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?:@;7< #;46A><
,8:;48< 0<=67> B8C4;=D ?:@;7<=
- lllLer 200 llLers of blood dally, allowlng Loxlns, meLabollc wasLes, and excess lons Lo leave Lhe body ln
urlne
- 8egulaLe volume and chemlcal makeup of Lhe blood
- MalnLaln Lhe proper balance beLween waLer and salLs, and aclds and bases
- roduce renln Lo help regulaLe blood pressure and eryLhropoleLln Lo sLlmulaLe red blood cell
producLlon
- AcLlvaLe vlLamln u and produce glucose durlng prolonged fasLlng
Ma[or excreLory organs
B6378 ,8:;48< 0<=67> B8C4;=
- urlnary bladder - provldes a Lemporary sLorage reservolr for urlne
- alred ureLers - LransporLs urlne from Lhe kldneys Lo Lhe bladder
- ureLhra - LransporLs urlne from Lhe bladder ouL of Lhe body
EAF46:A; 4;@ &G678;4H #;46A><
- 1he bean-shaped kldneys lle ln a reLroperlLoneal poslLlon ln Lhe superlor lumbar reglon and exLend
from Lhe LwelfLh Lhoraclc Lo Lhe Lhlrd lumbar verLebrae
- 1he rlghL kldney ls lower Lhan Lhe lefL because lL ls crowded by Lhe llver
- 1he laLeral surface ls convex and Lhe medlal surface ls concave, wlLh a verLlcal clefL called Lhe renal
hllus leadlng Lo Lhe renal slnus
- ureLers, renal blood vessels, lymphaLlcs, and nerves enLer and exlL aL Lhe hllus
?:@;7<D #==AF:467@ 068IF6I87=
- 1he funcLlonally unrelaLed adrenal gland slLs aLop each kldney
- 1hree supporLlve Llssues surround Lhe kldney
- 8enal capsule - adheres Lo Lhe kldney surface and prevenLs lnfecLlons ln surroundlng reglons
from spreadlng Lo Lhe kldneys
- Adlpose capsule - cushlons Lhe kldney and helps aLLach lL Lo Lhe body wall
- 8enal fascla - dense flbrous connecLlve Llssue LhaL anchors Lhe kldney
-;678;4H #;46A><
- A fronLal secLlon shows Lhree dlsLlncL reglons
- CorLex - Lhe llghL colored, granular superflclal reglon
- Medulla - exhlblLs cone-shaped medullary (renal) pyramlds
- yramlds are made up of parallel bundles of urlne-collecLlng Lubules
- 8enal columns are lnward exLenslons of corLlcal Llssue LhaL separaLe Lhe pyramlds
- 1he medullary pyramld and lLs surroundlng capsule consLlLuLes a lobe
- 8enal pelvls - flaL, funnel-shaped Lube laLeral Lo Lhe hllus wlLhln Lhe renal slnus
- Ma[or calyces - large branches of Lhe renal pelvls
- CollecL urlne dralnlng from paplllae
- LmpLy urlne lnLo Lhe pelvls
- urlne flows Lhrough Lhe pelvls and ureLers Lo Lhe bladder
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- ApproxlmaLely one-fourLh (1200 ml) of sysLemlc cardlac ouLpuL flows Lhrough Lhe kldneys each
mlnuLe
- ArLerlal flow lnLo and venous flow ouL of Lhe kldneys follow slmllar paLhs
- 1he nerve supply ls vla Lhe renal plexus
.7538A;=
- nephrons are Lhe blood-processlng unlLs LhaL form urlne, conslsLlng of:
- Clomerulus - a LufL of caplllarles assoclaLed wlLh a renal Lubule
- Clomerular (8owman's) capsule - bllnd, cup-shaped end of a renal Lubule LhaL compleLely
surrounds Lhe glomerulus
- 8enal corpuscle - Lhe glomerulus and lLs 8owman's capsule
- Clomerular endoLhellum - fenesLraLed eplLhellum LhaL allows soluLe-rlch, vlrLually proLeln-free
fllLraLe Lo pass from Lhe blood lnLo Lhe glomerular capsule
#;46A>< AL 637 MHA>78IH48 !45=IH7
- 1he exLernal parleLal layer ls a sLrucLural layer
- 1he vlsceral layer conslsLs of modlfled, branchlng, eplLhellal podocyLes
- LxLenslons of Lhe ocLopus-llke podocyLes LermlnaLe ln fooL processes
- lllLraLlon sllLs - openlngs beLween Lhe fooL processes LhaL allow fllLraLe Lo pass lnLo Lhe capsular
space
'7;4H 6INIH7
- roxlmal convoluLed Lubule (C1) - composed of cuboldal cells wlLh numerous mlcrovllll and
mlLochondrla
- 8esorbs waLer and soluLes from fllLraLe and secreLes subsLances lnLo lL
- Loop of Penle - a halrpln-shaped loop of Lhe renal Lubule
- roxlmal parL ls slmllar Lo Lhe proxlmal convoluLed Lubule
- roxlmal parL ls followed by Lhe Lhln segmenL (slmple squamous cells) and Lhe Lhlck segmenL
(cuboldal Lo columnar cells)
- ulsLal convoluLed Lubule (uC1) - cuboldal cells wlLhouL mlcrovllll LhaL funcLlon more ln secreLlon LhaL
reabsorpLlon
!A;;7F6:;C %INIH7=
- 1he dlsLal porLlon of Lhe dlsLal convoluLed Lubule nearer Lo Lhe collecLlng ducLs
- 1wo lmporLanL cell Lypes are found here
- lnLercalaLed cells
- Cuboldal cells wlLh mlcrovllll
- luncLlon ln malnLalnlng Lhe acld-base balance of Lhe body
- rlnclpal cells
- Cuboldal cells wlLhouL mlcrovllll
- Pelp malnLaln Lhe body's waLer and salL balance
.7538A;=
- CorLlcal nephrons - 83 of nephrons, locaLed ln Lhe corLex
- !uxLamedullary nephrons:
- Are locaLed aL Lhe corLex-medulla [uncLlon
- Pave loops of Penle LhaL deeply lnvade Lhe medulla
- Pave exLenslve Lhln segmenLs
- Are lnvolved ln Lhe producLlon of concenLraLed urlne
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!45:HH48< J7@= AL 637 .7538A;
- Lvery nephron has Lwo caplllary beds
- Clomerulus
- erlLubular caplllarles
- Lach glomerulus ls:
- led by an afferenL arLerlole
- uralned by an efferenL arLerlole
- 8lood pressure ln Lhe glomerulus ls hlgh because:
- ArLerloles are hlgh-reslsLance vessels
- AfferenL arLerloles have larger dlameLers Lhan efferenL arLerloles
- llulds and soluLes are forced ouL of Lhe blood LhroughouL Lhe enLlre lengLh of Lhe glomerulus
!45:HH48< J7@=
- erlLubular beds are low-pressure, porous caplllarles adapLed for absorpLlon LhaL:
- Arlse from efferenL arLerloles
- Cllng Lo ad[acenL renal Lubules
- LmpLy lnLo Lhe renal venous sysLem
- vasa recLa - long, sLralghL efferenL arLerloles of [uxamedullary nephrons
P4=FIH48 '7=:=64;F7 :; 1:F8AF:8FIH46:A;
- AfferenL and efferenL arLerloles offer hlgh reslsLance Lo blood flow
- 8lood pressure decllnes from ~93mm Pg ln renal arLerles Lo ~8 mm Pg ln renal velns
- 8eslsLance ln afferenL arLerloles:
- roLecLs glomerull from flucLuaLlons ln sysLemlc blood pressure
- 8eslsLance ln efferenL arLerloles:
- 8elnforces hlgh glomerular pressure
- 8educes hydrosLaLlc pressure ln perlLubular caplllarles
QIG64NHA>78IH48 #554846I= RQM#S
- Where Lhe dlsLal Lubule lles agalnsL Lhe afferenL (someLlmes efferenL) arLerlole
- ArLerlole walls have [uxLaglomerular (!C) cells
- Lnlarged, smooLh muscle cells
- Pave secreLory granules conLalnlng renln
- AcL as mechanorecepLors
- Macula densa
- 1all, closely packed dlsLal Lubule cells
- Lle ad[acenL Lo !C cells
- luncLlon as chemorecepLors or osmorecepLors
- Mesangllal cells appear Lo conLrol Lhe glomerular fllLraLlon raLe
T:H6846:A; 17>N84;7
- lllLer LhaL lles beLween Lhe blood and Lhe lnLerlor of Lhe glomerular capsule
- lL ls composed of Lhree layers
- lenesLraLed endoLhellum of Lhe glomerular caplllarles
- vlsceral membrane of Lhe glomerular capsule (podocyLes)
- 8asemenL membrane composed of fused basal lamlnas of Lhe oLher layers
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- 1he kldneys fllLer Lhe body's enLlre plasma volume 60 Llmes each day
- 1he fllLraLe:
- ConLalns all plasma componenLs excepL proLeln
- Loses waLer, nuLrlenLs, and essenLlal lons Lo become urlne
- 1he urlne conLalns meLabollc wasLes and unneeded subsLances
- urlne formaLlon and ad[usLmenL of blood composlLlon lnvolves Lhree ma[or processes
- Clomerular fllLraLlon
- 1ubular reabsorpLlon
- SecreLlon
0675 2D MHA>78IH48 T:H6846:A;
- rlnclples of fluld dynamlcs LhaL accounL for Llssue fluld ln all caplllary beds apply Lo Lhe glomerulus
as well
- 1he glomerulus ls more efflclenL Lhan oLher caplllary beds because:
- lLs fllLraLlon membrane ls slgnlflcanLly more permeable
- Clomerular blood pressure ls hlgher
- lL has a hlgher neL fllLraLlon pressure
- lasma proLelns are noL fllLered and are used Lo malnLaln oncoLlc pressure of Lhe blood
.76 T:H6846:A; $87==I87 R.T$S
- 1he pressure responslble for fllLraLe formaLlon
- nl equals Lhe glomerular hydrosLaLlc pressure (P
g
) mlnus Lhe oncoLlc pressure of glomerular blood
(C
g
) comblned wlLh Lhe capsular hydrosLaLlc pressure (P
c
)

nl = P
g
- (C
g +
P
c
)
MHA>78IH48 T:H6846:A; '467 RMT'S
- 1he LoLal amounL of fllLraLe formed per mlnuLe by Lhe kldneys
- lacLors governlng fllLraLlon raLe aL Lhe caplllary bed are:
- 1oLal surface area avallable for fllLraLlon
- lllLraLlon membrane permeablllLy
- neL fllLraLlon pressure
- Cl8 ls dlrecLly proporLlonal Lo Lhe nl
- Changes ln Cl8 normally resulL from changes ln glomerular blood pressure
'7CIH46:A; AL MHA>78IH48 T:H6846:A;
- lf Lhe Cl8 ls Loo hlgh:
- needed subsLances cannoL be reabsorbed qulckly enough and are losL ln Lhe urlne
- lf Lhe Cl8 ls Loo low:
- LveryLhlng ls reabsorbed, lncludlng wasLes LhaL are normally dlsposed of
- 1hree mechanlsms conLrol Lhe Cl8
- 8enal auLoregulaLlon (lnLrlnslc sysLem)
- neural conLrols
- 1he renln-angloLensln sysLem (hormonal mechanlsm)
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-;68:;=:F !A;68AH=
- under normal condlLlons, renal auLoregulaLlon malnLalns a nearly consLanL glomerular fllLraLlon raLe
- AuLoregulaLlon enLalls Lwo Lypes of conLrol
- Myogenlc - responds Lo changes ln pressure ln Lhe renal blood vessels
- 1ubuloglomerular feedback - senses changes ln Lhe [uxLaglomerular apparaLus
0<>546376:F .78KAI= 0<=67> R0.0S !A;68AH=
- When Lhe SnS ls aL resL:
- 8enal blood vessels are maxlmally dllaLed
- AuLoregulaLlon mechanlsms prevall
- under sLress:
- noreplnephrlne ls released by Lhe SnS
- Lplnephrlne ls released by Lhe adrenal medulla
- AfferenL arLerloles consLrlcL and fllLraLlon ls lnhlblLed
- 1he SnS also sLlmulaLes Lhe renln-angloLensln mechanlsm
'7;:;+#;C:A67;=:; 17F34;:=>
- ls Lrlggered when Lhe !C cells release renln
- 8enln acLs on angloLenslnogen Lo release angloLensln l
- AngloLensln l ls converLed Lo angloLensln ll
- AngloLensln ll:
- Causes mean arLerlal pressure Lo rlse
- SLlmulaLes Lhe adrenal corLex Lo release aldosLerone
- As a resulL, boLh sysLemlc and glomerular hydrosLaLlc pressure rlse
'7;:; '7H74=7
- 8enln release ls Lrlggered by:
- 8educed sLreLch of Lhe granular !C cells
- SLlmulaLlon of Lhe !C cells by acLlvaLed macula densa cells
- ulrecL sLlmulaLlon of Lhe !C cells vla !
1
-adrenerglc recepLors by renal nerves
- AngloLensln ll
B6378 T4F6A8= #LL7F6:;C MHA>78IH48 T:H6846:A;
- rosLaglandlns (CL
2
and Cl
2
)
- vasodllaLors produced ln response Lo sympaLheLlc sLlmulaLlon and angloLensln ll
- Are LhoughL Lo prevenL renal damage when perlpheral reslsLance ls lncreased
- nlLrlc oxlde - vasodllaLor produced by Lhe vascular endoLhellum
- Adenoslne - vasoconsLrlcLor on renal vasculaLure
- LndoLhelln - a powerful vasoconsLrlcLor secreLed by Lubule cells
0675 )D %INIH48 '74N=A856:A;
- A LranseplLhellal process whereby mosL Lubule conLenLs are reLurned Lo Lhe blood
- 1ransporLed subsLances move Lhrough Lhree membranes
- Lumlnal and basolaLeral membranes of Lubule cells
- LndoLhellum of perlLubular caplllarles
- Cnly Ca
2+
, Mg
2+
, k
+
, and some na
+
are reabsorbed vla paracellular paLhways
- All organlc nuLrlenLs are reabsorbed
- WaLer and lon reabsorpLlon ls hormonally conLrolled
- 8eabsorpLlon may be an acLlve (requlres A1) or passlve process
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- Sodlum reabsorpLlon ls almosL always by acLlve LransporL
- na
+
enLers Lhe Lubule cells aL Lhe lumlnal membrane
- ls acLlvely LransporLed ouL of Lhe Lubules by a na
+
-k
+
A1ase pump
- lrom Lhere lL moves Lo perlLubular caplllarles due Lo:
- Low hydrosLaLlc pressure
- Plgh osmoLlc pressure of Lhe blood
- na
+
reabsorpLlon provldes Lhe energy and Lhe means for reabsorblng mosL oLher soluLes
'74N=A856:A; N< $!% !7HH=
- AcLlve pumplng of na
+
drlves reabsorpLlon of:
- WaLer by osmosls
- Anlons and faL-soluble subsLance by dlffuslon
- Crganlc nuLrlenLs and selecLed caLlons by secondary acLlve LransporL
.A;874N=A8N7@ 0IN=64;F7=
- A LransporL maxlmum (1
m
):
- 8eflecLs Lhe number of carrlers ln Lhe renal Lubules avallable
- LxlsLs for nearly every subsLance LhaL ls acLlvely reabsorbed
- When Lhe carrlers are saLuraLed, excess of LhaL subsLance ls excreLed
- SubsLances are noL reabsorbed lf Lhey:
- Lack carrlers
- Are noL llpld soluble
- Are Loo large Lo pass Lhrough membrane pores
- urea, creaLlnlne, and urlc acld are Lhe mosL lmporLanL nonreabsorbed subsLances
#N=A856:K7 !454N:H:6:7= AL '7;4H %INIH7= 4;@ !AHH7F6:;C WIF6=
- SubsLances reabsorbed ln C1 lnclude:
- Sodlum, all nuLrlenLs, caLlons, anlons, and waLer
- urea and llpld-soluble soluLes
- Small proLelns
- Loop of Penle
- P
2
C, na
+
, Cl
"
, k
+
(descendlng)
- Ca
2+
, Mg
2+
, and na
+
(ascendlng)
- uC1
- Ca
2+
, na
+
, P
+
, k
+
, and waLer
- PCC
3
"
and Cl
"

- CollecLlng ducL
- WaLer and urea
.4
X
&;68< :;6A %INIH7 !7HH=
- asslve enLry: na
+
-k
+
A1ase pump
- ln Lhe C1: faclllLaLed dlffuslon uslng symporL and anLlporL carrlers
- ln Lhe ascendlng loop of Penle: faclllLaLed dlffuslon vla na
+
-k
+
-2Cl
"
symporL sysLem
- ln Lhe uC1: na
+
-Cl
-
symporLer
- ln collecLlng Lubules: dlffuslon Lhrough membrane pores
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- LssenLlally reabsorpLlon ln reverse, where subsLances move from perlLubular caplllarles or Lubule
cells lnLo fllLraLe
- 1ubular secreLlon ls lmporLanL for:
- ulsposlng of subsLances noL already ln Lhe fllLraLe
- LllmlnaLlng undeslrable subsLances such as urea and urlc acld
- 8lddlng Lhe body of excess poLasslum lons
- ConLrolllng blood pP
'7CIH46:A; AL ,8:;7 !A;F7;6846:A; 4;@ PAHI>7
- CsmolallLy
- 1he number of soluLe parLlcles dlssolved ln 1L of waLer
- 8eflecLs Lhe soluLlon's ablllLy Lo cause osmosls
- 8ody flulds are measured ln mllllosmols (mCsm)
- 1he kldneys keep Lhe soluLe load of body flulds consLanL aL abouL 300 mCsm
- 1hls ls accompllshed by Lhe counLercurrenL mechanlsm
!AI;678FI887;6 17F34;:=>
- 8y Lhe Llme Lhe fllLraLe reaches Lhe loop of Penle, Lhe amounL and flow are reduced by 63 buL lL ls
sLlll lsosmoLlc
- 1he soluLe concenLraLlon ln Lhe loop of Penle ranges from 300 mCsm Lo 1200 mCsm
- 1he loop of Penle funcLlons as a counLercurrenL mulLlpller
- ulsslpaLlon of Lhe medullary osmoLlc gradlenL ls prevenLed because Lhe blood ln Lhe vasa recLa
equlllbraLes wlLh Lhe lnLersLlLlal fluld
EAA5 AL "7;H7D !AI;678FI887;6 1IH6:5H:78
- 1he descendlng loop of Penle:
- ls relaLlvely lmpermeable Lo soluLes
- ls permeable Lo waLer
- 1he ascendlng loop of Penle:
- ls lmpermeable Lo waLer
- AcLlvely LransporLs sodlum chlorlde lnLo Lhe surroundlng lnLersLlLlal fluld
- CollecLlng ducLs ln Lhe deep medullary reglons are permeable Lo urea
- 1he vasa recLa ls a counLercurrenL exchanger LhaL:
- MalnLalns Lhe osmoLlc gradlenL
- uellvers nuLrlenL blood supply Lo Lhe cells ln Lhe area
TA8>46:A; AL W:HI67 ,8:;7
- lllLraLe ls dlluLed ln Lhe ascendlng loop of Penle
- ulluLe urlne ls creaLed by allowlng Lhls fllLraLe Lo conLlnue lnLo Lhe renal pelvls
- 1hls wlll happen as long as anLldlureLlc hormone (AuP) ls !"# belng secreLed
- CollecLlng ducLs remaln lmpermeable Lo waLer, no furLher waLer reabsorpLlon occurs
- Sodlum and selecLed lons can be removed by acLlve and passlve mechanlsms
- urlne osmolallLy can be as low as 30 mCsm (one-slxLh LhaL of plasma)
TA8>46:A; AL !A;F7;68467@ ,8:;7
- AnLldlureLlc hormone (AuP) lnhlblLs dluresls
- 1hls equallzes Lhe osmolallLy of Lhe fllLraLe and Lhe lnLersLlLlal fluld
- ln Lhe presence of AuP, 99 of Lhe waLer ln fllLraLe ls reabsorbed
- AuP-dependenL waLer reabsorpLlon ls called $%&'(#%#)*+ -%#+. .+%/0".1#)"!
- AuP ls Lhe slgnal Lo produce concenLraLed urlne
- 1he kldneys ablllLy Lo respond depends upon Lhe hlgh medullary osmoLlc gradlenL
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- Chemlcals LhaL enhance Lhe urlnary ouLpuL lnclude:
- Any subsLance noL reabsorbed
- SubsLances LhaL exceed Lhe ablllLy of Lhe renal Lubules Lo reabsorb lL
- CsmoLlc dlureLlcs lnclude:
- Plgh glucose levels - carrles waLer ouL wlLh Lhe glucose
- Alcohol - lnhlblLs Lhe release of AuP
- Caffelne and mosL dlureLlc drugs - lnhlblL sodlum lon reabsorpLlon
- Laslx - lnhlblLs na
+
-k
+
-2Cl
"
symporLers
'7;4H !H7484;F7
- 1he volume of plasma LhaL ls cleared of a parLlcular subsLance ln a glven Llme
- 8enal clearance LesLs are used Lo:
- ueLermlne Lhe Cl8
- ueLecL glomerular damage
- lollow Lhe progress of dlagnosed renal dlsease
8C = uv/
8C = renal clearance raLe
u = concenLraLlon (mg/ml) of Lhe subsLance ln urlne
v = flow raLe of urlne formaLlon (ml/mln)
= concenLraLlon of Lhe same subsLance ln plasma
,8:;7
$3<=:F4H !3484F678:=6:F= AL ,8:;7
- Color and Lransparency
- Clear, pale Lo deep yellow (due Lo urochrome)
- ConcenLraLed urlne has a deeper yellow color
- urugs, vlLamln supplemenLs, and dleL can change Lhe color of urlne
- Cloudy urlne may lndlcaLe lnfecLlon of Lhe urlnary LracL
- Cdor
- lresh urlne ls sllghLly aromaLlc
- SLandlng urlne develops an ammonla odor
- Some drugs and vegeLables (asparagus) alLer Lhe usual odor
- pP
- SllghLly acldlc (pP 6) wlLh a range of 4.3 Lo 8.0
- uleL can alLer pP
- Speclflc gravlLy
- 8anges from 1.001 Lo 1.033
- ls dependenL on soluLe concenLraLlon
!37>:F4H !3484F678:=6:F= AL ,8:;7
- urlne ls 93 waLer and 3 soluLes
- nlLrogenous wasLes lnclude urea, urlc acld, and creaLlnlne
- CLher normal soluLes lnclude:
- Sodlum, poLasslum, phosphaLe, and sulfaLe lons
- Calclum, magneslum, and blcarbonaLe lons
- Abnormally hlgh concenLraLlons of any urlnary consLlLuenLs may lndlcaLe paLhology
- ulsease sLaLes alLer urlne composlLlon dramaLlcally
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,87678=
- Slender Lubes LhaL convey urlne from Lhe kldneys Lo Lhe bladder
- ureLers enLer Lhe base of Lhe bladder Lhrough Lhe posLerlor wall
- 1hls closes Lhelr dlsLal ends as bladder pressure lncreases and prevenLs backflow of urlne lnLo
Lhe ureLers
- ureLers have a Lrllayered wall
- 1ranslLlonal eplLhellal mucosa
- SmooLh muscle mucosa
- llbrous connecLlve Llssue advenLlLla
- ureLers acLlvely propel urlne Lo Lhe bladder vla response Lo smooLh muscle sLreLch
,8:;48< JH4@@78
- SmooLh, collapslble, muscular sac LhaL Lemporarlly sLores urlne
- lL lles reLroperlLoneally on Lhe pelvlc floor posLerlor Lo Lhe publc symphysls
- Males - prosLaLe gland surrounds Lhe neck lnferlorly
- lemales - anLerlor Lo Lhe vaglna and uLerus
- 1rlgone - Lrlangular area ouLllned by Lhe openlngs for Lhe ureLers and Lhe ureLhra
- Cllnlcally lmporLanL because lnfecLlons Lend Lo perslsL ln Lhls reglon
- 1he bladder wall has Lhree layers
- 1ranslLlonal eplLhellal mucosa
- A Lhlck muscular layer
- A flbrous advenLlLla
- 1he bladder ls dlsLenslble and collapses when empLy
- As urlne accumulaLes, Lhe bladder expands wlLhouL slgnlflcanL rlse ln lnLernal pressure
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- Muscular Lube LhaL:
- uralns urlne from Lhe bladder
- Conveys lL ouL of Lhe body
- SphlncLers keep Lhe ureLhra closed when urlne ls noL belng passed
- lnLernal ureLhral sphlncLer - lnvolunLary sphlncLer aL Lhe bladder-ureLhra [uncLlon
- LxLernal ureLhral sphlncLer - volunLary sphlncLer surroundlng Lhe ureLhra as lL passes Lhrough
Lhe urogenlLal dlaphragm
- LevaLor anl muscle - volunLary ureLhral sphlncLer
- 1he female ureLhra ls LlghLly bound Lo Lhe anLerlor vaglnal wall
- lLs exLernal openlng lles anLerlor Lo Lhe vaglnal openlng and posLerlor Lo Lhe cllLorls
- 1he male ureLhra has Lhree named reglons
- rosLaLlc ureLhra - runs wlLhln Lhe prosLaLe gland
- Membranous ureLhra - runs Lhrough Lhe urogenlLal dlaphragm
- Spongy (penlle) ureLhra - passes Lhrough Lhe penls and opens vla Lhe exLernal ureLhral orlflce
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1:F6I8:6:A; RPA:@:;C A8 ,8:;46:A;S
- 1he acL of empLylng Lhe bladder
- ulsLenslon of bladder walls lnlLlaLes splnal reflexes LhaL:
- SLlmulaLe conLracLlon of Lhe exLernal ureLhral sphlncLer
- lnhlblL Lhe deLrusor muscle and lnLernal sphlncLer (Lemporarlly)
- voldlng reflexes:
- SLlmulaLe Lhe deLrusor muscle Lo conLracL
- lnhlblL Lhe lnLernal and exLernal sphlncLers
W7K7HA5>7;64H #=57F6= AL 637 ,8:;48< 0<=67>
- 1hree seLs of embryonlc kldneys develop, wlLh only Lhe lasL seL perslsLlng
- 1he pronephros never funcLlons buL lLs pronephrlc ducL perslsLs and connecLs Lo Lhe cloaca
- 1he mesonephros clalms Lhls ducL and lL becomes Lhe mesonephrlc ducL
- 1he flnal meLanephros develop by Lhe flfLh week and develop lnLo adulL kldneys
- MeLanephros develop as ureLerlc buds LhaL lncllne mesoderm Lo form nephrons
- ulsLal ends of ureLerlc Lubes form Lhe renal pelves, calyces, and collecLlng ducLs
- roxlmal ends called ureLerlc ducLs become Lhe ureLers
- MeLanephrlc kldneys are excreLlng urlne by Lhe Lhlrd monLh
- 1he cloaca evenLually develops lnLo Lhe recLum and anal canal
- lnfanLs have small bladders and Lhe kldneys cannoL concenLraLe urlne, resulLlng ln frequenL
mlcLurlLlon
- ConLrol of Lhe volunLary ureLhral sphlncLer develops wlLh Lhe nervous sysLem
- 23 &"() bacLerla accounL for 80 of all urlnary LracL lnfecLlons
- Sexually LransmlLLed dlseases can also lnflame Lhe urlnary LracL
- kldney funcLlon decllnes wlLh age, wlLh many elderly becomlng lnconLlnenL
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