages over traditional wired networks, such
as mobility, fle8ibility, scalability and speed, simplicity and reduced cost of installation.
A !2A" typically uses radio waves, which allow network PC cards plugged into a
PC/laptop to connect to a traditional 4thernet 2A".
+444 developed the .$#.-- standards to provide wireless networking technology like the
wired 4thernet.
(T*ND*RD(
+444 developed the .$#.-- standards to provide wireless networking technology. !ith
time)to)time development in the field of technology three standards has been finali1ed.
.$#.--(a', .$#.--(b', .$#.--(g'
.$#.--(b' .$#.--(a' .$#.--(g'
%a8. bit rate/7aw
net
--%b/s
6.6%b/s
6/ %b/s
##)#< %b/s
6/ %b/s
-D)## %b/s
9re*uency 5and #./ H=E 6 H=E #./ H=E
7ange S %a8. rate 6D m -#m -Gm
@nit Cost -$$T -#$T --$T
Coverage Cost -$$T #$$$T 6$$T
"o. of channels 3 . /
+444 .$#.--a standard is the most widely adopted one because it operates at licensed 6
H=E band while other are unlicensed and also it provides ma8. nof channels and ma8. bit
rate than any other standards.
TO,O)OGIE(
here are two topologies on which !2A" works:
-' +nfrastructure "etwork
#' Ad hoc "etwork
IN3R*(TRUCTURE NETWORK
+t is useful for providing wireless coverage of building or campus areas. his is a
topology used when there are many access points in a single location. 5y deploying
multiple Access Points (APs' with overlapping coverage areas, organi1ations can
achieve broad network coverage. . A laptop or other mobile device may move from
AP to AP while maintaining access to the resources of the 2A". 4ach client is
e*uipped with wireless network interface card ("+C' that consists of the radio
transceiver and the logic to interact with the client machine and software. !hile the
AP is essentially a radio transceiver on one side and the wired backbone on the other.

A;=>C "4!>7K
his topology is used when we have to interconnect mobile devices that are in the same
area (e.g., in the same room'. +n this architecture, client stations are grouped into a single
geographic area and can be +nternet)worked without access to the wired 2A"
(infrastructure network'. he ad hoc configuration is similar to a peer)to)peer office
network in which no node is re*uired to function as a server. +n ad hoc there is no need of
any AP as all devices are wirelessly connected to each other.

Introduction To Networking

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