MA156 - Mathematical Methods for Physical Sciences

Conservative vector elds

Contents
1 Introduction

2 Gradient and directional derivative

2.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2
2
4

3 Conservative elds
3.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Properties of conservative elds . . .
3.3 Potentials of conservative vector elds
3.3.1 Integral method . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Differential method . . . . . .

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4 Stokes theorem
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 The curl of a vector eld . . . . . . . .
4.3 Stokes theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Stokes theorem and conservative elds.

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5 Divergence and Divergence theorem

15

6 Physical Applications of the divergence theorem

6.1 Divergence and the sources of vector elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Divergence and Conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Divergence and electrostatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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MA156 - Conservative vector elds

1 Introduction
Vector elds are extremely useful to describe forces. Some of these, like the gravitational or the
electrostatic force, have a very important property: it is possible to associate an energy to them. A
stone held on the top of a mountain has a certain gravitational potential energy that can be transformed
into kinetic energy by letting it drop. It is clear that the vector eld that describes the gravitational
force is somewhat peculiar, it must have some additional properties with respect to a generic vector
eld. The purpose of these notes is to explain very briey what are the characteristics that differentiate
the gravitational eld from a generic vector eld to which it is not possible to associate a potential
energy.
In order to do this we must introduce an approach to vector elds that is the complement of
what we have done until now. To understand this point consider, for the moment, a real function of
one real variable, f (x), with a x b. The study of the properties of this function can be carried
out in two ways: the integral of a function f (x) over an interval a x b requires the knowledge
of the function over the entire interval and gives global properties of the function, for example its
average value. The derivative of a function, instead, requires only a local knowledge of the function
and gives only local information: knowing the rst derivative of a function at a point x0 allows us to
approximate the function in a small neighbourhood of x0 but does not gives us any information on the
values of the function away from that point. The global (integration) and the local (differentiation)
approaches are not unrelated: as a matter of fact the fundamental theorem of calculus states that the
derivative is (very roughly) the inverse of the integral.
The same two approaches can be used to study vector elds. Until now we have used the global
approach and we have dened the line and surface integrals of vector elds. In order to study the
properties of conservative vector elds we must also introduce the local approach and try to dene
differentiation operations that can either produce a vector eld by acting on a scalar function f (x, y, z)
(such operation is called the gradient) or that act directly on vector elds (these two operations are
called the curl and the divergence of the vector eld).
We are now going to introduce the gradient of a scalar function and use it to dene a special
class of vector elds called conservative vector elds. We then show that these elds possess all the
properties of the gravitational force eld, namely that it is possible to associate a potential energy
to them. Finally we will use the two other differential operations on vector elds, the curl and the
divergence, to nd some easy methods to identify whether a vector eld is or is not conservative and
to write conservation laws as partial differential equations.

2 Gradient and directional derivative

2.1 Denition
Given a function of two or more variables, f (x, y) for example, we dene the directional derivative
of f at the point x0 = (x0 , y0 ) in the direction of the unit vector n as
f (x0 + n) f (x0 )
f
= lim
.
n 0

The geometrical interpretation of the directional derivative is that it represents the slope of the graph of
f (x, y) when we move from the point (x0 , y0 ) in the direction indicated by the vector n (see Figure 1).
Example Evaluate the directional derivative of f (x, y) = sin(x + y 2 ) in the direction of v = i + 2j
at (0, 0).

MA156 - Conservative vector elds

f(x,y)

n
x
f

Figure 1: The directional derivative in the direction of the unit vector n is the slope of the graph of the function
in the direction of n. The gradient of f ,
the gradient is a level line of the graph.

f , points in the direction of maximum slope. The line orthogonal to

In order to compute the directional derivative we need a unit vector,

n=

1
v
= (i + 2j) .
|v|
5

The partial derivative of f (x, y) at the origin in the direction of n is

f [(0, 0) + n] f (0, 0)
f (/ 5, 2/ 5) f (0, 0)
f
= lim
= lim
=
0
n 0

1
sin(/ 5 + 4/52 ) 0
lim
= .
0

5
The geometrical interpretation of the directional derivative suggests that to describe the derivative
of a function of two or more variables we need two pieces of information: the slope of the graph
and the direction along which this slope is measured. In other words, a complete description of the
derivative of a function of two or more variables entails the use of a vector. It turns out that a most
sensible and useful vector is the gradient of the function dened as
f=
for a function f (x, y, z). The symbol
operator

f
f
f
i+
j+
k
x
y
z

(1)

is called grad or nabla and you can think of it as a vector

i+
j+
k
x
y
z

that acts on the function f (x, y, z) to give Equation (1).

MA156 - Conservative vector elds

Example - Evaluate

sin(x + y 2 ) =

sin(x + y 2 ).

sin(x + y 2 )i +
sin(x + y 2 )j = cos(x + y 2 )i + 2y cos(x + y 2 )j.
x
y

2.2 Properties
The knowledge of the gradient of a function allows us to compute all the directional derivatives in a
straightforward manner. Provided that the function f is differentiable then the directional derivative
of f in the direction of the unit vector n is given by
f
=
n

f n,

|n| = 1.

(2)

This relation allows us to nd the geometrical meaning of the gradient of a function: it points in
the direction of steepest ascent. To show this we can use (2) to write the directional derivative of a
function f as
f
=
n

f n = | f | |n| cos() = | f | cos(),

where is the angle between the gradient and n. The directional derivative, i.e. the slope, is maximal
for = 0, i.e. when n is parallel to f .
On the contrary the surface is level in the directions orthogonal to the gradient: if n is orthogonal
to f then
n

f = 0 =

f
= 0.
n

To summarise, the knowledge of the gradient allows us to know all the directional derivatives, the
direction of steepest ascent and the level lines of the function.
Exercise 1 - Show that (f g) = f g + g f .
Exercise 2 - Show that the gradient of a function of the radial distance from the origin, f (r), with
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , is equal to
f (r) =

df

r,
dr

where r is a unit vector in the direction of the radius,

r=

xi + yj + zk
x2 + y 2 + z 2

Use this result to show that the gradient of the function (r) = 1/r is equal to
=

r
.
r2

MA156 - Conservative vector elds

3 Conservative elds
3.1 Denition
If (x, y, z) is a differentiable function dened in a domain D it is possible to evaluate its gradient at
every point of the domain D. The gradient of , is a vector, function of the coordinates (x, y, z).
In other words it is a vector eld. More formally:
Denition Let (x, y, z) be a differentiable function in a domain D. The vector eld F (x, y, z)
dened by
F = (x, y, z)
is called a conservative vector eld in D. The function is called a potential for F in D.
Remark - We will see that a conservative vector eld can be used to represent a force with an energy
associated to it. The potential of the vector eld is the potential energy of the force. The minus sign
used in the denition of conservative eld is just a matter of convention: this choice of sign implies
that a body moves under the action of the force from a point of high potential to a point with a lower
value of the potential function.
Example The gravitational force eld of a point mass,
F =

km

r,
r2

is conservative since we can write

F =

1
r

Remark - There are innitely many potentials that correspond to the same vector eld, but they all
differ by a constant. Both 1 (x, y, z) and 2 1 + C, where C is a constant, produce the same
vector eld:
1 = 2 = F .
This is consistent with the physical interpretation of the potential as the potential energy of a force:
the only physically important quantity is not the energy associated to a point, but the energy difference
between different points: this is independent of the value of the arbitrary constant,
2 (r 1 ) 2 (r2 ) = [1 (r 1 ) + C] [1 (r 2 ) + C] = 1 (r1 ) 1 (r2 ).
The following theorem completes the analogy between conservative vector elds and forces with
a potential energy. We know form physics that the work done by the gravitational force on a body
that moves from a point with height h1 to a point with height h2 is independent of the path taken
to go from one to the other. Another way of stating this property is that in the absence of friction a
ball rolling down a slide will climb up to exactly the same height it started from (see Figure 2). The
mathematical equivalent of these statements is that the line integral of a conservative vector eld is
independent of the path and depends only on the end points.
Theorem Let F be a conservative vector eld on a domain D and let be a potential for it, F =
. Let A and B be any two points in D and let c be any curve in D that joins them. Then
F ds = (A) (B).
c

MA156 - Conservative vector elds

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Figure 2: In the absence of friction the ball reaches the same height it started from and its energy is continually
transformed from potential energy to kinetic energy in the downward part of the slope and from kinetic energy
to potential energy in the upward part of it.

Example - The function (x, y) = xy is the potential of the conservative vector eld F = =
yi + xj. Call the arc of circle of radius 1 centred at the origin that joins A = (1, 0) with
r(t)
B = (1/ 2, 1/ 2):
r(t) = cos(t)i + sin(t)j,

0 t /4.

The line integral of F along the path r is

/4

F ds =
r

F [r(t)]

dr
dt =
dt

/4
0

1
cos(2t) dt = .
2

The difference of potentials between starting and ending point is

F ds = (A) (B) = (0, 0)
r

1 1
,
2 2

1
= .
2

3.2 Properties of conservative elds

Given a potential it is straightforward to construct a conservative eld: we just need to evaluate the
gradient of the potential. The reverse problem, given a vector eld can we ascertain whether it is
conservative and, if so, what is its potential, is more involved. In order to solve it we need to discuss
some more the properties of conservative elds.
It is fairly straightforward to say if a eld is not conservative. In fact, suppose that F (x, y) =
F1 (x, y)i + F2 (x, y)j is a two dimensional conservative vector eld with potential :

2
F1 = ,
F = ,

x
y
yx
=
F = =
F2

F2 = ,

=
.
y
x
xy
The mixed derivatives of are identical,
2
F1
F2
2
=
=
=
.
yx
xy
y
x

(3)

Therefore, if F (x, y) is a conservative two dimensional vector eld then (3) must hold. The inverse
of this statement tells us that a eld F does not satisfy relation (3) then it cannot be conservative.

MA156 - Conservative vector elds

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Figure 3: Three examples of two dimensional domains: connected (left), simply connected (centre) and not
connected (right).

However, this condition is necessary, but not a sufcient: a vector eld can satisfy relation (3) and
still not be conservative.
Example - Verify that the Biot-Savart magnetic eld (the eld generated by an innitely long straight
wire),
B(x, y) =

yi + xj
,
x2 + y 2

(x, y) = (0, 0),

(4)

does satisfy relation (3). However, this eld, like all magnetic elds, is not conservative.
Remark The generalisation of (3) to three dimensions is
F2
F1
=
,
y
x

F1
F3
=
,
z
x

F2
F3
=
.
z
y

(5)

To characterise completely the properties of conservative elds and, ultimately, to nd out how
to generalise relations (3) and (5) so that they can give a sufcient criterion to identify a conservative
vector eld, we must characterise better the domains over which the elds are dened. We will then
see that the Biot-Savart eld, Equation (4) is not conservative because the domain on which it is
dened, the entire (x, y)-plane minus the origin, is not good enough.
We distinguish three types of domains (see Figure 3):
1. Connected domains - A domain D is connected if for every pair of points P and Q in D there
exists a piecewise smooth curve in D from P to Q. In two dimensions a connected domain is
made up of one piece with or without holes.
2. Simply connected domains - A connected domains D is said to be simply connected if every
closed curve in D can be shrunk to a point in D without any part passing out of D. In two
dimensions a domain is simply connected if it is made up of one piece with no holes in it.
3. Not connected domains - All domains that are not connected.
In general, in a simply connected domain
(a) any closed curve in D is the boundary of a surface lying wholly in D.
(b) If c1 and c2 are two curves in D having the same end points, then c1 can be deformed continuously into c2 remaining in D throughout the entire deformation process (see Figure 4).

MA156 - Conservative vector elds

y
B

c2

c1
A
x

Figure 4: In a simply connected domain any curve c1 can be smoothly deformed into another curve c2 with
the same end points.

We are now in a position to characterise in a compete manner the properties of conservative vector
elds:
Theorem - Let D be an open connected domain and let F be a smooth vector eld dened in D. The
following statements are equivalent:
(a) F is conservative in D;
(b)

cF

ds = 0 for every piecewise smooth, closed curve in D;

(c) Given any two points A and B in D, the line integral of F , c F ds has the same value for all
piecewise smooth curves in D starting at A and ending at B.
Remark 1 - This theorem is the mathematical formulation of some well known properties of forces
with a potential energy. Point (b) states that the gravitational force makes no total work if the starting
point of the trajectory is the same as the end point. Points (c), instead, states that the work done by
the gravitational force is independent of the particle trajectory, but depends only on the starting and
ending point.
Remark 2 - This theorem shows why the Biot-Savart eld, Equation (4), is not conservative. Its
integral around a circle of radius a centred at the origin, r(t) = a cos(t)i + a sin(t)j, 0 t 2, is
2

B ds =
r

a sin(t)i + a cos(t)j
[a sin(t)i + a cos(t)j] dt = 2.
a2

This theorem is a partial answer to the question: given a vector eld how can we know whether
it is conservative? Unfortunately it is not a very simple answer. In order to state whether a eld is
conservative we need, for example, to evaluate its line integral on all closed paths contained in D and
verify that it is always zero. We need to nd a simpler test to check whether a given eld is or is not
conservative. To do this we need to introduce another derivative, the curl of a vector eld and use
Stokes theorem.
Before doing this, however, we will discuss how to nd the potential of a given conservative vector
eld.

MA156 - Conservative vector elds

3.3 Potentials of conservative vector elds

Suppose that the eld F (x, y) = F1 (x, y)i + F2 (x, y)j is conservative. There are two methods to
nd its potential, i.e. a function (x, y) such that = F .
3.3.1

Integral method

We can use the theorem that say that that the line integral of a conservative vector eld on any path c
joining two points P0 = (x0 , y0 ) and P1 = (x1 , y1 ) is equal to the difference of the potentials between
the two points,
F ds = (x0 , y0 ) (x1 , y1 ),
c

to dene the potential function. Choose a reference point P0 = (x0 , y0 ) and assign the value of the
potential at this point,
(x0 , y0 ) = C.
The value of the potential at any point P1 = (x1 , y1 ) is
F ds + (x0 , y0 ) =

(x1 , y1 ) =
c

F ds + C,

(6)

where the line integral is evaluated on any path c that joins P1 with the reference point P0 . Equation (6) denes the function potential at every point (x, y): this function is, by denition, the
potential of the vector eld F (x, y).
Example - Find the potential of the conservative vector eld F (x, y) = yi + xj.
We choose the origin as the reference point and we set the potential to be equal to an arbitrary
constant C there:
(0, 0) = C.
To evaluate the potential at a generic point P1 = (x1 , y1 ) we choose as path a straight line r(t) from
the origin to the point P1 parametrised by
r(t) = tx1 i + ty1 j,

0 t 1.

The potential is given by

r
1

F ds + C =

(x1 , y1 ) =

F [r(t)]

dr
dt + C =
dt

(ty1 i + tx1 j) (x1 i + y1 j) dt + C = x1 y1 + C.

3.3.2

Differential method

The potential (x, y) of the conservative eld F (x, y) = F1 (x, y)i + F2 (x, y)j must satisfy the two
differential equations

= F1 (x, y),
x

= F2 (x, y).
y

(7)
(8)

MA156 - Conservative vector elds

10

We can integrate (7) with respect to x, considering y as a parameter. Its solution is

(x, y) =

F1 (x, y) dx + (y),

(9)

where (y) is the integration constant: notice that it is constant with respect to x, but may still be a
function of the other variable y. We can now substitute (9) into (8) to obtain an ordinary differential
equation for (y):

d
= F2 (x, y) +
dy
y

F1 (x, y) dx.

Example - Find the potential of the conservative eld F = yi + xj.

We are looking for a function (x, y) such that

= y,
x

= x.
y

The solution of the rst equation, obtained by integrating over x while considering y as a constant is
(x, y) = xy + (y).
If we substitute this expression for into the second equation we obtain an ordinary differential
equation for (y):
d
d

= x +
= x =
= 0 = (y) = C,
y
dy
dy
where C is an arbitrary real constant. Therefore the potential of the conservative vector eld F =
yi + xj is
(x, y) = xy + C,
the same result obtained using the previous method.

4 Stokes theorem
4.1 Introduction
In this section we will discuss how to nd a simple condition to determine whether or not a given
vector eld is conservative. For example, we know that if a two dimensional vector eld, F (x, y) =
F1 (x, y)i + F2 (x, y)j, is conservative then
x F2 = y F1 .

(10)

However, we also know that this condition is not sufcient, per se. A eld can satisfy it and yet not
be conservative. Is it possible to generalise Equation (10), so that it is not only necessary, but also
sufcient? The answer is yes and Stokes theorem tells us what we need to do. However, before being
able to answer this question we need to introduce a rst derivative of a vector eld, the curl of a
vector eld.

MA156 - Conservative vector elds

11

4.2 The curl of a vector eld

All the derivatives of vector elds are based on the operator
considered as a vector operator
=

, nabla or grad. This symbol can be

i+
j+
k,
x
y
z

that acts on functions of (x, y, z). The gradient of a scalar function, for example, is the result of
applying the operator grad to the function itself:
f=

f
f
f

i+
j+
k f (x, y, z) =
i+
j+
k.
x
y
z
x
y
z

This same approach can be used to introduce new derivatives, that instead of differentiating
scalar functions, like f (x, y, z), differentiate vector elds. One of these derivatives is the curl of a
vector eld, F (x, y, z).
Denition - The curl of a differentiable vector eld F is the vector eld F . Equivalent ways of
evaluating this derivative are:
F

i+
j+
k (F1 i + F2 j + F3 k)
x
y
z
i
j k
x y z
F1 F2 F3

F3 F2

y
z

= i

+j

F1 F3

z
x

+k

F2 F1

x
y

The curl of a vector eld is related to rotation, it measures how the eld rotates, swirls at
different points of space. Consider, for example, the rotation of a rigid body with constant angular
velocity, = 0 k. The velocity at a point (x, y, z) is given by
v(x, y, z) = r = y0 i + x0 j.
The curl of this vector eld is
v =

i
j
k
y z
x
y0 x0 0

= k0 [x x y (y)] = 20 k.

The curl of the velocity eld is twice the angular velocity of the rigid body.

MA156 - Conservative vector elds

12
y

F=0

Figure 5: A centrally symmetric eld has zero curl.

Properties of the curl
1.

(gF ) = g(
vector eld.

F) =

g F , where g(x, y, z) is a scalar function and F (x, y, z) a

2. The curl of a conservative vector eld is zero:

( ) = 0.

This property is the three dimensional version of equation (10). It says that if F is a conservative
vector eld, i.e. F = , then its curl is zero:
F conservative =

F = 0.

Stokes theorem allows us to invert the direction of the arrow, provided that F satises some
other properties.
3. The curl of a centrally symmetric eld is zero:
F = f (r)r =

F = 0.

This results is in line with the interpretation of the curl as a measure of the rotation of a vector
eld. A centrally symmetric eld does not rotate and its curl is zero (see Figure 5).

4.3 Stokes theorem

We have dened a derivative of a vector eld, the curl. Before stating Stokes theorem we need to
specify the surfaces we wish to work with. The rst requirement is that the surface is orientable, so
that we can evaluate ux integrals across it. The second requirement is that the surface must have a
boundary, i.e. it must be delimited by a piecewise smooth curve, eventually composed of many bits
and pieces (see Figure 6).
Finally we need to dene a positive orientation for the boundary and the vector normal to the
surface. The orientation of the boundary is positive if walking along it the surface is on our left. The

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x
x

Figure 6: A sphere is a surface with no boundary: it is not delimited by a curve. The other two surfaces
have boundaries formed by one piece (centre) or two (right). The inner boundary is traversed in the opposite
direction of the outer boundary.

vector normal to the surface is dened to point upwards. This rules implies that the borders of holes
in the surface are traversed in opposite direction to the outer rim, Figure 6, or that the bases of a
cylinder are traversed in opposite ways, Figure 7. We are now ready to state Stokes theorem and its
two dimension version, Greens theorem.
Theorem (Stokes) Let S be a piecewise smooth, oriented surface in three dimensions, having unit

normal n and boundary c consisting of one or more piecewise smooth, closed curves with positive
orientation. Then
F ds =
c

F dS
S

Theorem (Green) Let R be a closed region in the xy-plane whose boundary c consists of one or more
piecewise smooth non self-intersecting closed curves that are positively oriented. If F = F1 i + F2 j
is a differentiable vector eld on R then
F2 F1

x
y

F ds =
c

dA.

Example - Evaluate S F dS over the hemisphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 , z 0, where F (r) =

yi + xzj + yk.
The boundary of the surface is the circumference x2 + y 2 = a2 , z = 0, (see Figure 8) which can
be parametrised by the curve
r(t) = a cos(t)i + a sin(t)j

0 t 2 .

Stokes theorem states that

F dS =
S

c
2

F ds =
0

dt F [r(t)]

dr
=
dt

dt [a sin(t)i + a sin(t)k] [a sin(t)i + a cos(t)j]dt = a2

Remark - A consequence of Stokes theorem is that the ux of the curl across all the surfaces that
have the curve c(t) as border is the same. Therefore, instead of evaluating the ux of
F over
the hemisphere S, we can evaluate the ux across the base B (a much simpler integral) and obtain the
same result:
F dS =
S

F dS = a2
B

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z
S

n
y
r

B
x

Figure 7: The bases of a cylinder are traversed

in opposite directions. The vector normal to the
surface points outwards.

F across S is the same

as that across B and as the line integral along r.

Figure 8: The ux of

4.4 Stokes theorem and conservative elds.

When studying conservative elds we have established that a eld on a connected domain D is conservative if and only if
F ds = 0
c

for all closed paths c in D. This theorem while giving a complete characterisation of a conservative
vector eld is rather cumbersome to use: there are innite closed paths. Stokes theorem allows us to
get around this problem.
If D is a simply connected domain then any closed path c is the border of an orientable surface S.
To each of these surfaces is possible to apply Stokes theorem,
F ds =
c

If

F dS.
S

F = 0 everywhere in a simply connected domain D then

F dS = 0,

for all surfaces =

F ds = 0,

for all closed path = F is conservative.

On the other hand we have already stated that if F is conservative then its curl is zero. We
therefore a simple criterion to establish whether a eld is conservative:
A vector eld F dened on a simply connected domain D is conservative if
and only if
F =0

in D.

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For example, the Biot-Savart eld,

F =
is not conservative even though
origin, is not simply connected.

yi + xj
,
x2 + y 2

(x, y) = (0, 0),

F = 0, because its domain of denition, the xy-plane minus the

5 Divergence and Divergence theorem

There are two types of derivatives of a vector eld. We have seen the curl, F obtained by taking
the cross product of the grad operator, with a vector eld F . By taking the dot product instead, we
obtain a second type of derivative, the divergence:
F.
Denition - The Divergence of a differentiable vector eld F (x, y, z) is the scalar function F :
F = =
=

i+
j+
k (F1 i + F2 j + F3 k)
x
y
z
F1 F2 F3
+
+
.
x
y
x

While the curl F is a vector, the divergence is a scalar function.

The key to the physical meaning of the divergence of a vector eld is given by the divergence
theorem. The divergence theorem relates surface integrals of vector elds to volume integrals of their
divergence. It allows
To get a clearer idea of the physical meaning of divergence.
To express physical laws as relations between derivatives of vector elds.
To nd the value of a surface integral by evaluating a volume integral (the latter is usually
simpler than the former).
Theorem - Let F (r) be a a vector eld dened in a volume V . Let S be the orientable surface that
encloses the volume V . If F (r) is differentiable in V then
F dV =
V

F dS .
S

In words, the volume integral of the divergence is equal to the ux of the vector eld.
Example - Evaluate the ux of the vector eld F (x, y, z) = yi across the sphere of radius one centred
at the origin and compare the result with the volume integral of the divergence of F .
The sphere is represented by the vector function
r(, ) = cos() sin()i + sin() sin()j + cos()k,

0 2, 0 .

The surface element is

dS = [cos() sin()i + sin() sin()j + cos()k] sin()dd.

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The ux of F = yi is
F dS =
S

F [r(, )] dS =
S

d
0
2

d
0

d [sin() sin()i] [cos() sin()i + sin() sin()j + cos()k] sin() =

d cos() sin() sin3 () = 0.

On the other hand the divergence of F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k is

F1 F2 F3
y
+
+
=
= 0,
x
y
z
x

F =

so that the volume integral of the divergence is

F dV =
V

0 dV = 0
V

as stated by the divergence theorem.

6 Physical Applications of the divergence theorem

6.1 Divergence and the sources of vector elds
The divergence of a eld is associated with the sources and the sinks of the eld (see Figure 9). A
source is a region in space from which eld lines ow outward (for example, the neighbourhood of a
positive charge or a source of water). A sink is a region of space where the eld lines converge to
(for example, the neighbourhood of a negative charge or a hole where water disappears).
Consider a small region in a vector eld . The volume integral of the divergence is approximately:
F dV

F V ,

where V is the volume of the small region. The divergence theorem states that the value of the
divergence is related to the ux across the surface of the region:
F dV =
V

F dS =
S

F V

F dS .
S

The eld ows outward form a source, its ux is positive and so is its divergence. The eld ows
inward towards a sink, its ux is negative and so is its divergence. A positive value of the divergence
is associated to the sources of the eld, a negative one to its sinks. In other words, the divergence of a
vector eld is a measure of the inow or outow of the eld from a small region of space.

6.2 Divergence and Conservation laws

The divergence of a vector eld is an extremely useful tool to express conservation laws. The total
mass of uid contained in a volume V can change only if there is a mass outow or inow across the

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Source

Sink

Positive Divergence

Negative Divergence

Figure 9: Field lines and equipotential for two equal and opposite point charges. The divergence is negative
around the negative charge (sink), positive around the positive one (source).

surface S that delimits the volume. This statement can be expressed in integral form as:
d
(Mass inside V ) = (Mass outowing through S) =
dt

+ (v) dS = 0 ,
V t
S
where (r, t) is the mass density of the uid and v(r, t) is the speed of a uid particle at the point
r = xi + yj + zk. This relation involves integrals. It can be put in a differential form (an equation
that contains only derivatives of the eld), by making use of the divergence theorem:
(v) dS =
S

(v)dV .
V

The mass conservation law becomes:

V

+
t

(v) dV = 0

This relation must hold for all volumes V . This is possible only if the integrand itself is zero:

+
t

(v) = 0 .

This equation is the mass conservation law expressed in differential form. It shows that the divergence
of a eld is usually associated with a conserved quantity. For example, an equation exactly analogous
to this expresses the charge conservation law in electromagnetism.

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6.3 Divergence and electrostatic

Gauss law states that the ux of the electric eld across a closed surface S is equal to the charge
contained in the volume V enclosed by the surface:
1

E dS ,

(r)dV =

where (r) is the charge density and E(r) is the electric eld. This equation can be put in differential
form by applying the same procedure as in the previous example:
E dS =

(r)

EdV =

E dV = 0

This relation must hold for all volumes. This is possible only if the integrand is zero:
E =

This is the rst of Maxwells equations. This equation can be written in a simpler form: since the
electrostatic eld E is conservative, E = , we can rewrite Maxwells equation as an equation
for the potential, . The advantage of doing so is that only scalar functions appear in it, instead of
vectors.
( ) =
where the symbol

Poissons equation

(called Laplacian) means

2

2 2 2
+ 2 + 2.
x2
y
z

The equation for the potential in absence of charges, = 0, is

2

=0

Laplace equation

These last two equations appear in many branches of physics, from the theory of elasticity, to electromagnetism, to quantum mechanics.