MMus Electroacoustic Music Composition

An Analysis of
Bernard Parmegianis Incidences/Resonances
through Spectromorphology, Spectral Analysis
and Graphical Score.




Craig Burgess









$
Introduction.
The intention of this paper is to analyse Bernard Parmegianis
Incidences/Resonances
1
and explore the relationships between the various
forms of transformed sound material present within the work.
The aim of the analysis is to explore compositional structure and sound
material through spectromorphology, spectral analysis and graphical score to
gain insight and interpret the material present, developing an understanding
of the intrinsic relationships that sound objects share as they interact.
This investigation into the sound material will be supported through the
implementation of a graphical score and spectrogram to illustrate the structure
and aesthetic make-up of the work.









1
See Bernard Parmegiani, Parmegiani: De Natura Sonorum (Version Integrale), INA-GRM
Ina C 3001, 2000 (reissue of 1975 recording).


%
Methods of Analysis and Historical Background.
In order to fully explore the sound objects
2
and compositional framework
present in Parmegianis Incidences/Resononances, a method of analysis
was sough to explain the detail inherent within the material.
There are a number of theoretical concepts, approaches and techniques
widely implemented within the electroacoustic compositional framework which
help to enable the description and interpretation of sound objects.
Pierre Schaeffer developed one of the first techniques and approaches with
which to classify and interpret sound objects in his publication Trait des
objets musicaux (1966), lauded as the first significant work to elaborate on
the spectral and morphological characteristics of sound.
3

However it has been found to be difficult to interpret and apply Pierre
Schaeffers typomorphology in a practical context, as commented on by
Thoresen (2007):
!developed in the 1960s, Schaeffer proposed a variety of novel
terms, but they have not been widely used since they unfortunately
did not lend themselves very well to practical analysis.
4



2
Sound objects are created from combining source material, be it the onset from a
percussive hit on a metallic surface or the continuant bell-like drone that emanates from each
initial hit, gradually fluctuating and growing, morphing into the next sound object.
3
See Aki Pasoulas, in: An Overview of Score and Performance in Electroacoustic Music,
Canadian Electroacoustic Community, (Accessed 4th December 2011),
<http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/10_4/pasoulas_score.html>.
4
See Lasse Thoresen and Andreas Hedman, Spectromorphological analysis of sound
objects: an adaptation of Pierre Schaeffer's typomorphology, Organised Sound, Vol. 12, No.
2, (2007), 129.


&
Spectromorphology
Denis Smalley claims his concept of spectromorphology
5
could be a useful
tool for the purpose of analytical and descriptive exploration as it enables a
comprehensive and detailed approach that builds on the groundwork put in
place by Pierre Schaeffers Trait des objets musicaux. He states:
A spectromorphological approach sets out spectral and
morphological models and processes, and provides a framework
for understanding structural relations and behaviours as
experienced in the temporal flux of the music.
6

On this basis spectromorphology could be useful as a method of investigating
sound object relationships within Incidences/Resonances as it allows a way
of describing and analysing sound object material in both a focused and wider
context. This allows the listener to comment on the relationships and concepts
present within he work on a number of levels. Smalley continues by stating:
Spectromorphology is not a compositional theory or method, but a
descriptive tool based on aural perception. It is intended to aid
listening, and seeks to help explain what can be apprehended in
over four decades of electroacoustic repertory.
7



5
Smalley expresses the concept and terminology of spectromorphology as tools for
describing and analysing listening experience. The two parts of the term refer to the
interaction between sound spectra (spectro-) and the ways they change and are shaped
through time (-morphology). The spectro- cannot exist without the -morphology and vice
versa: something has to be shaped, and a shape must have sonic content. See Denis
Smalley, Spectromorphology: explaining sound-shapes, Organised Sound, Vol. 2, No. 2.
(1997), 107.
6
Ibid.
7
Ibid. 113.
'
Spectromorphological Expectation.
One particularly effective aspect of Smalleys spectromorphological
framework, in terms of exploring the intrinsic details of the sound object
material and therefore its inter-relationships and characteristics, is the
category of spectromorphological expectation.
Smalley describes spectromorphological expectation in the following way:
Every note must start in some way; some may be sustained or
prolonged for a time and some may not; every note stops.
8

Smalley continues by discussing three linked temporal phases, which he
refers to as onset, continuant and termination:
They are not distinctly separable: we cannot tell the very moment
when an onset passes into a continuant phase, nor when a
continuant passes into the terminal phase. Nor do all three phases
have to be present in the note-gesture.
9

Incidences/Resonances incorporates what could be described as multiple
instances of onset, continuation and termination in terms of sound object
relationships that occur, not just within the individual sound objects
themselves but also across wider sections of the piece as sound objects
combine. These sections lead into one another to create the piece as a whole.
Therefore it is useful to consider Smalleys concept in different contexts and
on different levels when referring to Incidences/Resonances as a whole.

8
Ibid. 112.
9
Ibid. 113.
(
Each phase of Smalleys spectromorphological expectation category has an
accompanying set of archetypes that Smalley uses to describe specific
features and phases of the sound object. He asserts that In all three models
spectral richness is assumed to be congruent with the dynamic shape of the
morphology, the louder, the more spectral energy, the brighter and/or richer
the sound.
10

Smalley details these three archetypes in his Spectromorphology article as:
The attack alone. This is a momentary energetic impulse. Two temporal
phases are merged into one there is a sudden onset, which is also
the termination. Awareness is focused on the attack-energy.

The attack-decay. The attack is extended by a resonance. The onset
and terminatory phases are present, and there may be a hint of the
continuant. In this archetype an initial gesture is enough to set a
spectromorphology in motion, after which there is no gestural
intervention as the sound continues towards termination.

The graduated continuant. In this archetype all three phases are
present. The onset starts gradually as if faded in, and the note
terminates gradually as if faded out. In between, the note is sustained
for a time.
11



10
Ibid. 113.
11
Ibid. 113.
)
This form of description is useful in relation to Incidences/Resonances as it
allows us to accurately describe individual sound objects commonly found
within the material as well as considering the work as a whole. In addition, it
also provides us with precise terminology with which to do so. For example,
at a peripheral level the piece has several sections that combine to create
larger sections, which eventually form the piece as a whole. The opening
section could be described as a combination of attack alone and attack decay
onsets that precede a graduated continuant stage populated by sustained
drones.
A number of sound objects found within Incidences/Resonances are created
by the transformation of original source material from both natural sounds and
electronically generated material. In keeping with the acousmatic tradition of
decoupling source-bonded
12
material, Parmegiani manipulates sound objects
to create new material that has little or no resemblance to the original source.
He achieves through the manipulation of source material by removing a
constituent portion of original sound material and marrying it with another,
unrelated sound object. The combination of concrete with electronically
generated material is utilized frequently to create sound objects that have little
to do with the original source. This concept is at the very essence of the piece
and is reflected not only in its title of but also in Smalleys terms, onsets,
continuants and terminations. Trevor Wishart comments on the combining of

12
See Denis Smalley, Space-form and the acousmatic image, Organised Sound, Vol. 12,
No. 1, (2007), 38.

#
sound material stating duality refers to the use of recognisable sounds which
have been reordered in such a way as to appear almost abstract.
13

There are numerous relationships and events present, not only between the
individual sound objects but also the differing sections of the work, collectively
creating larger sound objects, interactions and parts. Smalley reinforces this
in his article stating:
At one moment in a work one may be following discrete, short
units, and at another a large-scale structure whose continuity and
coherence refuse to be dissected and demand to be considered
more as a whole than as the sum of minute parts.
14












13
Wishart, Trevor, On Sonic Art - Revised Edition London, 1996,137
14
See also the comments in Smalley, Spectromorphology: explaining sound-shapes, 114.
*
The First Listen Graphical Score+
When first approaching the task of analysing and detailing the piece the
decision was made to create a set of rough graphical sketches to highlight
sound objects inherent within the work and to provide a visual representation.
(See Appendix A: First listening score).

The first listen graphical score was undertaken at an early stage to enable an
overview of the work as a whole, as a comparative alternative to the
spectrogram. It was also helpful in aiding the realisation of a final, detailed
analysis of Incidences/Resonances.
The shapes used were simple, intuitive, graphical interpretations of what the
sound objects might look like if one was to visualize the sonic material. An
approach followed which involved the quick jotting down of shapes as they
first came to mind, allowing the capture of initial visual interpretation of the
sound material. This enabled a further level of familiarisation with the piece.







,"
Spectral Analysis
Spectral analysis (See Appendix B: Spectrogram) was applied to the piece to
reinforce the information provided by the first listening graphical scores.
15
In
addition, a further visual aid was generated utilising SPEAR spectral analysis,
editing and synthesis software
16
(See Appendix C: SPEAR spectral partial
analysis) to highlight spectral relationships.
This information helped to provide an initial insight into the relationships
shared between sound objects. Relationships such as harmonic, spectral,
duration and comparative levels were easily identifiable from the spectral
analysis. This information was then used to define events that could be
deemed onset, continuant and termination properties of the sound objects as
well as collective sections.
Figure 1 illustrates the entirety of Incidences/Resonances in the form of a
spectrogram. From this initial first glance of the material in spectral form it is
easy to pick out some of the more obvious sound object events within the
piece. For example, the extended resonant material, appearing as horizontal
lines stretching across the graph, and short percussive based incidences that
dissect the graph from top to bottom as vertical lines at various points. The
resultant visual information also highlights some material that appeared to be
missing from the graphical score in terms of harmonic relationships, exact
temporal information and durations.

15
See Alexander Kojevnikov,, in: SPEK Spectral Analysis Software, Spek Acoustic
Spectrum Analyser, (Accessed 2
nd
November 2011), <http://spek-project.org>.

16
See Michael Klingbeil, in: SPEAR Sinusoidal Partial Editing Analysis and Resynthesis
Spear Spectral Analysis and Resynthesis Software, (Accessed 5th November 2011),
<http://www.klingbeil.com/spear>.

,,
Fig 1: Spectral analysis
The piece is introduced (0:00-0:48) with a series of attack alone transients,
momentary energetic impulses that suddenly terminate. The sudden onsets
then combine with extended resonant fluctuations, morphing and combining to
create graduated continuants. The continuant drones are broken by attack
alone onsets that briefly combine with, and at other junctures, abruptly
terminate the existing drone material
The transition to the next section occurs through an abrupt (0:48-0:50)
succession of attack alone onsets. These introduce intermittent, attack decay
sound objects (0:48-1:14) that pan left and right at a steady temporal rate.
Sound object material is reintroduced, in the form of resonant continuant
drone, (1:00) from the introductory section. The gradual attack of the drone
continuants is masked by the sharp attack alone onsets, which then introduce
,$
a splitting of the continuant into harmonic partials, creating a spectrally rich
bed.

This relationship between the attack alone, attack decay and graduated
continuant sound objects is a recurring theme within Parmegiani!s piece.


Fig 2: 2 minutes 40 seconds illustrating harmonic relationships.
,%
The spectrogram enables a detailed focus on the piece, highlighting key
information within the work. In particular the spectrogram in Figure 2
illustrates quite clearly that in the final section of Incidences/Resonances
there are fluctuating harmonic relationships (2:30-4:00) between the
continuant drone material. Visually this information manifests itself as
horizontal parallel lines that stretch out across the latter duration of the piece.
The spectrally bright drone builds through this harmonic stacking of partials
that fill out the piece and are caused by the introduction of additional material.
These delicate fluctuations create an overall feeling of instability in the section
as they oscillate and intertwine. This continuant drone is punctuated again
and again, creating a building sense of suspense and drama. This relationship
between the continuant drone and the attack onsets occur at regular junctures
within the piece and form a key aspect of the work. At many parts the attack
onsets terminate the continuant drone signaling the end of one oscillation and
creating another.
Over the course of the piece (1:30-2:30) the resonant drone continuant
material takes on a more menacing role, fading only to return, as a result of
this termination by the attack onset. It then builds, overwhelming other
elements until they are reintroduced in startling fashion by another onset,
bringing us back into the context of the whole piece. Thomas Blum in his 1981
article reinforces this aspect of Incidences/Resonances stating:
,&
[The piece] is successful in that it integrates contradictory sonic
materials in such a way that they form a whole musical
environment.
17

The incident attack onset elements have clear transient detail that force the
listener to take notice alerting them to the start and/or end of a sound object
relationship. The initial incident attack onset is followed by more attack
onsets, which morph into graduated drone continuant sound objects. The
relationship between the abrupt attack onset and the continuant drone is a
common feature of the piece. There are examples of this at the beginning of
the piece (0:14) as well as at a number of other junctures (0:30-1:40, 2:00-
2:40, 3:18) where the incident onsets punctuate the drone and produce
variations in the steady underlying continuant. There is an element of
combination within the material that is broken by the abrupt interruptions of
the incidental sound objects. This termination yields new relationships and
signals new sections. The onset attacks slightly increase in both amplitude
and spectral brightness as the piece continues within its first minute, which
can be seen from the spectrogram as increasingly defined vertical lines.
(Figure 3)

17
See Thom Blum, De Natura Sonorum Review, Computer Music Journal: Vol. 5 No.2,
(1981), 70.
,'

Fig 3: Attack onsets increase in both spectral brightness and amplitude.
As discussed, interesting examples of multiple attack onsets and their
interactions are clear within the piece at numerous stages. Parmegiani uses
the incident attack onsets as signifiers or instructions as to the potential sonic
pathway the drone-like continuant sound objects must take. It is almost
analogous with an army general relaying commands and orders to his troops.
Caleb Deupree, in his English interpretation of Jean-Jacques Nattiezs 1982
publication L'Envers d'une oeuvre
18
comments on the interrupting nature of
the attack onsets stating:

18
See Philippe Mion, Jean-Jacques Nattiez and Jean-Christophe Thomas, L'envers d'une
uvre. De Natura Sonorum de Bernard Parmegiani, Paris, 1982.

,(
[There is an] interruption of an incident into a resonance (or a
continuum) [where the] incidents are "foreign bodies" that interfere
with the development of the sound; taken from a material different
from the continuum (for example a crystal strike in a long metallic
resonance), the foreign body perturbs the continuum in different
ways; in general by modifying the harmonic web, thickening,
doubling!sometimes completely changing the continuum.
19


The attack onset sound objects are utilised in other ways to signify changes in
the continuant drone material, as can be heard in the first minute of the piece.
(0:48-0:52) There is repetition of the same metallic-like transient onset attacks
at specific points. These then terminate abruptly, introducing a division of the
drone into short, intermittent, regular bursts that resemble telephonic beeps.
This relationship is mirrored in the latter sections of the piece (2:40-3:40),
although the continuant material is retained. In this section the attack onsets
create fluctuations in the drone continuant that cause it to change in terms of
its fundamental frequency and overall stability.

Considering the information provided by the first listening of the graphical
score and the spectrogram, an awareness of the detail of the piece and of its
shape and sound object relationships was formed, creating a mental picture of
the work. Through this sectioning and defining of sound object placement

19
See Caleb Deupree, in: De Natura Sonorum 1 & 4 Classic Drone (Accessed 23rd
November 2011), <http://classicaldrone.blogspot.com/2010/05/de-natura-sonorum-1-and-
4.html>.

,)
within the material, how the sound objects combined and interacted became
clearer.

Incidences/Resonances has a narrative quality where sound object
relationships are explored through transformation and acousmatic practice.
Each successive sound object is perceived in context with the last. This raised
questions relating to Parmegianis own compositional strategies and structure
and intended use of sound object relationships based on time and memory. In
particular these questions relate to the relationships between sound objects,
temporal information, placement and intrinsic qualities of individual sound
object material present and how the juxtaposed sound object material
changes how we perceive the piece as a whole.
Emmerson comments on the use of time within the structure of
electroacoustic compositions in Time Regained:
Our apprehension of the present and its apparent trajectory within
an immediately perceived environment: the changing now. What
happened an instant ago may influence what I am hearing now.
20

There are numerous examples within Incidences/Resonances (0:48-0:50,
1:14, 1:20, 3:12-4:00) where sound objects of differing structure interact and
affect the listeners perception of the work. As previously discussed, at the
beginning of the piece there is a sharp, incident attack onset that gives rise to
an elongated drone continuant that leads us into the next sound object. Later

20
See Simon, Emmerson, Time Regained, Bourges Academy: Time in Electroacoustic
Music, (2000), 84.


,#
in the piece, (1:30, 2:45) as the material progresses, the drone continuants
combine with other continuant sound objects, creating denser, spectrally
richer beds that are then smashed by sudden and unexpected percussive
attack onsets, varying in timbre, texture and velocity.
Smalley describes these sharp, incident attack onsets as attack-impulses that
are modelled on the single detached note: a sudden onset, which is
immediately terminated. In this instance the attack-onset is also the
termination.
21


This combining of sound objects to create new larger scale sound objects is a
recurrent theme within Incidences/Resonances. Parmegiani ultilises this
method, using contrasting sound object material to expand on perceptions
and interpretation of the listening material. The way the sound object material
interacts and progresses is an important aspect of the piece. The continuous
morphing of the resonant pitched material interact creating rich harmonic
content in sections of the piece. (1:28-2:30, 2:42-3:50) The resulting
combinations create fluctuations that are then cut off by sharp, abrupt,
percussive elements. (Figure 4) Examples of this can be found in abundance
in the piece but especially after the first and beyond the second minutes
(1:31-2:30), and also in the latter section, before they ebb away at the close.
(2:32-4:00) The spectrogram clearly illustrates this relationship, which can be
seen as spectrally bright groupings of parallel lines stretching across several
sections of the piece.

$,
See also the comments in Smalley, Spectromorphology: explaining sound-shapes, 115.
,*

Fig 4: Harmonically richer sections that are abruptly terminated by attack onsets.
An exploration by Parmegiani himself into the transitional, morphological
nature of the transformed compositional material provides clues to the
compositional strategy and methodologies employed in the creation of
Incidences/Resonances. There is a distinct pairing of sound object content
that deliberately juxtapose material that belongs to only one of either the
incidences or resonances categories.
Caleb Deupree reinforces this concept in his English interpretation of Jean-
Jacques Nattiezs L'Envers d'une oeuvre
22
commenting:
Parmegiani demonstrated a real mastery of the theoretical
principles detailed in Schaeffer's massive Trait des objets

22
See also comments in Philippe Mion, Jean-Jacques Nattiez and Jean-Christophe Thomas,
L'envers d'une uvre. De Natura Sonorum de Bernard Parmegiani,
$"
musicaux and catalogued all of his sounds for De Natura Sonorum
using Schaeffer's typology.
23

Unfortunately there is a lack of primary information or official translations into
English relating to Parmegianis thoughts on De Natura Sonorum. Therefore
attempts to interpret Jean-Jacques Nattiez ideas on Parmegiani need to be
approached with caution.
Within his work Parmegiani presents material in a number of different contexts
and from a range of sources. He attempts to explore the possibilities of
combining material and the interactive qualities and relationships that are
formed through this exploration. Parmegiani comments on his initial intentions
when composing the work in L'Envers d'une oeuvre:
I wanted to check out the different ways that concrete elements
could combine with electronic elements, always seeking a certain
homogeneity. It was about making composite objects, where the
attack was concrete and the resonance electronic. In spite of the
artificial operation of the montage, I stayed within the natural logic
of the percussive objects (percussion-resonance).
24

There is evidence at numerous points within the work of this exploration in
terms of the placement and combining of material that can be seen within the
spectrogram and graphical score. Clear examples of recorded, percussive
and metallic sound objects (0:50, 1:01, 1:21, 1:30, 2:03, 2:12-2:21, 2:40)

23
See Caleb Deupree, in: Bernard in book Classic Drone (Accessed 10th November 2011),
<http://classicaldrone.blogspot.com/2010/05/bernard-in-book.html>.
24
See also comments in Caleb Deupree, in: De Natura Sonorum 1 & 4 Classic Drone
(Accessed 23rd November 2011), <http://classicaldrone.blogspot.com/2010/05/de-natura-
sonorum-1-and-4.html>.
$,
married with the continuant passages and prolongations are found in a
number of places. These attack onsets play an agentive role, triggering the
continuants that tie together and transition not just the sound objects
themselves but also the sections of the piece. They bring rise to the very
make up of the piece, creating resonant continuants that gradually fade into
the piece or are abruptly terminated by the onset of more percussive attacks.
Nattiez again details Parmegianis own thoughts on combining concrete with
electronically generated material:
In this piece, concrete sounds only appear as points, and
everything that is prolonged is electronic!the sounding objects
that I used don't have long resonance!They obey the law of rapid
decay, well known and rather banal. When all is said and done,
striking a crystal glass (one of the sources in the piece) and
removing its attack is nothing more or less than a very poor
resonance, almost pure, which one could create electronically. So
it's the sharpness, the attack, that's interesting. This is why I sought
in this piece to play with a variety of different attacks.
25

Relationships between sound objects are at the forefront of
Incidences/Resonances along with how these relationships manifest
themselves as resultant sonic material. An interesting aspect of the work is
how these relationships offer clues as to how the next sound object may be
interpreted, having perceived the last, concentrating on the formation of new
relationships!between two sets of sounds with contrasting sonic

25
See also comments in Philippe Mion, Jean-Jacques Nattiez and Jean-Christophe Thomas,
L'envers d'une uvre. De Natura Sonorum de Bernard Parmegiani,
$$
properties.
26

In addition to looking at the onset, continuant and termination properties of the
sound objects present it is useful to briefly explore the intrinsic spectral
density of the sound object material found within Incidences/Resonances.
An interesting aspect of Incidences/Resonances is the harmonic relationship
between the sustained, resonant drone-like material, as well as the attack
onsets. There are frequent occurrences across the duration of the piece
where the sustained drones combine and interact in terms of their spectral
content. In addition the attack onsets act as punctuating instances that
terminate the drone and bring about a change, either in fundamental pitch
and/or spectral/harmonic stability. As previously discussed, much of the attack
onset material is captured concrete material from sources such as bells and
other metallic objects. Smalley comments on harmonicity, stating:
!bell and metallic resonances are the usual examples of
inharmonicity, and they suitably represent the inharmonic dilemma
because inharmonic spectra can be ambiguous in that they can
include some intervallic pitches. To be regarded as properly
authentic, an inharmonic spectrum cannot be resolved as a single
note, and its pitch-components need to be considered relative, not
intervallic. As a result, continuous inharmonic spectra have a
tendency to disperse into streams.
27


26
See also comments in Thom Blum, De Natura Sonorum Review, Computer Music Journal:
Vol. 5 No.2, (1981), 68.
27
See also comments in Denis Smalley, Spectromorphology: explaining sound-shapes,
Organised Sound, Vol. 2, No. 2. (1997), 120.

$%
When analyzing Incidences/Resonances, for example, at 1 minute 30
seconds and 2 minutes 30, the attack onset brings on a splitting of spectral
and harmonic content that combines to create a rich inharmonic bed that
gradually rises in frequency until fading towards the end of the piece.















$&
Conclusion.
The descriptive terminology of spectromorphological expectation was
reinforced with information highlighted by the spectrogram and first listen
score thus enabling a mixed perspective to be applied when analysing the
material.
Many of the concepts and details within Smalleys Spectromorphology
framework are useful as descriptive and analytical tools, in particular, when
investigating the relationships within the piece in relation to individual sound
objects and their constituent parts. However, due the vastness of Smalleys
research and work it is difficult to include an exhaustive list here and many of
the associated facets of the work are beyond the scope of this paper.

In terms of taking an initial view of Parmegianis compositional techniques,
spectromorphological expectation is effective in supporting the relationships
between the sound objects and sections of the work by providing a stable
platform to expand with future research. The terminology and descriptive
qualities aid the exploration of sound objects and their relationships at multiple
levels across the duration of the piece; not just individual sound objects but
also larger sections and the work as a whole.







$'
Appendix A:
First Listen Graphical Score.

$(






$)
Appendix B:
Spectrogram created using SPEK spectral analysis software.



























$#
Appendix C:
SPEAR spectral analysis, editing and synthesis software.



























$*
Bibliography:
Blum, Thom, De Natura Sonorum Review, Computer Music Journal: Vol. 5
No.2, (1981), 68-70.
Deupree, Caleb, in: De Natura Sonorum 1 & 4 Classic Drone (Accessed 23rd
November 2011), <http://classicaldrone.blogspot.com/2010/05/de-natura-
sonorum-1-and-4.html>.

Deupree, Caleb, in: Bernard in book Classic Drone (Accessed 10th
November 2011), <http://classicaldrone.blogspot.com/2010/05/bernard-in-
book.html>.
Emmerson, Simon, Time Regained, Bourges Academy: Time in
Electroacoustic Music, (2000), 84-86.
Klingbeil, Michael, in: SPEAR Sinusoidal Partial Editing Analysis and
Resynthesis Spear Spectral Analysis and Resynthesis Software, (Accessed
5th November 2011), <http://www.klingbeil.com/spear>.

Kojevnikov, Alexander, in: SPEK Spectral Analysis Software, Spek Acoustic
Spectrum Analyser, (Accessed 2
nd
November 2011), <http://spek-
project.org>.

Mion, Philippe, Jean-Jacques Nattiez and Jean-Christophe Thomas, L'envers
d'une uvre. De Natura Sonorum de Bernard Parmegiani, Paris, 1982.

Parmegiani Bernard, Parmegiani: De Natura Sonorum (Version Integrale),
INA-GRM Ina C 3001, 2000 (reissue of 1975 recording).

Pasoulas, Aki, in: An Overview of Score and Performance in Electroacoustic
Music, Canadian Electroacoustic Community, (Accessed 4th December
2011), <http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/10_4/pasoulas_score.html>.

Smalley, Denis, Space-form and the acousmatic image, Organised Sound,
Vol. 12, No. 1, (2007), 35-58.

Smalley, Denis, Spectromorphology: explaining sound-shapes, Organised
Sound, Vol. 2, No. 2. (1997), 107-126.

Thoresen, Lasse and Andreas Hedman, Spectromorphological analysis of
sound objects: an adaptation of Pierre Schaeffer's typomorphology,
Organised Sound, Vol. 12, No. 2, (2007), 129-141.

Wishart, Trevor, On Sonic Art - Revised Edition, London, 1996.