CONCRETE FORMWORK DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Designing and building formwork effectively requires a basic understanding of

how concretebehaves as it exerts pressure on formwork. Concrete exerts lateral pressure on
the formwork. The formwork is designed based on these lateral forces.
Lateral concrete pressure on formwork is affected by:
1) Height of concrete pour 2) Concrete pour rate 3) Weight of concrete 4) Temperature 5)
Type of cement 6) Vibration 7) Concrete slump (watercement ratio) 8) Chemical additives
1) Height of concrete pour: Before concrete hardens, it acts like a liquid and pushes
against the forms the way water presses against the walls of a storage tank. The amount of
pressure at any point on the form is directly determined by the height and weight of
concrete above it. Pressure is not affected by the thickness of the wall.

Fig: Lateral concrete pressure on formwork
2) Concrete pour rate: Concrete pressure at any point on the form is directly proportional
to the height of liquid concrete above it. If concrete begins to harden before the pour is
complete, the full liquid head will not develop and the pressure against the forms will be
less than if the pour were completed before any of concrete hardened.
Once concrete hardens it cannot exert more pressure on the forms even though liquid
concrete continues to be placed above it. The following diagrams illustrates how form
pressure varies when the pour rate is increased from one level to another level. For ease of
explanation, it is assumed that concrete hardens in one hour (typically) at 21C.

Fig: Concrete pressure on formwork during hardening
When the pour rate is increased the pressure also increases as shown below:

Fig: Concrete pressure on formwork due to higher pour rate
3) Weight of Concrete: Pressure exerted against the forms is directly proportional to the
unit weight of concrete. Light weight concrete will exert less pressure than normal weight
concrete as shown below:

Fig: Pressure on formwork due to normal and lightweight concretes
4) Temperature: The time it takes concrete to harden is influenced greatly by its
temperature. The higher the temperature of the concrete, the quicker it will harden. Most
formwork designs are based on an assumed average air and concrete temperature of 21C.
At low air temperatures, the hardening of concrete is delayed and you need to decrease
your pour rate or heat your concrete to keep the pressure against the formwork from
increasing. Ideally, concrete should be poured at temperatures between 16C and 38C.
Outside this temperature range there is often insufficient moisture available for curing. If
adequate water for curing is not available or freezes, the strength of the concrete will suffer.
5) Type of Cement: The cement type will influence the rate at which concrete hardens. A
high early strength concrete will harden faster than normal concrete and will allow a faster
pour rate. When using a cement which alters the normal set and hardening time, be sure to
adjust the pour rate accordingly.
6) Vibration: Internal vibration consolidates concrete and causes it to behave like the pure
liquid. If concrete is not vibrated, it will exert less pressure on the forms. ACI recommended
formulas for form pressures may be reduced 10% if the concrete is spaded rather than
internally vibrated. Re-vibration and external vibration result in higher form loads than
internal vibration. These types of vibration require specially designed forms.
7) Concrete Slump: When concrete has very low slump, it acts less like a liquid and will
transmit less pressure. When using concrete with a slump greater than 100 mm, the
formwork should be designed to resist full liquid head.
8) Chemical additives: When using chemical additives i.e. retarders, plasticizers, etc.
make sure to refer to the vendors application data.













METHODS OF INCREASING STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS
The methods of increasing structural stiffness of tall buildings are by providing central
core, shear walls, tubes, braced frame and double tube. These are discussed in detail below.
1. Central Core:
By constructing a central core, the stiffness of the building is
greatly increased. A central core is used to house stairs and
lifts and building services. This method allows the building to
keep an open facade. Following figure shows the central core
of a building with a 55 column.

2. Shear Walls:
Shear walls are constructed at opposite ends of a building to
provide stiffness in a particular direction. Shear walls are
particularly useful in non-square buildings, where the wind
forces predominantly come from one direction. The interior of
the building is kept clear. Shear walls only provide minimal
torsional stiffness.

3. Tube system:
A tube system is essentially two sets of shear walls. The tube
system allows the building to be stiff in all directions of
loading. The building will also have a high-torsional
resistance. The interior of the building is kept clear.
The tube system must be pierced for windows. These
openings must be kept to minimum.
4. Braced Frame:
Braced frame is the simple structure with bracing that help to increase
the structural stiffness. A braced frame is similar to floor bracing, but it
does not depend on the stiffness provided by the floor system, rather on
the addition of another diagonal cross members.



This type of bracing is lighter than its counterpart with floor bracing. The building has good
stiffness.
Compared to the system with floor bracing, this system is less easy to construct. The faade
detailing can be interesting but also expensive.
5. Double Tube System:
A double tube system is a combination of the central core
and tube system as shown in figure below. This
combination of both systems allows the building to be
extremely stiff.
The building has high torsional resistance. For the tube
system, apertures for windows must be kept to minimum.
The central core take much valuable space. This type of
system is used for very tall building.












COOLING TOWERS AND ITS SYSTEMS
Cooling towers are commonly used to remove excess heat that is generated in places such
as power stations, chemical plants and even domestically in air conditioning units. This
equipment has recently developed into an important part of many chemical plants. They
represent a relatively inexpensive and dependable means of removing low-grade heat from
cooling water.
Cooling towers might be classified into several types based on the air draft and based on
the flow pattern. Each type of cooling tower has its own advantages and disadvantages;
thus the proper selection is needed based on the system operation. Besides, the material
selection of cooling tower is also important. Cooling towers tends to be corrosive since it
always has direct contact with the water. Proper material selection or additional water
treatment is then needed to keep the cooling tower safe.
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the
atmosphere. Cooling towers make use of evaporation whereby some of the water is
evaporated into a moving air stream and subsequently discharged into the atmosphere. As
a result, the remainder of the water is cooled down significantly.

Fig: Schematic Diagram of a Cooling Tower System
There are several important factors that govern the operation of cooling tower:
The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the air.
The temperature of warm water.
The efficiency of contact between air and water in terms of the volumetric mass transfer
coefficient and the contact time between the air and the water.
The uniformity of distribution of the phases within the tower.
The air pressure drop.
The desired temperature of the cooled water.




















CALCULATE EARTHQUAKE FORCES ON BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES
Earthquake resistant design of structures has become integral part of structural design of
any structure. The guide to earthquake resistant design of building and structures are given
by IS1893 2002 in India. Here we will talk about how to calculate the earthquake
forces for buildings and structures as per above mentioned code.
First step to calculate earthquake loads on structure is to identify the
earthquake zone for which structure needs to be designed. This earthquake zones
are displayed in a map on page 6 of the code.
After earthquake zone has been identified, the following steps are followed:
1. Calculate design horizontal seismic coefficient, A
h
, which is given by (cl. 6.4.2 of
IS1893 2002:

Where, Z is the zone factor, given in table 2 of IS1893 2002.
I is the importance factor of the structure depending on the function or use. This factor can
be obtained from table 6 of the code.
R is response reduction factor. This value is obtained from table 7 of the code. The value of
1/R shall not be more than one.
S
a
/g is average response acceleration coefficient. This value depends on time period of
structure and on soil type. This can be obtained from clause 6.4.5 of the code.
2. Calculate design seismic base shear for the structure (V
B
). This is the total design
lateral force along any principal direction. This is calculated as:
V
B
= A
h
x W
Where A
h
= horizontal seismic coefficient as calculated above in step 1.
W = Total weight of the structure.
3. Now calculate the distribution of design forces on the structure. The seismic
design base shear calculated in step above is distributed on the structure as design seismic
forces. This is calculated as below:

Where Q
i
= Design lateral force at floor i
W
i
= seismic weight of the floor i
h
i
= height of the floor i from the base
n = number of storeys of the building at which masses are located.
4. Distribution of horizontal seismic forces on structure: These forces are
distributed on the vertical elements of the building resisting lateral forces.
Example:
Consider a two-bay two-storied building for which earthquake forces need to be calculated.
Consider total weight of the building as 1000 kN. Top roof has the weight of 200 kN and
both floors have weight of 400 kN as shown in figure below. The calculation of earthquake
seismic forces will be as shown below:


Total Weight of the Structure
< ?xml:namespace prefix =
"o" /> W
i
= 1000 kN

Zone Factor (Zone IV) Z = 0.24


Importance factor (Table6) I = 1


Response Reduction Factor R = 3


Average response acceleration coefficient


Let time
period T 0.373358 (Cl. 7.6)

S
a
/g 2.5


Design Horizontal Seismic coefficient Ah 0.10



Base Shear

100 kN

Storey Base Shear Height Wi Wixhi
2
Qi
Design
Force
3 100 8.5 200 14450 57.00197 9.50
2 100 5 400 10000 39.44773 6.57
1 100 1.5 400 900 3.550296 0.59

Total 25350

(in kN)




ROLE OF CONSTRUCTION SITE ENGINEER
On any one contract there may be a number of engineers with varying amounts and types
of experience. The duties and responsibilities of an engineer are typically as follows, many
of these will be delegated to other engineers on the site according to their experience and
ability:
Setting out the works in accordance with the drawings and specification
Liaising with the project planning engineer regarding construction programmes
Checking materials and work in progress for compliance with the specified requirements
Observance of safety requirements
Resolving technical issues with employers representatives, suppliers, subcontractors
and statutory authorities
Quality control in accordance with CSIs/procedures method statements, quality plans
and inspection and test plans, all prepared by the project management team and by
subcontractors
Liaising with company or project purchasing department to ensure that purchase orders
adequately define the specified requirements
Supervising and counselling junior or trainee engineers
Measurement and valuation (in collaboration with the project quantity surveyor where
appropriate)
Providing data in respect of variation orders and site instructions
Preparing record drawings, technical reports, site diary
Job review of subordinate staff









SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE WITH TESTS
For several years beginning in 1983, the problem of the durability of concrete structures
was a major topic of interest in Japan. The creation of durable concrete structures requires
adequate compaction by skilled workers. However, the gradual reduction in the number of
skilled workers in Japans construction industry has led to a similar reduction in the quality
of construction work. One solution for the achievement of durable concrete structures
independent of the quality of construction work is the employment of self-compacting
concrete, which can be compacted into every corner of a formwork, purely by means of its
own weight and without the need for vibrating compaction (Fig. 1). The necessity of this
type of concrete was proposed by Okamura in 1986. Studies to develop self-compacting
concrete, including a fundamental study on the workability of concrete, have been carried
out by Ozawa and Maekawa at the University of Tokyo. The prototype of self-compacting
concrete was first completed in 1988 using materials already on the market (Fig. 2). The
prototype performed satisfactorily with regard to drying and hardening shrinkage, heat of
hydration, denseness after hardening, and other properties. This concrete was named High
Performance Concrete and was defined as follows at the three stages of concrete:

(1) Fresh: self-compactable
(2) Early age: avoidance of initial defects
(3) After hardening: protection against external factors
At almost the same time, High Performance Concrete was defined as a concrete with high
durability due to a low water-cement ratio by Professor Atcin et al. Since then, the term
high performance concrete has been used around the world to refer to high durability
concrete. Therefore, the authors have changed the term for the proposed concrete to Self-
Compacting High Performance Concrete.
Self-compactability of fresh concrete
Mechanism for achieving self-compactability
The method for achieving self-compactability involves not only high deformability of paste
or mortar, but also resistance to segregation between coarse aggregate and mortar when
the concrete flows through the confined zone of reinforcing bars. Okamura and Ozawa have
employed the following methods to achieve self- compactability (Fig. 3) (1995):
(1) Limited aggregate content
(2) Low water-powder ratio
(3) Use of super-plasticizer


The frequency of collision and contact between aggregate particles can increase as the
relative distance between the particles decreases and then internal stress can increase when
concrete is deformed, particularly near obstacles. Research has found that the energy
required for flowing is consumed by the increased internal stress, resulting in blockage of
aggregate particles. Limiting the coarse aggregate content, whose energy consumption is
particularly intense, to a level lower than normal is effective in avoiding this kind of
blockage.

Highly viscous paste is also required to avoid the blockage of coarse aggregate when
concrete flows through obstacles (Fig. 4). When concrete is deformed, paste with a high
viscosity also prevents localized increases in internal stress due to the approach of coarse
aggregate particles. High deformability can be achieved only by the employment of a super-
plasticizer, keeping the water-powder ratio to a very low value.
The mix proportioning of self-compacting concrete is shown and compared with those of
normal concrete and RCD (Roller Compacted concrete for Dams) concrete (Fig. 5). The
aggregate content is smaller than conventional concrete that requires vibrating compaction.
The ratios of the coarse aggregate volume to its solid volume (G/Glim) of each type of
concrete are shown in Fig. 6. The degree of packing of coarse aggregate in SCC is
approximately 50% to reduce the interaction between coarse aggregate particles when the
concrete deforms. In addition, the ratios of fine aggregate volume to solid volume (S/Slim)
in the mortar are shown in the same figure. The degree of packing of fine aggregate in SCC
mortar is approximately 60% so that shear deformability when the concrete deforms may
be limited. On the other hand, the viscosity of the paste in SCC is the highest among the
various types of concrete due to its lowest water-powder ratio (Fig. 7). This characteristic is
effective in inhibiting segregation.

Test for Self Compactibility
There are three purposes for self-compactability tests relating to practical purposes.
Test (1): To check whether or not the concrete is self-compactable for the structure.
Test (2): To adjust the mix proportion when selfcompactability is not sufficient.
Test (3): To characterize materials.

As Test (1), the so-called U-flow test or Box test is recommended (Figs. 8, 9 and 10). The
U-flow test was developed by the Taisei Group (Hayakawa 1993). In this test, the degree of
compactability can be indicated by the height that the concrete reaches after flowing
through an obstacle. Concrete with a filling height of over 300 mm can be judged as self-
compacting. The Box-test is more suitable for detecting concrete with higher possibility of
segregation between coarse aggregate and mortar.

If the concrete is judged to be having insufficient selfcompactability through test (1), the
cause has to be detected quantitatively so that the mix proportion can be adjusted. Slump-
flow and funnel tests (Fig. 11) have been proposed for testing deformability and viscosity,
respectively.

Flow and funnel tests for mortar or paste have been proposed to characterize materials
used in selfcompacting concrete, e.g. powder material, sand, and super-plasticizer. Testing
methods for the mortar properties were al so proposed and the indices for deformability and
viscosity were also defined as in (Figs. 12 and 13).
Factors of self-compactability in terms of testing results.
The factors making up self-compactability were described in terms of the test results for
fresh concrete and mortar below.
(1) Influence of coarse aggregate depending on spacing size.









It is not always possible to predict the degree of compaction into a structure by using the
test result on the degree of compaction of the concrete into another structure, since the
maximum size of coarse aggregate is close to the minimum spacing between the reinforcing
bars of the structure. For example, the relationship between coarse aggregate content in
concrete and the filling height of the Box-type test, which the standard index for self-
compactability of fresh concrete, is shown in Figs. 14 and 15. The relationship between the
filling height through obstacle R1 and that through R2 varied depending on the coarse
aggregate content. That test result shows that the influence of coarse aggregate on the
flowability of fresh concrete largely depends on the size of the spacing of the obstacle. It
can be said that the self-compactability of fresh concrete has to be discussed in terms of
solid particles as well as in terms of liquid.
2) Role of mortar as fluid in flowability of fresh concrete
Sufficient deformability of the mortar phase in concrete is required so that concrete can be
compacted into structures by its self-weight without need for vibrating compaction. In
addition, moderate viscosity as well as deformability of the mortar phase is required so that
the relative displacement between coarse aggregate particles in front of obstacles when
concrete is to flow around such obstacles can be reduced and then segregation between
coarse aggregate and mortar can be inhibited. The necessity for viscosity was confirmed by
Hashimotos visualization test. The indices for mortar deformability and viscosity were
proposed by using mortar flow and funnel test results. The relationship between mortar
deformability and viscosity and the self-compactability of fresh concrete is shown assuming
a fixed coarse aggregate content (Fig. 15). The existence of an optimum combination of
deformability and viscosity of mortar for achieving self-compactability of fresh concrete was
demonstrated.
(3) Role of mortar as solid particles

In addition to its role as a liquid mentioned above, mortar also plays a role as solid
particles. This property is so-called pressure transferability, which can be apparent when
the coarse aggregate particles approach each other and mortar in between coarse
aggregate particles is subjected to normal stress (Fig. 16). The degree of the decrease in
the shear deformability of the mortar largely depends on the physical characteristics of the
solid particles in the mortar (Fig. 17) (Nagamoto 1997).
For example, the difference in the relationships between the funnel speeds of mortar and
concrete due to differences in the fine aggregate content in mortar are shown in Fig. 18. It
was found that the relationship between the flowability of mortar and concrete cannot
always be unique due to differences in the characteristics of the solid particles in the
mortar, even if the characteristics of the coarse aggregate and its content in concrete are
constant.
(4) Influence of coarse aggregate -Content, shape and grading-
The influence of coarse aggregate on the sel fcompactability of fresh concrete, especially
flowability through obstacles, can be equal despite the shape of the coarse aggregate
particles shape as long as the ratio of coarse aggregate content to its solid volume in
concrete is the same (Fig. 22). However, the influence of the grading of coarse aggregate
has also to be considered if the spacing of the obstacles is very close to the maximum size
coarse aggregate. For example, the relationships between the size of the concrete funnels
outlet and the flow speed through it depends on the fineness modulus of coarse aggregate
FM even if the property of the mortar phase is the same (Figs. 23 and 24). It was found out
that the flow speed of concrete through a funnel with an outlet width of 55 mm was largely
influenced by the grading of the coarse aggregate.
State of the art on Self-Compacting Concrete
Current status of Self-Compacting Concrete
Self-compacting concrete has been used as a special concrete only in large general
construction companies in Japan. In order for self-compacting concrete to be used as a
standard concrete rather than a special one, new systems for its design, manufacturing and
construction of self-compacting concrete need to be established. Various committee
activities on self-compacting concrete have been carried out as a result. Among them, a
system by which the ready-mixed concrete industry can produce self-compacting concrete
as a normal concrete would seem the most effective since, in Japan, as much as 70% of all
concrete is produced by the ready-mixed concrete industry. Assuming a general supply from
ready-mixed concrete plants, investigations to establish the following items have been
carried out mainly at the University of Tokyo since the development of the prototype.
(1) Self-compactability testing method
(2) Mix-design method
(3) Acceptance testing method at job site
(4) New type of powder or admixture suitable for self-compacting concrete
Of those items, (1) has already been mentioned in this paper. (2), (3) and (4) are described
below.
Mix-design method
(1) Rational mix-design method
Self-compactability can be largely affected by the characteristics of materials and the mix
proportion. A rational mix-design method for self-compacting concrete using a variety of
materials is necessary. Okamura and Ozawa (1995) have proposed a simple mix
proportioning system assuming general supply from ready-mixed concrete plants. The
coarse and fine aggregate contents are fixed so that self-compactability can be achieved
easily by adjusting the water-powder ratio and superplasticizer dosage only.
(1) The coarse aggregate content in concrete is fixed at 50% of the solid volume.
(2) The fine aggregate content is fixed at 40% of the mortar volume.
(3) The water-powder ratio in volume is assumed as 0.9 to 1.0, depending on the properties
of the powder.
(4) The superplasticizer dosage and the final water-powder ratio are determined so as to
ensure selfcompactability. In the mix proportioning of conventional concrete, the water-
cement ratio is fixed at first from the viewpoint of obtaining the required strength. With self-
compacting concrete, however, the water-powder ratio has to be decided taking into
account self-compactability because self-compactability is very sensitive to this ratio. In
most cases, the required strength does not govern the water-cement ratio because the
water-powder ratio is small enough for obtaining the required strength for ordinary
structures unless most of the powder materials in use is not reactive.
The mortar or paste in self-compacting concrete requires high viscosity as well as high
deformability. This can be achieved by the employment of a superplasticizer, which results
in a low water-powder ratio for high deformability.
(2) Adjustment of water-powder ratio and superplasticizer dosage
The characteristics of powder and superplasticizer largely affect the mortar property and so
the proper water powder ratio and superplasticizer dosage cannot be fixed without trial
mixing at this stage. Therefore, once the mix proportion is decided, self-compactability has
to be tested by U-flow, slump-flow and funnel tests. Methods for judging whether the water-
powder ratio or superplasticizer dosage are larger or smaller than the proper value by using
the test results, and methods for estimating the proper values are necessary. The
relationships between the properties of the mortar in selfcompacting concrete and the mix
proportion have been investigated and then formulated. These formulae can be used to
establish a rational method for adjusting the water-powder ratio and superplasticizer dosage
to achieve appropriate deformability and viscosity.
4. Properties of Hardened SCC
Structural Properties
The basic ingredients used in SCC mixes are practically the same as those used in the
conventional HPC vibrated concrete, except they are mixed in different proportions and the
addition of special admixtures to meet the project specifications for SCC. The hardened
properties are expected to be similar to those obtainable with HPC concrete. Laboratory and
field tests have demonstrated that the SCC hardened properties are indeed similar to those
of HPC. Table 3 shows some of the structural properties of SCC.
Table 3 Structural Properties of SCC2
Items SCC
Water-binder ratio (%) 25 to 40
Air content (%) 4.5-6.0
Compressive strength (age: 28 days) (MPa) 40 to 80
Compressive strength (age: 91 days) (MPa) 55 to 100
Splitting tensile strength (age:28 days) (MPa) 2.4 to 4.8
Elastic modulus (GPa) 30 to 36
Shrinkage strain (x 10-6) 600 to 800
Compressive Strength
SCC compressive strengths are comparable to those of conventional vibrated concrete made
with similar mix proportions and water/cement ratio. There is no difficulty in producing SCC
with compressive strengths up to 60MPa.
Tensile Strength
Tensile strengths are based on the indirect splitting test on cylinders. For SCC, the tensile
strengths and the ratios of tensile and compressive strengths are in the same order of
magnitude as the conventional vibrated concrete.
Bond Strength
Pull-out tests have been performed to determine the strength of the bond between concrete
and reinforcement of different diameters. In general, the SCC bond strengths expressed in
terms of the compressive strengths are higher than those of conventional concrete.
Modulus of Elasticity
SCC and conventional concrete bear a similar relationship between modulus of elasticity and
compressive strength expressed in the form E/(fc)0.5, where E = modulus of elasticity, fc =
compressive strength. This is similar to the one recommended by ACI for conventional
normal weight concrete.
Acceptance test at job site

Since the degree of compaction in a structure mainly depends on the self-compactability of
concrete, and poor self-compactability cannot be compensated by the construction work,
self-compactability must be checked for the whole amount of concrete just before casting at
the job site. However, conventional testing methods for self-compactability require sampling
and this can be extremely laborious if the self-compactability acceptance test is to be
carried out for the whole amount of concrete. A suitable acceptance test method for
selfcompactability has been developed by Ouchi et al (1999).
(1) The testing apparatus is installed between the agitator truck and the pump at the job
site. The whole amount of concrete is poured into the apparatus.
(2) If the concrete flows through the apparatus, the concrete is considered as self-
compactable for the structure. If the concrete is stopped by the apparatus, the concrete is
considered as having insufficient selfcompactability and the mix proportion has to be
adjusted.
Superplasticizer suitable for Self-Compacting Concrete
There is more room for improvement for admixtures such as superplasticizer suitable for
self-compacting concrete. In order to achieve this purpose, characterization of materials is
indispensable. The requirements for superplasticizer in self-compacting concrete are
summarized below.
(1) High dispersing effect for low water/powder (cement) ratio: less than approx. 100% by
volume
(2) Maintenance of the dispersing effect for at least two hours after mixing
(3) Less sensitivity to temperature changes.
There have been many examples of the development of new type of superplasticizer for
self-compacting concrete. Characterization of the dispersing effect of superplasticizer
independent of the effect of water flow is indispensable.
Segregation-inhibiting agent
It has been found that it is possible to manufacture selfcompacting concrete with constant
quality, especially self-compactability. However, any variation in material characteristics can
affect self-compactability. The most influential variant is the water content of fine
aggregate, which results in variations in the water content of the concrete itself. To solve
this problem, some general construction companies employ a segregation-inhibiting agent.
This type of agent is effective in making selfcompactability less sensitive to the variation of
the water content in the concrete. Various agents are available for this purpose in Japan
(Hibino 1998).
Applications of Self-Compacting Concrete in Japan
Current condition on application of selfcompacting concrete in Japan

After the development of the prototype of selfcompacting concrete at the University of
Tokyo, intensive research was begun in many places, especially in the research institutes of
large construction companies. As a result, self-compacting concrete has been used in many
practical structures. The first application of selfcompacting concrete was in a building in
June 1990. Self-compacting concrete was then used in the towers of a prestressed concrete
cable-stayed bridge in 1991 (Fig. 29). Lightweight self-compacting concrete was used in the
main girder of a cable-stayed bridge in 1992. Since then, the use of self-compacting
concrete in actual structures has gradually increased. Currently, the main reasons for the
employment of self-compacting concrete can be summarized as follows.
(1) To shorten construction period.
(2) To assure compaction in the structure: especially in confined zones where vibrating
compaction is difficult.
(3) To eliminate noise due to vibration: effective especially at concrete products plants.
The volume of self-compacting concrete in Japan is shown in Fig. 30. The production of self-
compacting concrete as a percentage of Japanese ready-mixed concrete, which accounts for
70% of total concrete production in Japan, is only 0.1%. The current status of self-
compacting concrete is special concrete rather than standard concrete.
Other applications of self-compacting concrete are summarized below.
Bridge (anchorage, arch, beam, girder, tower, pier, joint between beam & girder)
Box culvert
Building
Concrete filled steel column
Tunnel (lining, immersed tunnel, fill of survey tunnel)
Dam (concrete around structure)
Concrete products (block, culvert, wall, water tank, slab, and segment)
Diaphragm wall
Tank (side wall, joint between side wall and slab)
Pipe roof
Large scale construction
Self-compacting concrete is currently being employed in various practical structures in order
to shorten the construction period of large-scale constructions.

The anchorages of Akashi-Kaikyo (Akashi Straits) Bridge opened in April 1998, a suspension
bridge with the longest span in the world (1,991 meters), is a typical example (Fig. 31)
(Kashima 1999). Self-compacting concrete was used in the construction of the two
anchorages of the bridge. A new construction system that makes full use of the
performance of self-compacting concrete was introduced for this purpose. The concrete was
mixed at the batcher plant next to the site, and was then pumped out of the plant. It was
transported 200 meters through pipes to the casting site, where the pipes were arranged in
rows 3 to 5 meters apart. The concrete was cast from gate valves located at 5-meter
intervals along the pipes. These valves were automatically controlled so that the surface
level of the cast concrete could be maintained. The maximum size of the coarse aggregate
in the self-compacting concrete used at this site was 40 mm. The concrete fell as much as 3
meters, but segregation did not occur, despite the large size of coarse aggregate. In the
final analysis, the use of selfcompacting concrete shortened the anchorage construction
period by 20%, from 2.5 to 2 years.
Self-compacting concrete was used for the wall of a large LNG tank belonging to the Osaka
Gas Company. The adoption of self-compacting concrete in this particular project had the
following merits.
(1) The number of lots decreased from 14 to 10 as the height of one lot of concrete was
increased.
(2) The number of concrete workers was reduced from 150 to 50.
(3) The construction period of the structure decreased from 22 months to18 months.
In addition, a rational acceptance test for self-compactability at the job site was newly
introduced. The concrete casting was completed in June 1998.
Concrete products
Self-compacting concrete is often employed in concrete products to eliminate vibration noise
(Fig. 32). This improves the working environment at plants and makes the location of
concrete products plants in urban areas possible. In addition, the use of self-compacting
concrete extends the lifetime of mould for concrete products (Uno 1999). The production of
concrete products using self-compacting concrete has been gradually increasing.
Necessity for new structural design and construction systems.
Using self-compacting concrete saves the cost of vibrating compaction and ensures the
compaction of the concrete in the structure. However, total construction cost cannot always
be reduced, except in large-scale constructions.This is because conventional construction
systems are essentially designed based on the assumption that vibrating compaction of
concrete is necessary. Self-compacting concrete can greatly improve construction systems
previously based on conventional concrete that required vibrating compaction. This sort of
compaction, which can easily cause segregation, has been an obstacle to the rationalization
of construction work. Once this obstacle is eliminated, concrete construction can be
rationalized and a new construction system, including formwork, reinforcement, support and
structural design, can be developed. One example of this is the so-called sandwich
structure, where concrete is filled into a steel shell. Such a structure has already been
completed in Kobe, and could not have been achieved without the development of self-
compacting concrete (Shishido et al. 1999).
Summary
Since a rational mix-design method and an appropriate acceptance testing method at the
job site have both largely been established for self-compacting concrete, the main obstacles
for the wide use of self-compacting concrete can be considered to have been solved. The
next task is to promote the rapid diffusion of the techniques for the production of self-
compacting concrete and its use in construction. Rational training and qualification systems
for engineers should also be established. In addition, new structural design and construction
systems making full use of self-compacting concrete should be introduced.
When self-compacting concrete becomes so widely used that it is seen as the standard
concrete rather than a special concrete, we will have succeeded in creating durable and
reliable concrete structures that require very little maintenance work.



AERATED CONCRETE & ITS PROPERTIES
Aerated concrete is made by introducing air or gas into a slurry composed of
Portlandcement or lime and finely crushed siliceous filler so that when the mix sets and
hardens, a uniformly cellular structure is formed. Though it is called aerated concrete it is
really not a concrete in the correct sense of the word. As described above, it is a mixture of
water, cement and finely crushed sand. Aerated concrete is also referred to as gas concrete,
foam concrete, cellular concrete. In India we have at present a few factories manufacturing
aerated concrete.
A common product of aerated concrete in India is Siporex.

Manufacturing of Aerated Concrete
There are several ways in which aerated concrete can be manufactured.
(a) By the formation of gas by chemical reaction within the mass during liquid or plastic
state.(b) By mixing preformed stable foam with the slurry.(c) By using finely powdered
metal (usually aluminium powder) with the slurry and made to react with the calcium
hydroxide liberated during the hydration process, to give out large quantity of hydrogen
gas. This hydrogen gas when contained in the slurry mix, gives the cellular structure.
Powdered zinc may also be added in place of aluminum powder. Hydrogen peroxide and
bleaching powder have also been used instead of metal powder. But this practice is not
widely followed at present.
In the second method preformed, stable foam is mixed with cement and crushed sand slurry
thus causing the cellular structure when this gets set and hardened. As a minor modification
some foam-giving agents are also mixed and thoroughly churned or beaten (in the same
manner as that of preparing foam with the white of egg) to obtain foam effect in the
concrete. In a similar way, air entrained agent in large quantity can also be used and mixed
thoroughly to introduce cellular aerated structure in the concrete. However, this method
cannot be employed for decreasing the density of the concrete beyond a certain point and
as such, the use of air entrainment is not often practised for making aerated concrete.
Gasification method is of the most widely adopted methods using aluminium powder or such
other similar material. This method is adopted in the large scale manufacture of aerated
concrete in the factory wherein the whole process is mechanised and the product is
subjected to high pressure steam curing i.e., in other words, the products are autoclaved.
Such products will suffer neither retrogression of strength nor dimensional instability.
The practice of using preformed foam with slurry is limited to small scale production and in
situ work where small change in the dimensional stability can be tolerated. But the
advantage is that any density desired at site can be made in this method.
Properties of Aerated Concrete
Use of foam concrete has gained popularity not only because of the low density but also
because of other properties mainly the thermal insulation property. Aerated concrete is
made in the density range from 300 kg/m3 to about 800 kg/m3. Lower density grades are
used for insulation purposes, while medium density grades are used for the manufacture of
building blocks or load bearing walls and comparatively higher density grades are used in
the manufacture of prefabricated structural members in conjunction with steel
reinforcement.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE CUBES
Compressive strength of concrete: Out of many test applied to the concrete, this is the
utmost important which gives an idea about all the characteristics of concrete. By this single
test one judge that whether Concreting has been done properly or not. For cube test two
types of specimens either cubes of 15 cm X 15 cm X 15 cm or 10cm X 10 cm x 10 cm
depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of the works cubical moulds of
size 15 cm x 15cm x 15 cm are commonly used.
This concrete is poured in the mould and tempered properly so as not to have any voids.
After 24 hours these moulds are removed and test specimens are put in water for curing.
The top surface of these specimen should be made even and smooth. This is done by
putting cement paste and spreading smoothly on whole area of specimen.
These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or 28 days
curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the
Specimens fails. Load at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive
strength of concrete.
Following are the procedure for Compressive strength test of Concrete Cubes
APPARATUS
Compression testing machine
PREPARATION OF CUBE SPECIMENS
The proportion and material for making these test specimens are from the same concrete
used in the field.
SPECIMEN
6 cubes of 15 cm size Mix. M15 or above
MIXING
Mix the concrete either by hand or in a laboratory batch mixer
HAND MIXING
(i)Mix the cement and fine aggregate on a water tight none-absorbent platform until the
mixture is thoroughly blended and is of uniform color
(ii)Add the coarse aggregate and mix with cement and fine aggregate until the coarse
aggregate is uniformly distributed throughout the batch
(iii)Add water and mix it until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and of the desired
consistency
SAMPLING
(i) Clean the mounds and apply oil
(ii) Fill the concrete in the molds in layers approximately 5cm thick
(iii) Compact each layer with not less than 35strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel
bar 16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet pointed at lower end)
(iv) Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel

CURING
The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24hours and after this period the specimens
are marked and removed from the molds and kept submerged in clear fresh water until
taken out prior to test.
PRECAUTIONS
The water for curing should be tested every 7days and the temperature of water must be at
27+-2oC.
PROCEDURE
(I) Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and wipe out excess water
from the surface.
(II) Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m
(III) Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
(IV) Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to
the opposite sides of the cube cast.
(V) Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
(VI) Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the
specimen.
(VII) Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of
140kg/cm2/minute till the specimen fails
(VIII) Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.
NOTE : Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If
strength of any specimen varies by more than 15 per cent of average strength,
results of such specimen should be rejected. Average of there specimens gives the
crushing strength of concrete. The strength requirements of concrete.
CALCULATIONS
Size of the cube =15cm x15cm x15cm
Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen )=225cm
2

Characteristic compressive strength(f ck)at 7 days =
Expected maximum load =fck x area x f.s
Range to be selected is ..
Similar calculation should be done for 28 day compressive strength
Maximum load applied =.tones = .N
Compressive strength = (Load in N/ Area in mm
2)
=N/mm
2

=.N/mm
2

REPORT
a) Identification mark
b) Date of test
c) Age of specimen
d) Curing conditions, including date of manufacture of specimen
f) Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and the type of fracture if they are unusual
RESULT
Average compressive strength of the concrete cube = .N/ mm
2
(at 7 days)
Average compressive strength of the concrete cube =. N/mm
2
(at 28 days)
Percentage strength of concrete at various ages:
The strength of concrete increases with age. Table shows the strength of concrete at
different ages in comparison with the strength at 28 days after casting.
Age Strength per cent
1 day 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%
Compressive strength of different grades of concrete at 7 and 28 days
Grade of
Concrete
Minimum compressive
strength N/mm
2
at 7 days
Specified characteristic compressive
strength (N/mm
2
) at 28 days
M15 10 15
M20 13.5 20
M25 17 25
M30 20 30
M35 23.5 35
M40 27 40
M45 30 45

PILES AND PILE CAPS

When the bearing capacity of soil immediately below the structure is insufficient for a
spread footing, then piles are used to transfer the load to deeper, firmer strata. Piles may
also be used where the soil is particularly affected by seasonal changes, to transfer the load
below the level of such influence.
The load carrying (bearing) capacity of a pile is the sum of the end bearing capacity and the
skin friction capacity between the peripheral area of the pile and the surrounding soil. The
contribution of each differs widely depending on the ground conditions. For example, the
skin friction resistance in sandy soils is small compared to clayey soils.
Usually, the load to be supported exceeds the bearing capacity of a single pile, and so a
group of similar piles is used.
The group is capped by a spread footing or a cap to distribute the load to all piles in the
group. Where there are a large number of closely spaced piles, rather than provide
individual caps, it may be more economical to provide just one large cap, thus forming a
piled raft.

RETAINING WALL DESIGN PRINCIPLES
Retaining structures
Generally speaking, any wall that sustains significant lateral soil pressure is a retaining wall.
However, the term is usually used with reference to a cantilever retaining wall, which is a
freestanding wall without lateral support at its top. For such a wall, the major design
consideration is for the actual dimensions of the ground-level difference that the wall serves
to facilitate. The range of its dimensions establishes some different categories for the
retaining structure as follow
(a) Curbs
Curbs are the shortest freestanding retaining structures. The two most common forms are
as shown in Figure 1(a), the selection being made on the basis of whether or not it is
necessary to have a gutter on the how side of the curb. Use of these structure is typically
limited to grade level changes of about 0.6m or less.
(b) Short retaining walls
Vertical walls up to about 3m in height are usually built as shown in Figure 1(b). these
consists of a concrete or masonry wall of uniform thickness, vertical wall reinforcing, and
transverse footing reinforcing are all designed for the lateral shear and cantilever bending
movement plus the vertical weights of the wall, footing, and earth fills.
When the bottom of the footing is a show distance below grade on the low side of the wall
and/or the lateral passive resistance of the soil is low, it may be necessary to use an
extension below the footing called a shear key to increase the resistance to sliding. The
form of such a key is shown in Figure 1(c)

Figure 1:- Retaining Structure

(c)Tall retaining walls
As the wall height increase it become less feasible to use the simple construction shown in
Figure 1(b) or (c). The overturning moment increases sharply with the increase in height of
the wall. For very tall walls one modification used is to taper the wall thickness. This permits
the development of a reasonable cross section for the high bending stress at the base
without an excessive amount of concrete. However, as the wall becomes really tall, it is
often necessary to consider the use of various bracing technique, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2:- Tall Retaining Walls

Design Considerations.
In the design of free-standing retaining walls, the following aspects need to be investigated:
(a) the stability of soil around the wall;
(b) the stability of retaining wall itself;
(c) the structural strength of the wall;
(d) damage to adjacent structures due to wall construction.
The magnitude of the earth pressure which will be exerted on a wall is dependent on the
amount of movement that the wall undergoes.
It is usual to assume for free-standing retaining walls that sufficient outward movement
occurs to allow active (minimum) earth pressures to develop. The designer must ensure
that sufficient movement can take place without affecting the serviceability or appearance of
the wall.
Where it is not possible for the required outward movement to occur, for instance due to
wall or foundation rigidity, higher pressures will develop and the wall must be designed for
these.
Basic Loading
The basic pressure loading to be considered for the design is:
Normal Loading = static earth pressure + water pressure + pressure due to live loads or
surcharge.
In general, the resulting design pressure for earth retaining structures should not be less
than the pressure due to a fluid of unit weight 5kN/m
3
.
Other considerations
The possible occurrence of other design cases, or variation of the one above, caused by
construction sequence or future development of surrounding areas should also be
considered. For instances, additional surcharges may need to be considered and allowance
made for any possible future removal of ground in front of the wall in connection with
services, particularly if the passive resistance of this material is included in the stability
calculations. The effect of excavation on the wall bearing capacity may also need to be
considered.
For the determination of earth pressure, it is usual to consider a unit length of the cross-
section of the wall and retained soil. A unit length is also used in the structural design of
cantilever walls and other walls with a uniform cross-section.
Support of existing fill slopes
Fill slopes constructed in Hong Kong prior to 1977 are likely to have been end tipped or
inadequately compacted. Such slopes may be subject to liquefaction under conditions of
heavy rainfall, vibration or leakage from services, and resulting mud flows may have serious
consequences. Undercutting of the slope toe, for retaining wall construction, will increase
the risk of failure.
Soil Properties
General
For all walls higher than 5 meters, especially those with sloping backfill, the soil properties
of natural ground and backfill should be estimated in advance of design from tests on
samples of the material involved. In addition, special attention should be paid to the
determination of ground water levels, particularly with respect to maximum probable
values.
For less important walls, an estimation of the soil properties may be made from previous
tests on similar materials. A careful visual examination of the materials, particularly that at
the proposed foundation level, should be made and index tests carried out to ensure that
the assumed material type is correct.
Selection and use of backfill
The ideal backfill for a minimum section wall is a free draining granular material of high
shearing strength. However, the final choice of material should be based on the costs and
availability of such materials balanced against the cost of more expensive walls.
In general, the use of fine-grained clayey backfills is not recommended. Clays are subjected
to seasonal variation in moisture content and consequent swelling and shrinkage. This effect
may lead to an increase in pressure against a wall when these soils are used as backfill. Due
to consolidation, long term settlement problems are considerably greater than with cohesion
less materials.
For cohesive backfills, special attention must be paid to the provision of drainage to prevent
the built-up water pressure. Free draining cohesionless materials may not require the same
amount of attention in this respect. They may still require protection by properly designed
filter layers.
In Hong Kong, backfill for retaining walls usually comprises selected decomposed grainite or
decomposed volcanic rock. This material is in general suitable for backfill provided that it is
properly compacted and drainage measures are carefully designed and properly installed to
prevent build-up of water pressure.
In fact, rock fill is a very suitable material for use as a backfill to retaining walls and
consideration should be given to its use when available. In general, the rockfill should be
well graded and have a nominal maximum size of 200mm. A well-graded densely
compacted rockfill should not have more than about 2% finer than if it is to remain
free-draining.
Earth Pressure
The earth pressure which acts on an earth retaining structure is strongly dependent on the
lateral deformations which occur in the soil. Hence, unless the deformation condition can be
estimated with reasonable accuracy, rational prediction of the magnitude and distribution of
each pressure in the structure is not possible.
The minimum active pressure which can be exerted against a wall occurs when the wall moves sufficiently for
outwards for the soil behind the wall to expand laterally and reach a state of plastic
equilibrium.Similarly, the maximum passive pressure occurs when the wall movement is towards the
soil. The amount of movement necessary to reach these failure conditions is dependent
primarily on the type of backfill material. Some guidance on the movements is given in
Table 1.
Table 1:- Wall displacements required to develop active and passive earth
pressure
Soil State of Stress Type of
Movement
Necessary
Displacement
Sand Active Parallel to wall 0.001H
Active Rotation about base 0.001H

Passive Parallel to wall 0.05H

Passive Rotation about base >0.1H

Clay Active Parallel to wall 0.004H
Active Rotation about base 0.004H

Passive

-


Effects of surcharges
Load imposed on the soil behind the wall should be allowed for in design.
Uniform surcharge loads may be converted to an equivalent height of fill and the earth
pressures calculated for the correspondingly greater height. For example, the buildings with
shallow foundation may be taken as a uniform surcharge of 10kPa per storey. (Figure 1.3)
For example, the standard loading for highway structures in Hong Kong are expressed in
terms of HA and HB loading as defined in BS5400: part 2: 1978. In the absence of more
exact calculations, the nominal load due to live load surcharge may be taken from Table 2.
Table 2:- Suggested surcharge loads to be used in the Design of Retaining
Structures
Road Class Types of Live loading Equivalent Surcharge
Urban Trunk
Rural trunk
(road likely to be regularly
used by heavy industrial
traffic)
HA +45 units of HB 20kPa
Primary Distributor
Rural main road
HA + 37.5 units of HB 15kPa
Footpath, isolated from
roads, play areas

5kPa
.

Figure 3: Surcharge load cases
Effect of water
The presence of water behind a wall has a marked effect on the pressures applied to the
wall. When the water intersect the walls, a hydrostatic pressure will exert against the wall,
together with uplift pressures along the base of the wall. Even when there is no water in
direct contact with the wall, such as when adequate drainage is provided, there is an
increased pressure on the wall due to the increase earth pressure. The effect of water
behind the wall is significant; the total force may be more than double that applied for dry
backfill. Many recorded wall failures can be attributed to the presence of water.
The height to which water can rise in the backfill, and the volume of flow, are both of prime
concern. To determine these the ground water conditions must be established. These may
be best derived form the observation of groundwater conditions prior construction using
piezometers. Notwithstanding the results of groundwater monitoring, the groundwater level
assumed for design should be not lower than one-third of the retained height.
The effect of leakage from services can be significant. There is evidence from field
measurements and failures in Hong Kong that this leakage contributes substantially to both
perched and main groundwater tables. Where inadequate drainage is provided behind a
retaining structure, there may be a damming effect which would result in raising
groundwater levels locally and in the general areas. Such a rise may adversely affect
thestability of slopes and retaining walls. Effective drainage measures should always be
provided in such cases.
Stability of Retaining walls
The stability of a free standing retaining structure and the wall contained by it is determined
by computing factors of safety (or stability factors), which may be defined in general terms
as:
F
s
= Moments or forces aiding stability / moments or forces causing instability
Factors of safety should be calculated for the following separate modes of failure and should
apply to the 1 in 10 year groundwater condition:
(a) sliding of the wall outwards from the retaining soil,
(b) overturning of the retaining wall about its toe,
(c) foundation bearing failure, and
(d) larger scale slope or other failure in the surrounding soil.
The forces that produce overturning and sliding also produce the foundation bearing
pressures and, therefore, (a) and (b) above are inter-related with (c) in most soils.
In cases where the foundation material is soil, overturning stability is usually satisfied if
bearing criteria are satisfied. However, overturning stability may be critical for strong
foundation materials such as rock and so on.
In general, to limit settlement and tilting of walls on soil materials, the resultant of the
loading on the base should be within the middle third. For rock foundation material, the
resultant should be within the middle half of the base.
When calculating overall stability of a wall, the lateral such pressure is calculated to the
bottom of the blinding layer, or in the case of a base with a key, to the bottom of the key
where the actual failure mechanism extends to that point.
Concrete framing system
There are many different reinforced concrete floor system, both cast in place and precast.
The cast-in-place systems are generally of one of the following types:
(a) One-way solid slab and beam
(b) Two-way solid slab and beam
(c) One-way concrete joist construction
(d) Two-way flat slab or flat plate without beams
(e) Two-way joist construction, called waffle construction.
Each system has its distinct advantages and limitations, depending on the spacing of
supports, magnitude of loads, required fire rating, and cost of the construction. The floor
plan of the building and the propose for which the building is to be used determine loading
conditions and the layout of supports. Whenever possible, columns should be aligned in
rows and spaced at regular intervals in order to simplify and lower the cost of the building
construction.
One-way joist construction
Figure 2.1 shows a partial framing plan and some details for a type of construction that
utilize a series of very closely spaced beams and a relatively thin solid slab. This system is
generally the lightest (in dead weight) of any type of flat-spanning, poured-in-place
concrete construction and is structurally well suited to the light loads and medium spans of
office buildings and commercial retail buildings.

Figure 2.1:- Typical Concrete One-way joist construction
Waffle construction
Waffle construction consists of two-way spanning joists that are formed in a manner similar
to that for one-way spanning joists. The most widely used type of waffle construction is the
waffle flat slab, in which solid portions around column supports are produced by omitting
the void-making forms. An example of a portion of such a system is shown in Figure 2.2.
However, at points of discontinuity in the plan, such as at large openings or at edges of the
building- it is usually necessary to form beams. These beam may be produced at projections
below the waffle, as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2:- Typical concrete waffle construction
On the other hand, if beam are provided on all of the column lines, as shown in Figure 2.3,
the construction is analogous to the two-way solid slab with edge supports. With this
system, the solid portions around the column are not required, since the waffle itself does
not achieve the transfer of high shear or development of the high negative moment at the
column.
As with the one-way joist construction, fire ratings are low for ordinary waffle construction.
The system is best suited for situations involving relatively light loads, medium to long
spans, approximately square column bays and a reasonable number of multiple bays in each
direction.

Figure 2.3:- Waffle construction with column-line beams within the waffle depth
Two-way solid slabs
If reinforced in both directions, the solid concrete slab may span two ways as well as one.
The widest use of such a slab is in flat slab or flat plate construction. In flat slab
constriction, beams are used only at points of discontinuity, with the typical system
consisting only of the slab and the strengthening elements used at column supports. Typical
details for a flat slab system are shown in Figure 2.4. Drop panels consisting of thickened
portions square in plan are used to give additional resistance to high shear and negative
moment that develops at the column supports. Enlarged portions are also sometimes
provided at the tops of the columns to further reduce the stresses in the slab.

Figure 2.4:- Concrete flat slab construction with drop panels and column caps
Two-way slab construction consists of multiple bays of solid two-way-spanning slabs with
edges supports consisting of bearing wall of concrete. Typical details for such a system are
shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5:- Two-way spanning concrete slab construction with edge supports
Two way-solid slab constructions is generally favored over waffle construction where higher
fire rating is required for the unprotected structure or where spans are short and loadings
high. As with all types of two-way spanning system, they function most efficiently where the
spans in each direction are approximately the same.
Composite construction: concrete plus structural steel
Figure 2.6 shows a section detail of a type of construction generally referred to as
composite construction. This consists of a poured concrete spanning supported by structural
steel beams, the two being made to interact by the use of shear developers welded to the
top of the beams and embedded in the cast slab. The concrete slab may be formed by use
of plywood sheets, resulting in the details as shown in Figure 2.6. however, a more popular
form of construction is that in which a formed steel deck is used in the usual manner,
welded to the top of the beams. The shear developers are than site-welded through the
deck to the top of the beam. The steel deck may function essentially only to form the
concrete, or may itself develop a composite action with the poured slab.

Figure 2.6:- Steel frame with poured-in-place concrete slab

THERMAL CRACKING OF CONCRETE AND PREVENTION
Thermal Cracking of Concrete and Prevention
Temperature difference within a concrete structure may be caused by portions of the
structure losing heat of hydration at different rates or by the weather conditions cooling or
heating one portion of the structure to a different degree or at a different rate than another
portion of the structure.
These temperature differences result in differential volume change, leading to cracks. This is
normally associated with mass concrete including large and thicker sections ( 500mm) of
column, piers, beams, footings and slabs. Temperature differential due to changes in the
ambient temperature can affect any structure.

The temperature gradient may be caused by either the centre of the concrete heating up
more than the outside due to the liberation of heat during cement hydration or more rapid
cooling of the exterior relative to the interior. Both cases result in tensile stresses on the
exterior and, if the tensile strength is exceeded, cracking will occur. The tensile stresses are
proportional to the temperature differential, the coefficient of thermal expansion, the
effective modulus of elasticity (which is reduced by creep), and the degree of restraint. The
more massive is the structure, the greater is the potential for temperature differential and
restraint. Hardened concrete has a coefficient of thermal expansion that may range from 4
to 910-6 per deg. F. When one portion of a structure is subjected to a temperature
induced volume change, the potential for thermally induced cracking exists. Special
consideration should be given to the design of structures in which some portions are
exposed to temperature changes, while other portions of the structure are either partially or
completely protected. A drop in temperature may result in cracking in the exposed element,
while increases in temperature may cause cracking in the protected portion of the structure.
Preventive Measures:
Reducing maximum internal temperature.
Delaying the onset of cooling.
Controlling the rate at which the concrete cools by insulating the exposed concrete
surface during first 5 days. This could be done by 50mm thick thermocol sheets encased
with polythene sheet laid over concrete surfaces already covered with hessian cloth and
water sprinkler keeping the hessian wet. The temperature gradient between core of
concrete and the surfaces should not be allowed to be more than 15
0
C.
Increasing the tensile strength of concrete.
Reducing the concrete temperature at placement up to say 32 0 C.
Using low heat of hydration cement or using fly ash replacement of part of cement.
Keeping steel formwork warm by air heating during winter.
Use of thermally insulating material as formwork.
Keeping insulating formwork for longer duration.
Low grade of cement, OPC 33 grade is the best.
Cement with high C2S content.
Repairs: Sealing and grouting of concrete cracks.

Concrete Crazing:
Crazing is the development of a network of fine random cracks or fissures on the surface
of concrete caused by shrinkage of the surface layer.
These cracks are rarely more than 3mm deep, and are more noticeable on over floated or
steel-troweled surfaces. The irregular hexagonal areas enclosed by the cracks are typically
no more than 40mm wide and may be as small as 10mm in unusual instances (Fig. 1(a) &
(b)).

Generally, craze cracks develop at an early age and are apparent the day after placement or
at least by the end of the first weak. Often they are not readily visible until the surface has
been wetted and it is beginning to dry.
They do not affect the structural integrity of concrete and rarely do they affect durability.
However crazed surfaces can be unsightly. Crazing in concrete usually occurs because of
wrong construction practices like:
Poor or inadequate curing.
Intermittent wet curing and drying.
Excessive floating
Excessive laitance on surface.
Finishing with float when bleed water is on the surface.
Sprinkling cement on the surface to dry up the bleed water.
Over vibration loading extra bleed & laitance on surface.
Preventive Measure for Concrete Crazing:
Proper and early start of curing.
Use of curing compound on the surface.
Never sprinkle dry cement or a mixture of cement and fine sand on the surface of the
plastic concrete.

SOIL TESTS REQUIRED FOR DEEP
FOUNDATIONS
Deep foundations are those where the depth of foundation is generally greater than two
times of width of footing (D = 2B). Deep foundations are required due to various
reasons.Read here about why deep foundations are required and types of deep
foundations.
The soil tests required for deep foundations are:
1. While the composition and depth of the bearing layer for shallow foundations may vary
from one site to another, most pile foundations in a locally encounter similar deposits. Since
pile capacity based on soil parameters is not as reliable from load tests, as a first step it is
essential to obtain full information on the type, size, length and capacity of piles (including
details of load settlement graph) generally adopted in the locality. Correlation of soil
characteristics (from soil investigation reports) and corresponding load tests (from actual
projects constructed) is essential to decide the type of soil tests to be preformed and to
make a reasonable recommendation for the type, size, length and capacity of piles since
most formulae are empirical.

2. If information about piles in the locality are not available or reliable, it may be
necessary to drive a test pile and correlate with soil data.
3. Standard penetration test (SPT) to determine the cohesion (and consequently the
adhesion) to determine the angle of friction (and consequently the angle of friction between
soil and the pile and also the point of resistance) for each soil stratum of cohesion less soil
of soil.
4. Static cone penetration test (CPT) to determine the cohesion (and subsequently the
adhesion) for soft cohesive soils and to check with SPT result for fine to medium sands.
Hence for strata encountering both cohesive and cohesion less soils, both SPT and CPT tests
are required.
5. Vane shear test for impervious clayey soils.
6. Un-drained triaxial shear strength of undisturbed soil samples (obtained with thin
walled tube samplers) to determine cohesion (c) and angle of internal friction ( ) for clayey
soils (since graphs for correlations were developed based on un-drained shear parameter).
In case of driven piles proposed for stiff clays, it is necessary to check with the c and
from remoulded samples also. Drained shear strength parameters are also determined to
represent in-situ condition of soil at end of construction phase.
7. Self boring pressure meter test to determine modulus of sub-grade reaction for
horizontal deflection for granular soils, very stiff cohesive soils, soft rock and weathered or
jointed rock.
8. Ground water condition and permeability of soil influence the choice of pile type to
be recommended. Hence the level at which water in the bore hole remains are noted in the
bore logs. Since permeability of clay is very low, it takes several days for water in the drill
hole to rise upto ground water table.
Ground water samples need to be tested to consider the possible chemical effects
onconcrete and the reinforcement. Result of the cone penetration test for the same soil
show substantial scatter. Hence, they need to be checked with supplementary information
from other exploration methods.
Pressure meters are used to estimate the in-situ modulus of elasticity for soil in lateral
direction. Unless the soil is isotropic, the same value cannot be adopted for the vertical
direction.

Composition and Types of Soils
Soil grains consists of inert rock materials (cobble, gravel, sand and silt) often combined
with significant amounts of clay (say more than 5%). While inert silt grains may be angular
or rounded (thus contributing to greater or less angle of internal friction), particles of clay
are small platelets with negative charges on both faces which attract the positively charged
ends of water molecules. Thus bond is responsible for the cohesion ends of water molecules.
This bond is responsible for the cohesion C of clay.
Silt or sand with appreciable amounts of clay (say more than 15%) behaves like clayey soil
since the permeability of clay is of the order of 10
-7
cm/s compared to 10cm/s for sand. This
capacity of the clay to hold the water molecules for long even when the pressure is applied
on the soil, greatly influences its behaviour, i.e. shear strength, compressibility and
permeability.

Simple and Quick Methods of Field Identification of Soils:
1. Fine sand is differentiated from silt by placing a spoonful of soil in a glass of jar or
test tube, mixing with water and shaking it to a suspension. Sand settles first, followed by
silt which may take about five minutes. This test may also be sued for clay which takes
more than 10 minutes to start settling. The percentages of clay, silt and sand are assessed
by observing the depths of the sediments.
2. Silt is differentiated from clay as follows:
a) Clay lumps are more difficult to crush with fingers than silt. When moistened, the soil
lump surface texture is felt with the finger. If it is smooth, it is clay, if rough it is silt.
b) A ball of the soil is formed and shaken horizontally on the palm of the hand. If the
material becomes shiny from water coming to the surface, it is silt.
c) If soil containing appreciable percent of clay is cut with a knife, the cut surface appears
lustrous. In case of silt, the surface appears dull.
3) Field indication for the consistency of cohesive soils are as follows:
Stiff consistency: Cannot be moulded with the finger.
Medium consistency: Can be moulded by the fingers on strong pressure. Readily
indented with thumb nail.
Soft consistency: Easily moulded with the fingers.
4) Colour of the soil indicates its origin and the condition under which it was deposited.
Sand and gravel deposits may contain lenses of silt, clay or even organic deposits. If so, the
presumptive bearing capacity is reduced.
Based on the field identification of the soil, the presumptive bearing capacity of the soil can
be guessed by referring to Table-2 of IS:1904 1986. The objectives of preliminary soil
investigations are to drawn up an appropriate program for detailed soil investigation and to
examine the sketch plans and preliminary drawings prepared by the Architect from the point
of suitability of the proposed structure.
TO DETERMINE THE PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF A SOIL BY SEIVING
Theory:
The soil is sieved through a set of sieves. The material retained on different sieves is
determined. The percentage of material retained on any sieve is given by

Where = mass of soil retained on sieve n
M= total mass of the sample.
The cumulative percentage of the material retained

Where , etc are the percentages retained on sieve 1, 2 etc which are coarser than
sieve n. The percentage finer than the sieve n

Equipment:
1. Set of fine sieves, 2mm, 1mm, 600micron, 425, 212, 150, and 75 micron.
2. Set of coarse sieves, 100mm, 80mm, 40mm, 10mm, and 4.75mm.
3. Weighing balance with accuracy of 0.1% of the mass of the sample.
4. Oven
5. Mechanical shaker
6. Trays
7. Mortar with a rubber covered pestle.
8. Brushes
9. Riffler
Part-I: Coarse Sieve Analysis
Procedure:
1. Take the required quantity of the sample. Sieve it through a 4.75mm Is sieve. Take the
soil fraction retained on 4.75mm IS sieve for the coarse sieve analysis (Part-I) and that
passing through the sieve for the fine sieve analysis (Part-II).
2. Sieve the sample through the set of coarse sieves by hand. While sieving through each
sieve, the sieve should be agitated such that the sample rolls in irregular motion over the
sieve, the material retained on the sieve may be rubbed with the rubber pestle in the
mortar, if necessary. Care shall be taken so as not to break the individual particles. The
quantity of the material taken for sieving on each sieve shall be such that the maximum
mass of material retained on each sieve does not exceed the specified value.
3. Determine the mass of the material retained on each sieve.
4. Calculate the percentage of soil retained on each sieve on the basis of the total mass of
the sample, taken in step (1).
5. Determine the percentage passing through each sieve.
Part-II: Fine Sieve Analysis.
6. Take the portion of the soil passing 4.75 mm IS sieve. Oven dry it at 105 to 110
0
C.
Weigh it to 0.1% of the total mass.
7. Sieve the soil trough the nest of fine sieves, the sieves should be agitated so that the
sample rolls in irregular motion over the sieves. However, no particles should be pushed
through the sieve.
8. Take the material retained on various sieves in a mortar. Rub it with rubble pestle, but do
not try to break individual particles.
9. Reserve the material through the nest of sieves. A minimum of 10min of shaking is
required if a mechanical shaker is used.
10. Collect the soil fraction retained on each sieve in a separate container. Take the mass.
11. Determine the percentage retained, cumulative percentage retained, and the
percentage finer, based on the total mass taken in step (1).
Data Sheet for Sieve Analysis
Total mass of dry soil=______g
Mass of soil retained on 4.75mm sieve = ________g
Mass of soil passing 4.75mm sieve = _______g

S.No. OBSERVATIONS CALCULATIONS
IS Sieve Size of
opening
Mass of soil
retained
Percentage
retained
Cumulative
% retained
% finer
Coarse Fraction (Part-I)
100 m 100 mm
80 mm 80 mm
40 mm 40 mm
20 mm 20 mm
10 mm 10 mm
4.75 mm 4.75 mm
Fine Fraction (Part-II)
2 mm 2 mm
1 mm 1 mm
6 600 0.600 mm
425 0.425 mm
300 0.300 mm
212 0.212 mm
150 0.150 mm
75 0.075 mm


-



Result:
Percentage finer given in the last column can be used to plot the particle size distribution
curve with particle size as abscissa on log scale and the percentage finer as ordinate.

Fig: Particle size distribution on semi log graph


Fig: Grading of soils
[Note: If the fraction contains an appreciable amount of clay particles, the wet sieve
analysis is required. Alternatively following method may be used.
Before conducting step (7), add the water containing sodium hexa-mataphosphate at the
rate of 2g per litre of water to the soil fraction. Stir the mix thoroughly and leave for
soaking. Wash the soaked specimen on a 75 sieve after washing.]
10. Failures in Retaining Walls:
10.1 Reasons:
Too much pressure for size and type of wall. Whats it made of and how much is it trying to
hold back
Failure retaining wall collapse

Cantilever Retaining Walls:

(a) Cantilever retaining wall without toe projection

(b) Cantilever retaining wall with fillets
Fig: Cantilever Retaining Wall
Counterfort and Buttress Retaining Walls:
If the height of the retaining wall exceeds certain limit, the cantilever walls are not
economical. Economy can be achieved by providing counterforts which are nothing but
vertical beams connected to the stem and the heel slab by reinforcements at regular
intervals. The heel slab and the vertical stem are designed as continuous slabs instead of
cantilever slabs. If the counterforts are provided in the toe side, the retaining wall is called a
buttress wall.

Fig. Counterfort Retaining Wall

Fig: Buttress Retaining Wall
Surcharge on retaining walls:
A retaining wall which retains earth level upto the top of the retaining wall is a wall without
surcharge. If the earth on the earth retained side is not level or the earth carries loads, the
earth is said to have surcharge. The pressure exerted by the earth on the retaining wall will
be more in this case. The different types of surcharges that may act on a retaining wall are
illustrated in fig below.

Fig: Different Types of Surcharges on Retaining Wall
Earth Pressure:
The retained earth exerts horizontal pressure on the retaining wall, which is called the
active earth pressure. The resisting pressure applied by the wall on the retained earth is
called the passive earth pressure. This earth pressure varies linearly with the dept of
retained earth. The pressure at a depth of H on the wall exerted by the earth is given
by , where is the coefficient of active earth pressure and w is the density of the
earth retained. The total earth pressure upto this depth H is the area of the pressure
diagram which is and H acts at a height of H/3 from the bottom. Hence the
moment due to the horizontal pressure

Where , and is the angle of the repose of the soil.

Fig: Earth Pressure on Retaining Wall
If the earth has a sloping surcharge, sloping at an angle of to the horizontal, then the
pressure at a depth of due to earth is and the total earth pressure upto a
depth of is . This acts at a height of and parallel to the surface of the
ground. Hence the moment about the base is

Where

Fig: Earth Pressure due to inclined Backfill on Retaining wall
If the earth has a level surcharge of /unit run, then the pressure is the same at all
depths and is equal to and the surcharge pressure at a depth of H is equal
to . This acts at H/2 from the bottom. The moment due to this at the
bottom (figure below).

Fig: Earth Pressure due to Surcharge on Retaining Wall
If the surcharge is submerged, the submerged earth pressure should be taken into account.
Sufficient drainage holes are provided at different levels for the draining of water.

BOX GIRDER SPECIFICATIONS,
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
The continuing expansion of highway network throughout the world is largely the result of
great increase in traffic, population and extensive growth of metropolitan urban areas. This
expansion has lead to many changes in the use and development of various kinds of
bridges. The bridge type is related to providing maximum efficiency of use of material and
construction technique, for particular span, and applications. As Span increases, dead load
is an important increasing factor. To reduce the dead load, unnecessary material, which is
not utilized to its full capacity, is removed out of section, this results in the shape of box
girder or cellular structures, depending upon whether the shear deformations can be
neglected or not. Span range is more for box bridge girder as compare to T-beam Girder
Bridge resulting in comparatively lesser number of piers for the same valley width and
hence results in economy.
A box girder is formed when two web plates are joined by a common flange at both the top
and the bottom. The closed cell which is formed has a much greater torsional stiffness and
strength than an open section and it is this feature which is the usual reason for choosing a
box girder configuration.
Box girders are rarely used in buildings (box columns are sometimes used but these are
axially loaded rather than in loaded in bending). They may be used in special circumstances,
such as when loads are carried eccentrically to the beam axis
When tension flanges of longitudinal girders are connected together, the resulting structure
is called a box girder bridge.
Box girders can be universally applied from the point of view of load carrying, to their
indifference as to whether the bending moments are positive or negative and to their
torsional stiffness; from the point of view of economy.


Historical development and description of box girder:
The first box girder cross section possessed deck slabs that cantilevered out only slightly
from the box portion shown in figs a to e. With the prestressed concrete the length of
cantilever could be increased. The high form work costs caused a reduction in the number of
cells fig (f, g, h). In order to reduce the construction loads to minimum possible extent or to
require only one longitudinal girder in working states even with multiple traffic lanes.
It was only with the development of high strength prestressing steel that it became possible
to span longer distances. The first prestressed concrete bridges, most of I-cross sections
were built towards the end of the 1920s.The great breakthrough was achieved only after
1945. THE SCLAYN bridge over the river Maas, which was built by Magnel in 1948, was
the first continuous prestressed concrete box-girder bridge with 2 spans of 62.70m. In
following years the ratio of wages to material costs climbed sharply. This thereby shifted the
emphasis of development of construction method. The box girder cross-section evolved
structurally from the hollow cell-deck bridge or T-beam Bridge. The widening of the
compression zone that began as a structural requirement at the central piers was in the
extended throughout the entire length of bridge because of advantages transverse load-
carrying characteristics.
Evolution of Box Girder:
The spanning of bridges started with simple slabs. As the spans increased, the design depth
of slab is also increased. It is known that material near centre of gravity contributes very
little for flexure and hence can be removed. This leads to beam and slab systems. The
reinforcement in bottom bulb of beam provided capacity for tensile forces and top slab
concrete, the capacity to resist the compression. They formed a couple to resist flexure.
As the width of slab is increased more number of longitudinal girders are required resulting
in reduction of stiffness of beams in transverse direction and relatively high transverse
curvature. The webs of beams get opened out spreading radially from top slab. Under high
transverse bending these will no longer be in their original position. To keep it in their
original position the bulbs at bottom should be tied together which in-turn leads to evolution
of box girder. Long spans with wider decks and eccentric loading on cross-section will suffer
in curvature in longitudinal and transverse direction causing heavy distortion of cross-
section. Hence the bridges should have high torsional rigidity in order to resist the distortion
of cross-section deck to a minimum.
Accordingly box girders are more suitable for larger spans and wider decks, box girders are
to be suitable cross-section. They are elegant and slender. Economy and aesthetics further
lead to evolution of cantilevers in top flanges and inclined webs in external cells of box
girder. The dimension of cell could be controlled by prestressing.
As the span and width increases the beams and bottom slabs are to be tied to keep the
geometry which in turn leads to evolution box girder.
Any eccentric load will cause high torsional stresses which will be counter acted by the box
section. The analysis of such sections are more complicated due combination of flexure,
shear, torsion, distortion. But it is more efficient cross-section. It is used for larger spans
with wide cross-section. It can be used for spans up to 150m depending upon the
construction methods. Cantilever method of construction is preferred most.
Advantages Associated with Box Girders:
In recent years, single or multi-cell reinforced concrete box Girder Bridge have been
proposed and widely used as economic aesthetic solution for the over crossings, under
crossings, grade separation structures and viaducts found in modern highway system.
The very large Torsional rigidity of the box girders closed cellular section provides
structures beneath is more aesthetically pleasing than open-web type system.
In case of long span bridges, large width of deck is available to accommodate
prestressing cables at bottom flange level.
Interiors of box girder bridges can be used to accommodate service such as gas pipes,
water mains etc.
For large spans, bottom flange could be used as another deck accommodates traffic
also.
The maintenance of box girder is easier in interior space is directly accessible without
use of scaffolding.
Alternatively space is hermetically sealed and enclosed air may be dried to provide a
non-corrosive atmosphere.
It has high structural efficiency which minimizes the prestessing force required to resist
a given bending moment, and its great Torsional strength with the capacity this gives to
re-centre eccentric live loads, minimizing the prestress required to carry them.
Disadvantages:
One of the main disadvantages of box decks is that they are difficult to cast in-situ due to
the inaccessibility of the bottom slab and the need to extract the internal shutter. Either the
box has to be designed so that the entire cross section may be cast in one continuous pour,
or the cross section has to be cast in stages.
Specifications:
It can cover a range of spans from 25 m up to the largest non-suspended concrete decks
built; of the order of 300 m. Single box girders may also carry decks up to 30 m wide. For
the longer span beams, beyond about 50 m, they are practically the only feasible deck
section. Below 30m precast beams or voided slab decks are more suitable while above
50ma single cell box arrangement is usually more economic.
Single cell box-girder cast-in-situ are used for spans form 40m to 270m.The box
arrangement is done in order to give aesthetic appearance where the web of box will act as
a slender appearance when combined with a slim parapet profile. Single box arrangements
are efficient for both the longitudinal and transverse designs, and they produce an economic
solution for mot medium and long span structures. This type of deck is constructed span-
by-span, using full-height scaffolding or trusses, or as balanced cantilever using form
travelers. This could be particularly important for medium length bridges with spans
between 40m and 55m. Such spans are too long for twin rib type decks, and too short for
cast-in-situ balanced cantilever construction of box girders, while a total length of box
section deck of less than about 1,000 m does not justify setting up a precast segmental
facility.
Haunches:
The uprights have to carry the same bending moment as the haunch, but with the benefit of
a compression force due to the weight of the roof. Thus they may be slightly thinner than
the haunches. Haunches are always economical. They provide the twin benefits of attracting
moment away from mid-span and then providing a greater lever arm to resist this moment
economically. Even very short haunches are valuable in reducing the hogging reinforcement.