European colonial rule in Africa not only represented the imposition of a new

form of government but was also part of a project of the fundamental reordering of
African society. This project led to new forms of economic interactions, gender relations,
and social norms incorporating aspects from both the imposed European and indigenous
African orders. In The Joys of Motherhood
1
Buchi Emecheta critiques the way in which
many of these hybrid social systems have particularly affected women in a negative
manner as colonialism helped to reinforce indigenous patriarchy and introduce new forms
of sexism. Emecheta's 1977 novel is also a nationalist text that differs from the work of
her male counterparts by examining issues of gender inequality in addition to those of
general colonial oppression and its impact on the emergence of modern African society.
Despite enormous variation across the continent, certain similarities existed
among many precolonial African societies regarding political organization, methods of
economic interaction, and gender relations. Jared Diamond's analysis of African
geography explains how the continent's north-south axis across many climatic zones
inhibited the spread of advanced agriculture and thus created relatively low population
densities in most areas.
2
These geographical parameters helped to shape socio-political
organization throughout the continent. For instance, as Jeffry Herbst describes, "the
nonterritorial nature of power" was a general norm throughout most of Africa due to the
relative abundance of land compared to people.
3
Where large political units did exist,
power tended to emanate outwards in concentric circles around a capital or "political
core".
4
At the periphery, power was generally very weak, thus giving people a great deal
1
Buchi Emecheta. The Joys of Motherhood. London: Heinemann, 1982 [1979].
2
Jared Diamond. Guns, Germs and Steel. New or!: ".". Norton # $om%an&, 1999. '(98)*++,
(
Je--r& Her./t. States and Power in Africa; Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. New Jer/e&:
0rinceton 1ni2er/it& 0re//, 2+++. '(3,
*
Her./t, States and Power, *1.
1
of political and economic autonomy. Though these and the numerous other areas that
existed without the influence of a large political force were shaped by regional and global
patterns of trade, political and economic autonomy did not usually extend far beyond the
local level.
Within these circumstances, the gender dynamics of many African societies came
to reflect socio-economic imperatives. As Emecheta's preoccupation with the subject in
much of her fiction indicates, African societies past and present have placed great
importance on child-bearing, which is reflected in the degree to which it is controlled by
certain social norms. Institutions such as bride price, female circumcision and various
forms of patriarchy have led some to denounce traditional African societies as
fundamentally sexist and oppressive. American feminist Katherine Frank argues, "The
very notion of a liberated African woman is a contradiction in terms. There is an
irremediable antagonism between the African woman's identity as an African and as a
woman."
5
Others argue that within traditional non-Westernized African communities,
women were respected as producers and social agents with a considerable amount of
autonomy. These moral judgments are usually only made by way of comparison to the
colonial or post-colonial periods, thus making it necessary to examine the changes
brought forth by colonialism.
The (often gradual) implementation of colonial rule created a new form of society
as indigenous African social norms and methods of organization were confronted with
European colonial ideologies and modes of control. Though interaction between
Europeans and Africans had been going on for centuries in many areas along the coast
3
4atherine 5ran!. 67he Death o- the 89a2e :ir9: ;-rican "omanhood in the No2e9/ o- Buchi Emecheta.6
orld Literature ritten in !n"lish< 1982< 21. '*92,
2
(the British in South Africa, the Portuguese in Angola, the French in Senegal), most
Africans did not come into contact with Europeans and confront European culture until
the late nineteenth or even early twentieth century. Crawford Young depicts the act of
establishing colonial domination as that of "constructing Bula Matari", literally crushing
all previous forms of social organization. He emphasizes the brutality and violence of the
colonial encounter coupled with colonial ideologies of superiority and exploitation.
6
However, despite this violence, the colonial project was in reality much less coordinated
and far less successful than the concept of "constructing Bula Matari" implies. If, as V.Y.
Mudimbe posits, the goal of colonialism was to replace African "memories" with a new
"idea of Africa", it failed miserably as political, social and historical currents of pre-
colonial African societies continued to shape these societies throughout the colonial and
post-colonial periods.
7
Regardless of the intent of colonial officials, the colonial period saw the creation
of a myriad of hybrid social norms and institutions as imposed European ideals became
interwoven with those of many African societies. With the creation of new taxes and
wage labour, millions of people migrated to urban centres, where the hybridization of
society was most acute. As most precolonial African societies were predominantly rural,
the urban environment challenged many traditional practices such as polygyny and the
reverence of motherhood. Young argues that the process of creating "intermediaries of
hegemony" was a prime goal of colonialism.
8
The attempt at conversion to European
cultural norms (such as through Christianity) was as important as the creation of a
colonial army. However, just as Samuel Decalo has shown that the militaries created
=
$raw-ord oun>. The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective. New Ha2en: a9e 1ni2er/it&
0re//, 199*. '77)1*+,
7
?.. @udim.e. The #dea of Africa. B9oomin>ton: 1ni2er/it& o- Andiana 0re//, 199*. '129,
8
oun>, African Colonial State, 1+7)117.
3
under colonialism did not reproduce those of the colonial power itself, neither did African
society become a mirror of Europe.
9
Colonial approaches to gender and the creation of new gender norms illustrate the
way in which precolonial African and colonial European ideals intersected to produce a
new society. Given the subservient role that women played in European society during
the colonial period, (usually male) colonial officials did not think of African women as
social actors despite their often active role in precolonial society. The British reaction to
the 1929 Igbo Women's War illustrates the conflict between colonial and traditional
norms quite well. Ketu Katrak describes how "before colonialism Igbo women were
more than merely mothers and child-bearers; they played an active part in the
socio/political life of the community."
10
However, as Judith Van Allen describes,
colonial officials grossly underestimated women's traditional role. "'Sitting on a man' or
a woman [involving the possible destruction of his or her property], boycotts and strikes
were the women's main weapons" in traditional Igbo society.
11
When tens of thousands
of Igbo women mobilized to "sit on" certain corrupt male Warrant Chiefs in the colonial
'native administration' in a manner in keeping with traditional practices, the British did
little to address their demands. In one case, soldiers and policemen fired on a crowd,
killing fifty and injuring another fifty protesters, all women.
12
Several critics contend that the Igbo Women's War, which the British derisively
called the "Aba Riots", has a silent presence in The Joys of Motherhood as Emecheta
focuses on the more subtle ways in which women's opportunities for action on social,
9
8amue9 Deca9o. Coups and Army $ule in Africa. New Ha2en: a9e 1ni2er/it& 0re//, 199+. '3)=,
1+
4etu H. 4atra!. 6"omanhoodB@otherhood: ?ariation/ on a 7heme in 8e9ected No2e9/ o- Buchi
Emecheta6 Journal of Commonwealth Literature< 1988< 22, 1. '1=+,
11
Judith 2an ;99en. 6C8ittin> on a @anC: $o9onia9i/m and the Lo/t 0o9itica9 An/titution/ o- A>.o "omen.6
Canadian Journal of African Studies< 1972< =, 2. '17+,
12
2an ;99en, 6C8ittin> on a @anC6, 172)177.
4
economic and political issues were eroded under colonialism.
13
In order to assess the
effects of colonialism, Emecheta contrasts the life of the protagonist Nnu Ego in 1930s
and 1940s Lagos with her life and the life of her mother, Ona, in the fictional Igbo village
of Ibuza. Their lives in Ibuza illustrate the existence of patriarchy in traditional society.
For instance, while treating Agbadi during his illness, Ona's threats to return to her
father's compound illustrate her choice between accepting subordination to her father or
to her lover.
14
As Ketu Katrak notes, "Emecheta's women protagonists are depicted as
belonging at every stage of their lives to some male figure."
15
Obi Idayi's praise song,
"'My sons, you will grow to be kings among men. My daughters, you will grow to rock
your children's children,"
16
illustrates the importance placed on child-bearing in
traditional society, while providing an ironic parallel between the world of powerful
kingly men and that of motherly women.
However, unlike many European feminists such as Katherine Frank, Emecheta
does not locate traditional society as the sole source of African women's oppression.
Perhaps the most disruptive change in the colonial period was the shift to a capitalist
market economy based on money. Emecheta's novel describes the ways in which this
was particularly challenging for women as Nnu Ego and her co-wives (Adaku and later
Okpo) become dependent upon the wage earned by their husband Nnaife in order to feed
themselves and their family. This leads to the erosion of the women's power in areas of
which they were traditionally in charge. This powerlessness is evident in Adaku and Nnu
Ego's cooking strike. In order to protest Nnaife's failure to provide them with enough
resources to feed the family, they use a traditional method of women's protest, a strike, to
1(
-or eDam%9e 4atra!, 6"omanhoodB@otherhood6, 1=+)1=2.
1*
Emecheta, Joys of Motherhood, 1=.
13
4atra!, 6"omanhoodB@otherhood6, 1=(.
1=
Emecheta, Joys of Motherhood, 29.
5
make their demands. Though women are in charge of food preparation within the
household, Nnaife is easily able to survive his wives' strike in modern Lagos by sharing
meals with his co-workers.
17
The economic activity that women engage in is often difficult and/or demeaning,
and usually goes to benefit the male members of their household. A common expense is
paying for (usually male) children's education in colonial or church-run schools. Such is
the case for Nnu Ego, whose earnings from selling firewood go almost entirely toward
financing the education of her sons. Unlike in the traditional society of Ibuza, none of
her children work to support their parents once they reach adulthood. Thus, women's
responsibilities to the male members of their family are increased, while the return on this
'investment' is eliminated. Nnu Ego's only compensation for her physical, monetary and
emotional investment in her children is the knowledge that she is "the mother of very
clever children."
18
The Joys of Motherhood illustrates the dual oppression operating within colonial
society. Forms of patriarchy present in Ibuza are reinforced by new colonial realities in
Lagos that include new forms of women's subordination. As Florence Stratton notes,
"Nnu Ego is, then, in contrast to her female forebears, subject to two forms of oppression,
to definitions imposed on her by colonial society as well as by Ibuza patriarchy."
19
The
importance of women's strength in precolonial Ibuza is illustrated by the narrator's
observation that "a woman who gave in to a man without first fighting for her honour was
never respected. To regard a woman who is quiet and timid as desirable was something
17
Emecheta, Joys of Motherhood, 1*(.
18
Emecheta, Joys of Motherhood, 197.
19
59orence 8tratton. Contemporary African Literature and the Politics of Gender. New or!: Eout9ed>e,
199*. '11(,
6
that came with Christianity and other changes."
20
However, in the urban colonial
setting of Lagos, this changed greatly. As Emecheta writes, "It occurred to Nnu Ego that
she was a prisoner. She was not even expected to demand more money for her
family."
21
The relevance of Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood lies not only in its treatment
of gender relations in colonial society but also in its significance as a nationalist text.
Just as Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart represented a landmark nationalist narrative
when it was published in 1958, Emecheta's 1977 novel serves as a corrective of earlier
male-centred nationalist visions. The era surrounding the release of Achebe's novel was
one of great optimism throughout Africa as formal judicial independence was rapidly
granted to all but a few African colonies. Independence leaders, made up mostly of those
Africans educated in the European tradition, used idealistic rhetoric to describe the
prospects of an independent Africa. As Julius Nyerere and the new government of
Tanzania declared, "The Government [will give] equal opportunity to all men and women
irrespective of race, religion or status."
22
However, by the 1970s the stark realities of
economic disappointment, political ineffectiveness, and social division had sunk in. As
Richard Sandbrook wrote in 1985, "Democracy, prosperity and self-rule -- this was the
vision of African independence. But today, few Africans express satisfaction with the
fruits of uhuru."
23
Buchi Emecheta wrote The Joys of Motherhood in 1977, by which time Nigerian
independence was already seventeen years old, but the vision of progress and cooperation
2+
Emecheta, Joys of Motherhood, 1+.
21
Emecheta, Joys of Motherhood, 1(7.
22
Ju9iu/ 4. N&erere. 67he ;ru/ha Dec9aration: 8ocia9i/m and 8e9-)Ee9iance6 in %reedom and Socialism& A
Selection of ritin" and Speeches, '()*+'(),. Dar e/ 8a9aam: FD-ord 1ni2er/it& 0re//, 19=8. '2((,
2(
Eichard 8and.roo!. The Politics of !conomic Sta"nation. $am.rid>e: $am.rid>e 1ni2er/it& 0re//,
1983. '1,
7
was a distant memory. As Allison Drew notes, the independence period has seen the
increasing marginalization of women from economic opportunity and political
participation. For instance, despite making up thirty-eight percent of the work force, only
five percent of women in sub-Saharan Africa were involved in industry in the 1980s.
24
This exclusion may be attributed to the ideology of early nationalist leaders. As
Christopher Miller explains, "In the days of colonialism and anticolonialism, it was
thought that certain forms of liberation had to precede others: first racial liberation, then,
eventually, perhaps, gender liberation."
25
As the years passed, it became increasingly
clear that the nature of African politics had begun to revolve around the consolidation of
personal power and not the tackling of social problems. Sandbrook outlines the socio-
economic and political reasons along with external pressures that led to personal rule
throughout much of the continent.
26
In addition to its value as a critique of colonial society, Emecheta's work also
represents an important social commentary on issues of gender inequality that had not
been addressed in the period between independence and the novel's publication. While
validating the importance and dignity of traditional culture, Emecheta does not paint an
unproblematic picture of precolonial society. Like Achebe's text, her novel illustrates the
need for a new, truly postcolonial approach to the social problems facing Nigeria and
Africa as a whole. Her emphasis on the exceptional challenges faced by women serves as
a challenge to nationalist leaders to address the needs of women as part of the project of
building a new nation. This is evident in Nnu Ego's continued poverty while her sons
2*
;99i/on Drew. 65ema9e $on/ciou/ne// and 5emini/m in ;-rica6 Theory and Society< 5e.ruar& 1993< 2*,
1. '2,
23
Guoted in Ju9iana @. N-ah);..en&i. Gender #n African omen-s ritin". B9oomin>ton: Andiana
1ni2er/it& 0re//, 1997. '=,
2=
8and.roo!, Politics of !conomic Sta"nation, 111.
8
establish their own independent lives. "Her joy was to know that she had brought up her
children [who] might rub shoulders one day with the great men of Nigeria."
27
Thus, the
men's advancement comes at the expense of the female characters both in the novel and
society.
In The Joys of Motherhood, Emecheta examines the traditional and colonial roots
of gender inequality in African society. Colonial rule worked to reinforce precolonial
patriarchal norms while introducing new forms of sexism and gender inequality. The
colonial period saw the increasing marginalization of women from political involvement
and economic autonomy, and this trend only continued in the period following
independence. Emecheta's powerful novel illustrates the way in which the hybrid society
that emerged as a result of the colonial encounter and colonial rule worked to the
disadvantage of women. Her narrative is also a nationalist text that emphasizes issues of
gender inequality that were not addressed in the postcolonial period.
27
Emecheta, Joys of Motherhood, 2+2.
9