INDEX

The Andhra Petrochemicals limited Introduction

Definitions
Anatomy of Fire
Fire Triangle or Pyramid
Class of Fire
Emergency Fire Fighting
Fire Protection in Petrochemical Industry
Fire Drills
Fire Risk of Electricity
Abbreviations
Bibliography
 INTRODUCTION

The Andhra Petrochemicals Limited is a Joint Venture company of the Andhra

Sugars Limited and Andhra Pradesh Industrial Development Corporation to
manufacture 36,000 MTPA capacity of Oxo-Alcohols. The low-pressure oxo
technology jointly developed by Union Carbide Corporation Davy McKee – Johnson
matthey. The company was incorporated in 1988, with the capital investment of 150
crores. The first product was commenced during the year 1993. The annual turnover of
the plant is 180 crores.

The plant is situated in 75 acres site at Visakhapatnam. In which 30acres is

plant and remaining is green belt. The location of the plant is away from the
city and near the sea. Site is 7 km away from the National Highway for the
transportation of the products by the road tankers. The site is leased from
Visakhapatnam Port Trust with renewal options. The major advantage of site
is that it is adjacent to HINDUSTAN PETROLEUM CORPORATION
LIMITED, VISAKHA REFINARY .One of the raw material, Propylene is
drawn through the direct pipeline and another raw material, Naphtha and other
fuels are also brought from HPCL by road tankers. Thus transport cost is
minimum

The Design of the plant is to minimize hazardous chemicals emission and losses
thereby ensuring maximum safety of the plant and negligible environmental
impact.

The products of the plant are taken by campaign basis according to the market
demand. These are

1. 2-Ethyl Hexanol 30,000 MTPA

2. Normal Butanol 2,314 MTPA

3. Iso Butanol 3,686 MTPA.

 OXO – ALCOHOLS PLANT

A unique Oxo–Alcohols Plant in the south India, Designed by DAVY McKee

Limited, ENGLAND with TATA HONEY WELL TDC 3000 and EXPERION
Distributed control system to have better control of the plant. Adopting the low-
pressure technique to produce 2 Ethyl Hexanol, N- Butanol and I-Butanol at the total
capacity of 36,000 MTPA by using Naphtha and Propylene as the raw materials.

The name Oxo process indicates that conversion of α - Olefins to Aldehydes

and/or alcohols containing an additional carbon atom i.e., propylene reacts
with synthesis gas to produce Butyraldehyde and consequently into Butanols.
Low pressure Oxo Process has been adopted to achieve better-feed stock
advantage and maximize the production of Normal Butyraldehyde over Iso
Butyraldehyde.

Campaign operation of alcohols plant enables a significant reduction in Capital

cost of the hydrogenation and to produce a wide variation in Alcohol product slate
according to the market demand.
The Oxo – Alcohols Plant consist mainly.

 Synthesis Gas Plant

 Aldehyde Plant
 Alcohols Plant
 Offsites
 Utilities

Over All Process Description

Synthesis gas is produced by the Adiabatic and Tubular Steam Reforming of
Naphtha. High purity hydrogen is achieved through pressure swing adsorption process.

This synthesis gas is reacted with propylene to give Aldehydes, N – Bal, and I–
Bal by low pressure Hydroformylation.

The products 2-EH, N-BUOH and I-BUOH are produced on campaign basis. N
– Butyraldehyde after Aldolisation and Hydrogenation produces 2-Ethyl Hexanol.
Hydrogenation of individual N – Butyraldehyde and I – Butyraldehyde, produce two
other Alcohols N – Butanol and I – Butanol on campaign basis, respectively.

Raw materials and products are stored in off sites.

Cooling water, DM water, Steam, Instrument air, Nitrogen and Electricity are supplied
from Utilities.

 Product Uses

1) 2-ETHYL HEXANOL

2) 2-ETHYL HEXANOL

Product Use

Dioctyl Phthalate Plasticiser in PVC production.Main

general purpose plasticiser for both
Vinyl & rubber applications.

2-Ethyl HexylAcrylate Adhesives,& as an internal plasticiser

for Vinyl Acetate which is used in
surface coatings,Paper & Textile
applications.

Nitrate Esters Cetane Improves.

Lube Oil Additives 

Other Plasticiser Dioctyl Adipate, Trioctyl

Trimellitate.

2) BUTANOL

Product Use

Butyl Acrylate Internal plasticiser for vinylacetate.

EGMBE For watersoluble paints and inks.

Butyl Acetate Solvents and lacquers.

Butyl Benzyl Phthalate Plasticiser.

Butyl Amines. Pesticides.

 DEFINITIONS

Fire Vehicles: are mobile vehicles meant for transporting equipment /fire fighting
agents / fire fighting crew to the site of fire / other emergency.

Foam :are an aggregate of air filled bubbles that will float on the surface of a
flammable liquid . They are made from aerated solutions of water and a proper
proportion of foam concentrate. Foam forms a cohesive floating blanket on the liquid
surface that extinguishes the fire by mothering an cooling the fuel. They also prevent
re-ignition of combustibles mixtures of vapour and air.

Foam Tender: is a mobile fire tender consisting of pump, foam proportioning system,
foam monitor, water and foam compound tank which can generate foam for
blanketing / fire fighting

DCP Tender: is a mobile fire vehicle consisting of Dry Chemical Powder Vessels,
Nitrogen gas cylinders. The Dry Chemical Powder can be used with pressure to
knockdown the flame / fire.

Foam Nurser : is a mobile fire vehicle consisting of pump, foam compound tank
which can be used to replenish the foam compound in the foam tenders /Trailer
mounted foam tank monitors at emergency site.

Emergency Rescue Tender (ERT): is a mobile fire vehicle consisting of emergency

rescue equipment which can help to provide immediate assistance for controlling
emergencies like fire, oil spillage, accidents etc.

Emergency Rescue Tender (ERT) : for handling LPG emergencies is a mobile fire
vehicle consisting of pump, compressor for handling LPG emergencies (particularly
off-site area) including emergency equipment.

Water Tender : is a mobile fire vehicle consisting of pump, water tank which can be
used to deliver water with pressure or foam with auxiliary connection for fire fighting.

Oil Terminal : That portion of property where combustible/flammable liquids are

received by tanker, pipelines, tank wagons, tank trucks and are stored or blended in
bulk for the purpose of distributing such liquids by tankers pipelines, tank wagons, tank
trucks, portable tanks or containers constitutes an oil terminal.
Wharf: The area at the dock basin where ancillary facilities such as crane, warehouse
etc. are provided for serving the ship.
Jetty: The actual frontage of the wharf where the tender system is attached for the
vessels to berth.
Pier : This is the exclusive area where the warfare is constructed in the port.
 THE ANATOMY OF FIRE

Oxidation or combustion processes of fire are dynamic, continuously reacting

process. They are unbalanced and unsatisfied systems containing energy seeking an
equilibrium between the molecules of the reactants of the system to a lower less active
level of energy. In the course of this procedure they give off heat energy in the form of
fire and flame. These processes are initiated by a small input of activation energy
(spark) to start the reaction, after which propagation (flame spread) continues as long as
there is supply of energy (fuel) and a reactant (oxygen) for consumption of a union to a
more satisfied, lower level or energy (ash).

Physics And Chemistry Of Combustion

The reactions which occur during combustion and burning are chain reactions
which branch off or fragment into very active chemical species called free radicals. The
free radicals are very reactive, unstable combinations of atoms which are only
temporarily present and immediately link up with other atoms to form more stable
molecular compounds. Research has shown that extinguishment procedures that utilize
actual chemical reactivity for halting the process of the fire, attack these free radical
fragments, rendering them incapable of furthering or extending the combustion chain
reaction.

Sources of Heat
i. Heat from Mechanical Energy : Friction always produces heat, every
moving thing is a possible source of heat energy spinning shafts cause
considerable heat in the bearings that support them, to prevent the
destruction of the shaft and to reduce the temperatures when the equipment
is operating it is lubricated. Oils and greases not only make the shaft to turn
smoothly, but also conduct the heat away from the shaft and the bearing
rapidly. As such a plant engineer should look on every friction source as a
potential fire hazard.
ii. Heat by compression : Anything that is squeezed or compressed gets
warmer. When gas is compressed it heats up, this principle is used in diesel
 engine by compressing the air to such an extent as to burn the fuel when
injected.
iii. Heat by Electricity : As electricity flows through a conductor, heat is
produced. If the cable is large enough to carry the current the heat produced
will be harmlessly dissipated, on the other hand if the cable is small and the
current is more, it will produce excessive heat and will create a serious fire
risk. To prevent such incidence correct size fuse or proper circuit breakers to
be installed in the circuit.
iv. Heat from Chemical Action : A strong acid will produce considerable heat
when water is added to it, even time for instance will generate enough heat
to ignite combustible materials when water is added to it. Now a days
various chemicals are used in industries as a result fire in industries have
increased manifold due to carelessness or accidental mixing of chemicals
which infact releases excessive heat. A striking example Is glycerine and
potassium permanganate when these two chemicals comes in contact first
fumes (slow combustion) and soon afterwards burst into flames (rapid
combustion)
The absorption of oxygen by certain vegetable or animal oils and facts and
the absorption of oxygen by certain substances like coal may lead to such an
increase in temperature as to bring out spontaneous ignition. However to
raise the temperature to a point sufficient to cause spontaneous combustion,
it is essential that the heat generated by the various chemical reaction should
be in excess of the heat dissipated. It is therefore, recommended that the
adequate ventilation should be provided to minimize the potential danger.
Ignition Temperature
The temperatures at which combustion can take place fall into three categories,
namely, Flash Point, Fire Point and Spontaneous Ignition Temperature.
a. Flash Point : At certain temperature, the vapor given off by a liquid will
“Flash” momentarily on the application of a small flame but will not continue to
burn. There are several types of apparatus for determining flash point (Abel,
Pensky-Martyn)
b. Fire Point : This may be defined as the lowest temperature at which the heat
from the combustion of a burning vapor is capable of producing sufficient vapor
to enable the combustion to continue. It will be seen that the difference between
flash point and fire point is that the flash point temperature is only the required
to produce vapor to enable a momentary flash to take place where as the fire
point temperature has to be high enough to produce sufficient vapor to sustain
the reaction, so that the substance continues to burn independently of the
ignition source.
c. Spontaneous Ignition Temperature : this is the lowest temperature at which
the substance will ignite spontaneously that is the substance will burn without
the introduction of flame or other ignition source. This implies that under
certain conditions some materials undergo spontaneous combustion. This is
sometimes referred to as Ignition Temperature.

Specific Gravity (Relative Density) Vapour Density

a. Specific gravity (Relative Density) : The specific gravity (also known as relative
density) of a substance is the ratio of the mass of any volume of it to the mass of an
equal volume of water.

Specific Gravity = Mass of any volume of he substance

Mass of an equal volume of water

It should be noted that specific gravity has no units, it is simply a number or ratio
and it is the same whatever system of units is being used for expressing densities.
b. Vapour Density : The density of a gas or vapour is often given in relation to the
density of an equal volume of Hydrogen or Air, under the same condition of
temperature and pressure. Hydrogen is often used as a basis of vap9our density
 because it is the lightest gas, and the vapour density of Air as compared with
Hydrogen is 14.4. For carbon dioxide the corresponding figure is 22 and carbon
dioxide is, therefore, about 1 ½ times as heavy as air at the same temperature and
pressure. For fire service purposes it is much more convenient to compare the
density of gases and vapours with that of Air, but in that case the reference gas
should be qucted e.g. vapour density of methane is 0.856 (air-1) or the vapour
density of methane is a 8 (hydrogen-1).
The following are the examples of vapour density as compared with Hydrogen.

Hydrogen 1 Lighter than

Methane 8 air
Ammonia 8.5
Air 14.5
Carbon Dioxide 22 Heavier than
Sulphur Dioxide 32 air
Chlorine 35.5

To calculate the vapour density the following formula may be used :

Vapour density of a compoun = Molecular weight of a compound
29
In the above formula 29 is the composite molecular weight of air.
 FIRE TRIANGLE OR PYRAMID

Three conditions have long been regarded as essential components of any fire :
1. Fuel (i.e. the combustible material).
2. Oxygen (from the atmosphere).
3. Heat (essential to start the fire initially, but maintained bye the fire itself once it has
started).

These are familiar to fire fighters as the ‘fire triangle’ or pyramid. If any one of
these conditions is removed, the fire goes out. Methods of fire fighting thus depend on
removing or shutting off the source of fuel, excluding oxygen or removing heat from
the fire faster than it is liberated. A fourth condition is now recognised. Flames proceed
chemically as branched chain reactions through the intermediary of free radicals which
are constantly being formed and consumed. If the free radicals can be removed and
prevented from continuing the chain reaction, the flame goes out.

Various chemicals used in dry powder and halogenated hydrocarbon

extinguishers capture free radicals and put out the fire in this way. Potassium
bicarbonate is more effective than sodium bicarbonate and free halogen radicals,
especially bromine formed when a brominated hydrocarbon meets a fire, are also
effective. Thus the familiar fire triangle becomes a pyramid and now includes the
fourth condition.
 CLASSES OF FIRE
Various classes of fire are recognised in order to rationalise the choice of
extinguishing media and devices, and the precautions taken in the protection and fire
fighting.

A. Solid materials corresponding to the old class A.

B. Flammable liquids corresponding to the old class B.

C. Gases and gas containers.

D. Metal fires.
Class A Fires. Carbonaceous Solids
The general method of extinguishing class A fires is by water jets which quench
the fire and cool the material to below its ignition temperature.
Class A fires are often deep-rooted and well below the surface of the material,
so that sufficient water must be applied to penetrate and cool the whole of the burning
material to below its ignition temperature.

Class B Fires. Flammable Liquids

In dealing with flammable liquids two main hazards must be recognised.
1. If the liquid is lighter than water and dose not mix with it, the use of water may
actually spread the fire rather than extinguish it, since the liquid will float on the
water and be carried into surrounding areas, cellars and drains.
2. If the liquid has a low flash point, its vapour will form an explosive mixture with air
and this may spread and extend a considerable distance from the liquid itself. A
source of ignition for instance a spark or lighted match, anywhere in this area will
cause a sheet of flame or flash-back which will set fire to liquid and any easily
ignitable materials in its path.

Flammable liquids in general must be vaporised in order to burn, and it is the

vapour not the liquid which burns.

Flash point. The flash point of a flammable liquid is the lowest temperature at
which enough vapour is given off near the surface of the liquid to produce a flammable
mixture with air; that is a mixture which may be ignited by a spark or other source of
ignition, and which contains the proper ratio of vapour and air to support combustion.
These rations vary widely from liquid to liquid, but it should always be assumed that
any flammable solvent above its flash point is in equilibrium with a flammable vapour-
air mixture. Once a fire has started, its heat rapidly vapourises more liquid until the
whole mass is a flame. In general, the lower the flash point of a liquid the more
flammable is the material and the more violent the resulting fire.
 The fact that a liquid is at a temperature below its flash point does not mean that
it is safe. If a material such as kerosene with a flash point of 400C is brought into
contact with a source of intense heat – a welding torch, furnace or open fire-a small part
of it could be heated above the flash point, give off vapour and burst into flame. The
heat thus produced would heat the rest of the kerosene and the fire would spread. A
mist of a high flash solvent is also almost as easily ignited as if it were a true mixture of
air and vapour.

Nearly all flammable vapurs are heavier than air, so that explosive mixtures of
air and vapour will spread over the ground or floor when the air is still and flow into
depressions in the ground, drains, trenches and cellars.

Explosive limits of vapour-air mixture. The vapour of every flammable liquid

has a minimum concentration in air below which it does not ignite when in contact with
a source of ignition. There is also a maximum concentration of vapour above which
flame is not propagated, although this is only found at room temperature if the flash
point of the material is low. These limits are known as lower and upper explosive limits
and they vary widely for different flammable liquids.
General Precautions For Flammable Liquids
Flammable liquids used in industrial buildings should be kept in safety cans
which have a fire arrester in the spout and a spring closing cap so that they are always
closed when not in use. This obviates two of the main danger; escape of flammable
vapours from an open container, with risk of ignition and flash-back and ignition with
explosive force of the residual vapour left in apparently empty containers.

Building in which flammable liquids are used should have good ventilation and
the quantities of liquid in a building should be kept to a minimum. No smoking should
be the rule in a building where flammable liquids are used and a careful check should
be made regularly to eliminate all other possible sources of ignition. Empty containers
of flammable liquids should not be kept in the building but returned to stores for
refilling.
 Many of the fire involving flammable liquids have occurred where the liquid
was present as a paint, lacquer or rubber solution or paste solvent. The vapour from the
drying article where the solvent was used or from the open paint or paste tin built up in
concentration and spread to a point of ignition until a flash back occurred.

Where flammable liquids are used in plants for washing and dipping operations
the tanks or containers should be provided with hinged covers which are automatically
closed by a fusible link and a spring operated mechanism if the tank or container
catches fire.

Water should only be used to extinguish a flammable liquid fire in certain

limited and clearly defined circumstances.

1. For liquids heavier than water (e.g. carbon disulphide) and at temperatures lower
than the boiling point of water.
2. For liquids readily soluble in water provided either that the quantity of diluted
material is small enough to be contained or provided that the material can be
washed away without causing an unacceptable pollution problem.

Alternatively the most suitable3 extinguishing agents are dry powder, foam,
carbon dioxide or a suitable vapourising liquid provided they are used in conditions
where they do not create a new hazard. If water has to be used to cool other equipment
or plant close to a vapourising liquid fire, care must be taken that the water does not
flow into the burning liquid and spread the fire.

When a fire involving a flammable liquid has been extinguished there is often a
danger that fresh vapour will form and mix with air creating an explosive vapour
mixture which will re-ignite, often on hot or glowing material left from the earlier fire.
While various measures may be taken to prevent this, there are some cases where it is
better to let a vapourising liquid fire burn itself out, at the same time concentrating
efforts on cooling objects exposed to the fire and preventing it from spreading.
Class C Fires, Gases and Electrical
There is always a serious danger whenever a fire from a leaking or fractured gas
main or container is extinguished, that the unignited gas continuing to escape will mix
with air to form an explosive mixture. This when reignited may result in a serious
explosion which causes more destruction and injury than the original fire would have
done if left to burn itself out. The only safe way of estinguishing a gas fire is to shut off
the supply of gas to the fire.

Cooling should, however, be applied to objects heated by the fire, particularly if

they are combustible or contain flammable materials; water should be applied through a
spray nozzle. Flammable materials, particularly compressed and liquefied gases in
cylinders should be removed as quickly as possible from the neighborhood of a fire. If
a gas fire is extinguished accidentally by a water spray and the supply of gas cannot be
intently shut off, the area should be urgently evacuated.

Great care should be taken where electrical appliances and switches are exposed to a
gas leak. It may seem logical to switch off any electric motors or other electrical
equipment in the neighborhood of such a leak. But unless the switch is flameproof the
mere act of switching off a motor may create a sparking in the switch which could
ignite an explosive gas-air mixture surrounding the switch. Electrical appliances
exposed to such conditions should therefore be switched off remotely from a switch in
a safe area and not from a switch exposed to the gas-mixture, unless the switch itself is
known to be flameproof.

A high proportion of gas fires is caused by leaks from damaged or perished

flexible rubber hose used with portable LPG cylinders for cutting and welding, etc.
besides taking the precautions, the used of rubber hose and portable cylinders inside
buildings should be kept to the absolute minimum. Such equipment should be replaced
as far as possible by fixed piping deriving its supply from the gas main or from a bank
of cylinders secured in a safe place outside the building.
 Most cylinders in the UK which contain flammable gases are not as yet fitted
with pressure-relieving devices. Thus if a cylinder is involved in a fire, its internal
pressure is likely to rise until it bursts, and its contents escape as a fireball. Unless the
cylinder can be positively cooled, all fire fighters should withdraw to a safe distance.

If a gas cylinder starts to leak and the leak cannot be immediately stopped, it
should be moved at once to the open air where the gas can disperse safely. If a cylinder
has been involved in a fire, it should be emptied and tested in a proper cylinder testing
station or returned to its makers properly marked for testing.

Class D Fires. Metals

The most commonly encountered metal fires are those of magnesium and its alloy,
although several powdered metals, notably aluminum, can form explosive dust clouds,
whilst sodium and potassium react vigorously and catch fire in contact with water. The
fumes from most metal fires are dangerous and some, e.g. those from cadmium,
beryllium, and lead are extremely toxic.
 EMERGENCY FIRE FIGHTING

Once needs to distinguish between large and specialized appliances, used by

fire brigade and professional fire fighters for dealing with fires which have got out of
control of the local works personnel, and smaller appliances used mainly by works
personnel for dealing promptly with fires in their early stages. Incidentally, the old
expression ‘fire engine’ is deprecated in BS 4422; part 5, 1976, which recommends the
use of the word ‘fire appliance’ to cover all equipment provided for the purpose of
detecting, recording or extinguishing a fire.

The larger appliances used exclusively by fire brigades which include mobile
pumps, mobile turntables, platforms and extension ladders, rescue and demolition
equipment are not dealt with in this section since they come under the control of a
trained and experienced fire officer.

Equipment which is handled by the normal (and also in most cases by the works
fire brigade or department) works personnel is dealt with here. It falls broadly into two
categories.
1. Fixed appliances and hose reels.
2. Portable appliances.

Fire Extinguishers And Fixed Appliances

Fixed extinguishers may be designed for manual or automatic operation. They
may also be classed as (1) those for general application and (2) those for use where
there is a special risk.

Fixed installations using water and high expansion foam are most suitable for
general protection while those using other extinguishing agents are intended for special
risks such as oil or electrical fires. The choice and positioning of fixed installations
should be considered when a works or building is being designed, since it is more
expensive to install them once building has been completed.
Hose Reels
Hose reels are first-aid fire extinguishing equipment provided for the use of the
occupants of a building or works and they may be installed instead of, or in addition to,
portable water type extinguishers. When installed they will also be used on small fires
by the brigade on arrival. This causes less water damage than the brigade’s larger
hoses.

A hose reel consists of a length up to 36 m of non-kinking rubber tubing with an

internal diameter of 19-25 mm. A valve and nozzle are attached to the free end of the
hose which is wound on a metal reel. The reel is usually supported by a wall braket and
may be arranged to swing on a pivot. The reel has a hollow rotating shaft to the centre
of which water is fed. The hose tubing is connected to an outlet on this rotating shaft.
The shaft is permanently connected to a suitable water supply through special
pipework.

With one type of hose reel, all that is necessary to obtain a jet of water is to
grasp the nozzle, pull out the amount of hose needed to reach the fire and open the cock
at the nozzle. The action of unwinding the reel or removing the nozzle from a special
wall fitting turns on the water supply valve. With another type, a valve on the water
inlet to the reel must be opened manually before the hose is run out.

A hose reel may be fixed or pivoted. The fixed type has guides fitted so that the
hose can be pulled off the reel without kinking or jamming. The pivoted type swings to
the direction in which the hose is pulled.

Nozzles for hose reels are available with internal diameters of 4.5-6.5 mm. The
size chosen depends mainly on the pressure of water available. Nozzles should give a
minimum flow of 0.38 liters per second. For a 4.8 mm bore nozzle, this requires a
water pressures of 2.5 kg/ cm2 gauge at the nozzle. For a 6.4 mm bore nozzle this
requires a water pressure of 0.8 kg/cm2 gauge at the nozzle. The pressure loss caused by
friction through 10 m of hose at a flow rate of 0.38 liters/second is 0.15 kg/cm2 for a 19
mm bore hose and 0.035 kg/cm2 for a 25mm hose.
 Hose reels may be supplied with fixed covers to protect them from dust. Dirt
and light which cause deterioration of the rubber tubing. They should be positioned so
that no part of a building is more than 6 m from a nozzle when the hoses are fully
extended, making due allowance for obstructions.

The flow of water through a hose reel with nozzle can be simply checked by
measuring the maximum horizontal throw of the jet by directing it over a flat roof or
open floor. A nozzle with a bore of 4.8 mm should give a maximum throw of at least
12 m and a nozzle with a bore of 6.5 mm should give a maximum throw of at least 18
m.

Hose reels require regular maintenance and checking at least once a year, in
accordance with manufacturers recommendations. Brief instructions for operating a
hose reel should be displayed on or close to it. All employees should be trained to use
hose reels, including how to pull the hose round obstacles.

Hydrants
Hydrants are arrangements of piping outlets to which large diameter hose (64
mm or more) may be connected for use by the fire brigade or fully trained works
firemen. Some hydrants inside buildings which are known as dry risers are kept empty
until they are needed. These are used in cold climates where water in a wet riser might
freeze, and also in very tall buildings where water will not reach the top of the riser
until the fire pump is started.

Other hydrants, known as wet risers, are kept permanently full of water. If the
water pressure in the fire main is not sufficient to deliver it to hydrant outlets at the top
of tall buildings must be supplied with water from a pump, usually a mobile one carried
by a fire brigade. Wet risers are generally preferred to dry once in situations where they
can be used.

Hydrants may be fitted with foam inlets to which firemen attach a supply of
foaming agent that mixes with water in the hydrant and hose.
Automatic Sprinklers
These consist of a system of pipes, spray nozzles and heat operated valves by
means of which a fire is automatically detected, the alarm given and water delivered to
the fire. Sprinklers are useful for stores and other buildings containing combustible
materials which are left unattended. The cost of the installation may be partly or wholly
offset by the reduction in the fire insurance premium paid.

Similar systems may also be used on the outside of buildings and tank to keep
them cool if a fire develops near them and so to prevent the fire from spreading to
them.

High Expansion Foam

The system consists of one or more foam-making machines fitted with short
rigid ducts inside the roofs of single-storey buildings.

Multi-storey buildings are protected, with similar but larger ducts which run
from roof to ground level. One or more floors may be flooded with a foam of very low
density but sufficient stability not to collapse at once when exposed to a fire.

The foam may be filled with carbon dioxide instead of air. Its action is to
smother and blanket a fire.

This is a relatively new system which has been mainly used to protect
basements and tunnels to which access may be difficult if a fire develops there. It is
finding wider application in warehouses and large buildings. The local fire brigade
should be consulted for advice when the installation of such a system is considered.

High Pressure Water Spray (FOG)

The water is delivered at high pressure through special nozzles to form fine
droplets. A high pressure water spray requires the use of a special booster pump
(carried by most brigades) which gives a pressure of about 50 kg/cm2. It rerely forms
part of a fixed installation. Its main use is to protect against fires of flammable liquids
and liquefied gases. The use of a very fine and carefully directed water spray removes
the main disadvantages of water in dealing with such fires.

Medium Expansion Foam

Foam may be produced from a fixed foam solution vessel and carbon dioxide
cylinder or from foam making equipment carried by the fire brigade. In either case it
may be applied through systems of fixed pipework either to the seat of the fire or to the
plant to be protected. Brigades normally carry supplies of normal protein foam only.

This is mainly suitable for flammable liquid fires where the liquid is immiscible
with water. Liquids such as alcohols which mix with water tend to break down the
foam blanket. But for these conditions special compounds are available, which give
stable foams, although they are more expensive than protein foam.

Carbon Dioxide And Other Inert Gases

These systems must be used with great caution indoors when people are present,
due to their asphyxiating action in lowering the oxygen content of the air. In at least
one case a man fighting a fire in a basement with carbon dioxide extinguishers which
were handed down to him from above collapsed and died as a result of oxygen
deficiency in the atmosphere.

Gas extinguishing systems consist of a supply of the inert gas under pressure
(usually in cylinders), a system of pipework and valves delivering the inert gas to the
points of application and an automatic detection and initiating system which opens inert
gas valves once the fire has been detected. It also, in many cases, closes doors and
ventilation ducts. These systems operate by reducing the oxygen content of the
atmosphere and/or by interrupting the chemical reaction in a flame.

Most of the gases used are suitable for electrical equipment and plants handling
flammable liquids. This system is particularly suitable for protecting valuable
equipment which is easily damaged by water and foam, such as computers. For these
systems to operate most effectively, the fire fighting equipment should be housed in a
gas-tight compartment which is closed to the atmosphere when a fire starts. Carbon
dioxide installations need special care to avoid introducing risks of ignition by static
electricity.

Dry Powder
Dry powder is a term used for various free-flowing powders which when
poured or otherwise discharged over a fire will extinguish it. The compositions of many
fire extinguishing powders are not publicised by their makers for obvious reasons. They
generally contain three principal ingredients each with a particular function.

1. Sodium or potassium bicarbonae. These liberate carbon dioxide when heated.

Bicarbonates are thus a convenient means of applying carbon dioxide. They also
react with and neutralise acids and some other reactive compounds and prevent
damage from acids released by a fire. Potassium bicarbonate is claimed to be more
effective than sodium bicarbonate due to its greater chain terminating effect.
2. Certain finely powdered salts of metals which when present as a dust in the
atmosphere strongly absorb radiant heat, thereby cooling and in some cases
extinguishing flames.
3. A compound which prevents the powder particulars from adhering to one another
and forming lumps, thus preserving the free-flowing properties of the powder.

Dry powder installations comprise dry powder container to which a gas cylinder
(usually carbon dioxide) is coupled, and a system of piping and outlets which are
located above the places where fires are likely to break out. They can be operated
automatically or manually by opening valve on the gas cylinder so that the gas drives
the powder to the outlets.

These installations are suitable for flammable liquids and electrical equipment
and for protecting some processes involving solids which are easily damaged by water
or foam.

Portable Appliances
Portable fire extinguishers may be used to deliver water, dry powder, foam,
carbon dioxide or a vapourising liquid to the seat of a fire. Their use should, as far as
possible, be standardised and the minimum number of types necessary should be
carried. Hose reels are generally preferable.

Supervisors should be abel to identify the different classes of fires and should
know which type of portable extinguisher to use. All personnel should know how to
recongnise and use the various types of extinguishers present. Practice sessions should
be set up to ensure that all personnel act promptly and effectively in dealing with small
fires.

Portable Water Discharging Extinguishers

Extinguishers which deliver water operate in various ways:
a. The water bucket. This is the simplest of all; it must, however, be kept full of clean
water and always in the place reserved for it. Some skill is required in directing the
contents of a water bucket onto a fire probably more so than closed portable
extinguishers with nozzles.
b. Gas pressure applied from a cartridge. A small cartridge of liquefied carbon dioxide
is held inside the top of the cylindrical extinguisher. The cartridge has a brass cap
which is pier4ced by a plunger passing through a gland in the top of the
extinguisher. This is actuated by a sharp blow by the hand to the top of the plunger.
Gas released in the extinguisher drives the water out through a discharge tube
which extends to the bottom of the cylinder and is connected outside the cylinder to
a nozzle via a short length of flexible hose.
c. Stored gas pressure. The whole extinguisher is pressurised with gas at the time of
charging with water. Water is discharged by opening a valve on the discharge tube.
d. Gas pressure formed by reaction between an acid and a carbonate within the
extinguisher. The extinguisher has an inner container filled with an acid solution
(generally aluminum sulphate). The main body or outer container of the
extinguisher is filled with a solution of sodium bicarbonate.
The contents of the inner cylinder are released into the outer cylinder by inverting
the cylinder and releasing a spring operated plunger. When the solutions mix, gas is
formed which pressureises the extinguisher. A jet of water issues through a nozzle
on the upper part of the extinguisher, so ling as the extinguisher remains inverted.
 The flow of water stops when the extinguisher is turned the ritht way up and surplus
gas escapes.
e. Hand pump inside the cylinder. This is operated by a handle extending through a
gland in the top of the cylinder.

The applications and limitations of water extinguishers have already been

discussed. Water is best used for fires on solid materials which may re-ignite if not
adequately cooled. It can readily penetrate to reach a deep seated fire.

Portable water extinguishers have capacities from 4 to 10 liters and an effective

range of about 10 m. one or two extinguishers depending on their size are normally
required for general protection per 220 m2 of floor area.

When using a water-filled extinguisher, direct the jet at the base of the flame
and keep it moving across the area of fire. A fire moving vertically should be attacked
at its lowest point and followed up. Seek out any hot spots after the main fire is
extinguished.

Portable Foam Extinguishers

Foam extinguishers are of two types, mechanical and chemical. These
correspond to water extinguishers in which the pressure is derived from a gas cartridge
and from chemical reaction respectively. But the chemical foam extinguisher, unlike
the soda-acid type of water extinguisher, is used in the normal upright position.
Portable foam extinguishers have a capacity from 4 to 10 liters and a range of about 7
m. 10 liters for foam are normally required to extinguish 1 m2 of burning liquid.

When a liquid fire has been extinguished by foam, the foam blanket left over
the liquid remains in position thus preventing re-ignition and allowing the liquid to
cool. Foam extinguishers should therefore be used for liquid fires where the liquid has
been burning for some time and has become hot.
 Foam is not effective on flowing liquids, whether the flow is horizontal or
vertical. Foam conducts electricity and should not be used on live electrical fires. Most
water miscible liquids break up ordinary foams.

When a liquid on fire is in a container, direct the jet at the far inside edge of the
container, or at an adjoining vertical surface above the level of the burning liquid. This
breaks up the jet and allows the foam to build up and flow across the surface of the
liquid. When this is not possible, stand well back and direct the jet slightly upward so
that the foam falls on to the surface of the liquid. Move the jet gently from side to side
to cover the surface of the liquid. Do not direct the jet into the liquid because this will
dive the foam beneath the surface and render it ineffective. It may also splash the
burning liquid on to surrounding objects.

Portable Dry Powder Extinguishers

The use and composition of dry powder have already been discussed under
fixed installations. Portable dry powder extinguishers are made with capacities from 2
to 10 kg of powder. In operation and appearance they are like water extinguishers
where the pressure is supplied from a gas cartridge. Their range is less than a water
extinguisher, usually from 3-6 m.

These are the best type of extinguisher for dealing with fires of flammable
liquids. They extinguish the flames over the liquid and thus act faster than foam. They
can deal with larger areas of burning liquid than other extinguishers of the same size,
and they are effective on fires of flowing liquid. Dry powder can be safely used on
electric fires. The main limitation of dry powder is that it gives no protetion against re-
ignition after application ceases since it has poor quenching properties. It is less
effective than foam on liquid fires where the liquid has become overheated (i.e. through
prolonged burning).

Two kilograms of dry powder can normally extinguish a liquid fire converting
and area of one square meter when properly applied.
Portable Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers
Carbon dioxide extinguishers should only be used sparingly in buildings due to
the dangers of asphyxiating personnel. A second hazard of carbon dioxide
extinguishers is the formation of static electricity in the discharge which can ignite
flammable vapours, sometimes with fatal consequences.

Carbon dioxide acts more rapidly than foam and is more suitable for dealing
with fires which might spread to surrounding materials before a complete foam blanket
could be formed over the burning liquid. Carbon dioxide extinguishers are suitable for
dealing with small fires of liquids flowing over horizontal and vertical surfaces. They
should be used where the main concern is to avoid damage or contamination by dry
powder deposit or foam, for example to laboratory equipment or food preparation.

The cooling properties of carbon dioxide are limited and it gives no protraction
against re-ignition after application ceases. It is less effective that foam for very hot
liquids burning in containers.

Carbon dioxide extinguishers contain the carbon dioxide and high pressure as a
liquid in steel cylinders, with a valve leading via flexible hose to a horn shaped
discharge tube. These extinguishers are normally used with the valve uppermost so that
carbon dioxide is discharged as a gas. If they are inverted, a mixture resembling snow
of carbon dioxide gas and solid carbon dioxide is discharged, provided the extinguisher
is full and the ambient temperature is not excessive.
Portable carbon dioxide extinguishers have capacities ranging from 1 to 6 kg
and a range from 1 to 3 m.

Portable Vapourising Liquid (Halon) Extinguishers

Portable vapourising liquid extinguishers are now mainly restricted to the use of
two compounds, bromochlorodifluoro methane or BCF, and bromotrifluoro methane or
BTM.

These may be discharged either by gas cartridge (containing carbon dioxide) or

by pressuring the container with nitrogen. They can be fitted with a control valve if
desired, so that can be discharged in short bursts, but once the seal has been broken
they should be emptied, recharged and resealed. Their main action is by excluding
oxygen from the flames. Since they do not conduct electricity they can be sued on
electrical fires. They have less static electricity risk then carbon dioxide, but they
present the same asphyxiation hazard. In addition there is some risk of forming toxic
decomposition products when their vapours are in contact with very hot metal, although
this risk is far less than with older types of vapourising extinguisher which contained
carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide and other compounds which are little used now
because of the toxic problem.

These extinguishers have a range of up to 6 m and 1 liter of liquid is sufficient

to extinguish flames over an area of one square meter of burning liquid. The methods
of using dry powder, carbon dioxide and vapourizing liquid extinguishers are
essentially the same.

On fires involving liquids, either in containers or on the ground, direct the jet or
discharge horn towards the near edge of the fire and with a rapid sweeping motion
drive the fire towards the far edge until all the flames are extinguished. On fires in
falling liquids, direct the jet or horn at the base of the lames and sweep upwards.

When dealing with electrical equipment fires, first turn off the current. Then
direct the jet or horn straight at the fire. When the equipment is enclosed, direct the jet
or horn straight at the fire. When the equipment is enclosed, direct the jet or horn into
any opening so that it penetrates the interior.

If the extinguisher has a control valve on the discharge, shut it when the fire
appears to be extinguished, wait until the atmosphere clears and, if any flame is then
visible, open the valve and discharge again.
Recharging Extinguishers
All extinguishers should be recharged immediately after use, irrespective of
whether they have been completely or only partly discharged. The safety or fire officer
should arrange for books to be kept by supervisor to record every use of an extinguisher
and when it was recharged.

Colour Identification Of Portable Fire Extinguishers

The availability of many type of portable fire extinguishers for different types
of fire have led to steps being taken to standardise their body colours for ease of
identification. BS DD 48 1976 Draft for development proposes the following body
colours for the different types of extinguishing agent :

Water Signal red

Foam Pale green
Powder (all types) French blue
Carbon dioxide Black
Halogenated Hydrocarbon Emerald Green
Extinguisher Type Type of Fire

Ordinary Combustibles

Fires in paper, cloth, wood, rubber, and many plastics

require a water type extinguisher labeled A.

Water

OR Flammable Liquids

Fires in oils, gasoline, some paints, lacquers, grease,

solvents, and other flammable liquids require an
extinguisher labeled B.

CO2

Electrical Equipment

Fires in wiring, fuse boxes, energized electrical

equipment, computers, and other electrical sources
require an extinguisher labeled C.

Dry Chemical

Ordinary Combustibles, Flammable Liquids, or

Electrical Equipment

Multi-purpose dry chemical is suitable for use on class A,

B, and C.

Multi-Purpose

Metals

D Combustible metals such as magnesium and sodium

require special extinguishers labeled D
 Air-pressurized water extinguishers (APW)

Water is one of the most commonly used extinguishing agents for type A fires. You can recognize an APW
by its large silver container. They are filled about two-thirds of the way with ordinary water, then
pressurized with air. In some cases, detergents are added to the water to produce a foam. They stand
about two to three feet tall and weigh approximately 25 pounds when full.

APWs extinguish fire by cooling the surface of the fuel to remove the "heat" element of the fire triangle.

APWs are designed for Class A (wood, paper, cloth, rubber, and certain plastics) fires only.

Important:

Never use water to extinguish flammable liquid fires. Water is extremely ineffective at extinguishing
this type of fire and may make matters worse by the spreading the fire.

Never use water to extinguish an electrical fire. Water is a good conductor and may lead to
electrocution if used to extinguish an electrical fire. Electrical equipment must be unplugged and/or de-
energized before using a water extinguisher on an electrical fire.
 Carbon dioxide extinguishers

This type of extinguisher is filled with Carbon Dioxide (CO2), a non-flammable gas under extreme
pressure. These extinguishers put out fires by displacing oxygen, or taking away the oxygen element of
the fire triangle. Because of its high pressure, when you use this extinguisher pieces of dry ice shoot
from the horn, which also has a cooling effect on the fire.

You can recognize this type of extinguisher by its hard horn and absent pressure gauge.
CO2 cylinders are red and range in size from five to 100 pounds or larger.
CO2 extinguishers are designed for Class B and C (flammable liquid and electrical) fires only.

Important:

CO2 is not recommended for Class A fires because they may continue to smolder and re-ignite after the
CO2 dissipates.

Never use CO2 extinguishers in a confined space while people are present without proper respiratory
protection.

Locations:

Carbon dioxide extinguishers will frequently be found in industrial vehicles, mechanical rooms, offices,
computer labs, and flammable liquid storage areas.
 Dry chemical extinguishers

Dry chemical extinguishers put out fires by coating the fuel with a thin layer of fire
retardant powder, separating the fuel from the oxygen. The powder also works to
interrupt the chemical reaction, which makes these extinguishers extremely effective.

Dry chemical extinguishers are usually rated for class B and C fires and may be marked
multiple purpose for use in A, B, and C fires. They contain an extinguishing agent and
use a compressed, non-flammable gas as a propellant.

ABC fire extinguishers are red in color, and range in size from five pounds to 20
pounds.

Dry Chemical extinguishers will have a label indicating they may be used on
class A, B, and/or C fires.

or

Locations:
These extinguishers will be found in a variety of locations including: public hallways,
laboratories, mechanical rooms, break rooms, chemical storage areas, offices,
commercial vehicles, and other areas with flammable liquids
 FIRE PROTECTION IN PETROCHEMICAL INDUASTRY

From the above one car well imagine the potential fire risks in a petrochemical
industry. The fire protection can be divided into three phases :
i. By good plant, design and layout
ii. Fire control – keeping the fires localised
iii. Fire extinguishment

i. Plant Design & Layout : A good plant, design and layout, with strict
adherence to safe operating procedures, proper built-in fire prevention system,
fire-fighting training and adequate emergency plan to meet fire emergencies, is
the best way to minimise the possibility of fire damages. Factors to be
considered for the plant layout include adequate spacing and proper
arrangement of various utilities, process units, storage units and vessels, loading
and filling installations. For plant layout, safety rules laid down in the
petroleum act should be followed.
ii. Fire Control : This embodies protection of tanks, pressure vessels, structures,
pipelines and equipment that are effected by direct flame impingement or by
radiate heat exposure. Cooling prevents the spread of fire from its point of
origin to the surrounding areas.
iii. Fire Extinguishers : After adequate fire control measures fire is extinguished
by employing suitable extinguishing media, like water, foam, dry chemical
powder, Co2, Halogenated vapourising .

Storage Tanks
In a petrochemical complex, storage tanks of various types of storing the raw materials
like Naptha, and Zylene as also the other products are required. These materials being
highly inflammable adequate fire protection, fire prevention and fire-fighting
arrangements are very essential. In case of any fire emergency, there must be
arrangement to cool the tanks which is involved and the surroundingones.
Arrangements for fighting the fire is also necessary, while planning the fire protection
arrangement, it should worked out on the basis of meeting a major fire indicants.
Among the extinguishing media water is employed extensively for cooling and foam
generation. The maximum water flow rate is determines by taking into consideration
the possibility of following simultaneous operations.
i. Water for foam generation.
ii. Water for cooling.

i. Water for foam generation : As per N.F.P.A. Handbook and code and
American Institute Standard for petroleum refineries, water for foam generation
for fixed foam pourers should be provided not less than 4.03 L/min for each IM2
of the liquid surface area. For hose streams, at least 6.5 Lit/min of water should
be provided. In case of liquid hydrocarbon a delivery rate of 300 liters of
foam/m2 of burning area is specified for a minimum period of 10 min.
ii. Water for cooling : In a fire emergency the tanks which are on fire to be
cooled as also the adjoining tanks are to be protected from exposure. For these
purposes a flow rate of 10.2 L/min to 20.4 L/min per m2 and 8.16 L/min – 10.2
L/min respectively is considered satisfactory.

Water Storage
Adequate water storage is one of the most essential requirement of fire-fighting system.
The total capacity of water storage as usually based on 4-10 Hrs. duration of fire-
fighting. Provision storage tanks. The fire water storage tanks should be so placed that
water can be delivered under gravity in case of failure of all pumps.

Fire Water Supply System

Water supply arrangement should be designed for a reliable and adequate
supply of water under pressure (7 kg/cm2) for fire-fighting at each strategic point. This
is generally measured by laying independent fire water mains of appropriated diameter
along plant roads and access codes in block system. The main network is arranged in
such a way that each area is surrounded by mains and sub-headers. Block valves, on the
ring main, for maintenance purpose are placed at suitable intervals in such a way that
they always ensure sufficient water supply for the operation of fire-fighting appliances.
Fixed Installations
i. Fire Hydrant : Hydrants are to be placed at suitable intervals on fire water
mains. Normal distance between the hydrants is 45 m to 90 m depending upon
layout of area, water requirement. Discharge from each hydrant should be 1125
l/min at a high pressure.
ii. Hose Reels : For immediate availability of water in process area permanently
connected hose-reels are used extensively. These reels should be provided with
40 mm bore hose of 30 m length.
iii. Monitors (For Water/Foam) : Fixed monitors are preferred for spot use.
Because of limited area coverage from these monitors careful consideration has
to be given in locating the same to ensure maximum effectiveness. Water
stream, water spray/jet could be applied through the monitors by using
co9mbination nozzles.

Water Spray System

Water spray cooling system are usually provided to minimise fire exposure.
Manual / automatic/ remote controlled water spray is practically useful for cooling un-
insulated steel structures elevated pipes, vessels, spheres etc.

Water Fog System

Water fog systems are intended to reduce fire intensity by mixing of water with
fuel vapour or by the contact of fire drops or a very fine mist of water with oil surface.
Water fog is effective on viscus oil or high flash point oils, where areas are within the
range of fog nozzles. However, except under ideal conditions, it is seldom effective for
extinguishment of fires in gasoline or other low flash point products. Pumps handling,
hydrocarbon, compressors control valve, main folds, columns, and other vessels under
high temperature and pressure are protected with water fog systems. These systems can
be either manual or automatic.

Portable Fire Extinguishers

Since in a petrochemical industry most of the fire encountered are that of liquid
hydrocarbon, or vapours, portable extinguishers such as foam, dry powder, Co2 in
adequate numbers are to be provided at strategic points to tackle a fire at its incipient
stage.
 FIRE DRILLS
Introductory
The fire exit drills are absolutely essential in all public institutions, hotels,
boarding houses, hospitals. Factories and especially in Schools and Colleges. Properly
conducted, they not only secure the orderly and rapid evacuation of the building, but
teach self-control as well.

Principles and Procedure

The danger which may threaten persons of fire breaks out depends on many
different factors, consequently it is not possible to construct a model procedure for
action in the event of fire which would be suitable in all premises. Having thoroughly
understood the fundamental principles, however. The student should experience to
difficulty in adopting them to the circumstances of each case. It is therefore, important
that before fire drills are planned, the following points must be of prime consideration.

The purpose of fire drills.

Formulating a fire routine.
Instruction and Training.
Fire routine details.
Frequency of drills.

Purpose of Fire Drills

The responsibility for carrying our fire drills rests on the occupier of the
premises. A fire drill is intended to ensure, by means of training and rehearsal, that in
the event of fire.

The people who may be in danger act in a calm and orderly manner.
Where necessary, those designated carry out their allotted duties to ensure the safety of
all concerned.
The means of escape are used in accordance with a predetermined and practiced plan.
Formulating a Fire Routine
Before formulating a fire routine, it is essential to visit the premises concerned,
when our fundamental points will need to be considered. The points are :
The type of buildings.
The occupancy.
The existing means of escape.
Fire defense.
a. The type of Buildings :
Are the buildings attached or detached?
Are the buildings single-storey or multi-storey?
Are the buildings of fire-resisting or non-fire-resisting construction?
Will the degree of effective fire-resisting compartmentation preclude the necessity
of total evacuation?
b. The Occupancy :
This covers two points :
i. Population characteristics, i.e. the number of occupants, their distribution in
the building, their physical condition and the way they can be expected to
react in any emergency. The last two characteristics depend on such factors
as age, discipline and whether they are asleep or alert.
ii. The use to which the building is put, i.e. the processes carried on the nature
of the contents of the buildings including furnishings, and goods stored or
displayed.
c. The existing means of escape :
Is the existing means of escape adequate - distance to travel-place of safety -
lighting etc.?
d. Fire Defense :
Have satisfactory arrangements been made to cover the following points?
Type of fire alarm and arrangements for sounding it.
Fire extinguishers - hose reels - fire parties.
Arrangements for calling the fire service.
General and specific notices.
Availability of staff in certain premises, assembly points, roll call.
Training : Repeated practice evacuations will be necessary in many cases to ensure
that the “plan of action” is fully understood and can be carried out efficiently when
the occasion demands. Varying conditions should be assumed for these practices so
that the occupants are familiar with all alternative routes. Labour, turn-over and
newly engaged staff will need to be considered.

Whilst it is desirable that as few people as possible know of an impending fire

drill, great care should be taken to ensure that this can be carried-out without danger
of damage from sudden interruption of the process being carried out.

The time taken for persons to reach a place of safety will indicate the degree
of efficiency attained by the occupants in their fire drill.

Fire Routine Details

A fire routine as a general rule should be based on a sequence of events.
Details will vary in accordance with the circumstances of each occupancy and the
following list will assist in drawing up a relevant routine to cover most premises.
i. Alarm Operation : Type - single or two - stage - audible or
otherwise - total or partial - notification to
central point.
ii. Power : Stopping certain processes or machines,
isolating power supplies.
iii. Call Fire Brigade : Precise instructions - Watchman's/receptionist’s
instructions.
iv. Evacuation : Two-stage – instructions – closing of doors and
windows – search of toilets etc. – responsible
persons.
v. Assembly : Away from premises – under cover mutual
arrangements with near by premises.
vi. Roll Call : Registers -= staff lists – responsible person –
report to fire brigade officer.
vii. Attacking the Fire : Circumstances will dictate fire-fighting
operations should be attempted; the important
 thing to remember is that fire-fighting must
always be secondary to life safety and that,
whilst small fires such as a quantity of spilled
inflammable. Liquid in laboratory can be dealt
with summarily, for a sizeable fire safe
evacuation should be the primary concern.

Frequency of Drills
The amount of instruction and frequency of drills will vary according to the
degree of risk i.e. the liability to out break of fire and the size, construction and layout
of the premises and any legislative requirement.

Preamble Introduction
As a result of increased demands for synthetic fibers, detergents, plastics and
fertilizers etc., the petroleum and petrochemical industries are assuming greater
importance in our country. The processes involved in a petrochemical industry are
manifold and depends on the final products manufactured. These industries generally
deal with bulk quantities of highly inflammable materials, mostly liquid and gases and
employ high temperature and pressure ranges for processing which may ignite them
spontaneously. Thus industries are very much susceptible to fire and explosion.
Considering the potential risk in a petroleum industry a sound fire protection plan is of
paramountrimportance for the every existence and growth. Petroleum industries have
essentially table located away from cities and have therefore, to be self-sufficient in fire
fighting arrangement.
 FIRE RISK OF ELECTRICITY

Heating Effect of Current

The flow of Current is called the circuit and if there is an excess flow of the
current, through any circuit as over the designed load the cable swill become
overheated and the insulation’s may catch fire and burn with emission of large volume
of smoke. This may also happen if there is an accidental short circuit between the two
wires carrying the current between the positive line and the negative terminals or
between the phase and the neutral wires (A.C. Circuits).

To prevent this type of contingency, current should never be drawn in excess,

through multi-plugs or otherwise by having too many fans or lights in the some circuit,
than what the circuit is designed for.

Preventive Measures
As a preventive measure against fire due to short circuit, some protective device
should be incorporated in the circuit, such as by “thermal Fuse” or “Magnetic Circuit
Breakers”. In domestic wirings or in the office premises normally, thermal Fuses of the
appropriate rating is inserted in a convenient position, near the main, main switch board
and in industrial installation, where high voltage motors etc. are in operation, magnetic
circuit breakers are to be provided.

In the case of thermal fuses, a metal alloy of low melting point (about 3000F) is
usually inserted in the distribution system. In the event of an excess current flowing
through the circuit, the thermal fuses will melt at a much lower temperature before any
fire could take place and it will disconnect the circuit. Whereas in the event of
industrial motors, when an excess current flows, magnetic circuit breakers will trip the
circuit by the magnetic relay switch render the circuit safe, such as in the single phasing
of multi-phase A.C. motor (commonly known as “Single Phasing”).

Assessment of the Hazard

It must be borne in mind that the circuit is overheated when there is a drawal of
excess current and the heat that is produced is proportional to the quare of the current,
the resistance of the circuit and the time through which the current is twicesits strength,
the heat will be produced four times, the resistance of the circuit and the time
remaining the same.

Now-a-days, cartridges type of fuses to tally enclosed in a glass case or other

suitable device is incorporated in the circuit. They are known as H.R.C. type of safety
fuses.

Importance of Main Enhance of Electrical Appliances & Circuit

Proper maintenance of electrical equipment’s is quite important such as these
including transformers, switch gears etc. as are used in industrial installations. They
should be properly maintained by a competent electrician.

Regular checking of the earthing resistance, insulation resistance, periodical

inspection of the transferors and the switch gears oils and measurements of their posed
load of the circuit, so as to keep it within the designed limit, should be enforced upon.
The insulation resistance of the oil, used for transformers or switch gears (Dielectric
strength) should be checked and examined and the same should be changed as required,
depending upon the test results. Tests should be carried out once every six months for
transformers and switch gears and the condition of motors, specially for their safety
devices, insulation and possible “Single Phasing”.

Electrical Installation For Hazardous Location

Selecting the proper types of electric installation for hazardous for location
characterised by hazardous concentrations of flammable vapours, gases, dusts, or
fibers, either continuously or occasionally, requires considerable judgement. Hazard
must be correctly evaluated to assure safety of personnel and property, while avoiding
unnecessarily expensive installations.

Wherever possible, electrical equipment and wiring are best located outside the
areas of most severe hazard.
Lights, for example, may be located outside a hazardous room or enclosure and
illuminate the inside through transparent panels. Motors can be located outside, with
drive shafts extending through the wall or partition, with openings for the shafts tightly
sealed. Controllers, switches, cutouts, remoter scan be located in adjoining, less
hazardous areas. Such arrangements frequently effect a considerable saving.

Maintenance of Electrical Equipment’s

Approximately one out of every five industrial fires is of electric origin. Many
of these fires can be prevented and the usual life of electrical equipment increased by
proper maintenance.

Three kinds of maintenance are recognised :

1. Repairs after a failure of breakdown.
2. Ordinary maintenance, which consists of repairs, adjustments or replacement of
parts shown to be necessary by visual inspections at irregular intervals before a
breakdown occurs.
3. Preventive maintenance, which consists of regularly scheduled inspections and
periodic dismantling of equipment to check every detail likely to cause trouble.

A regularly scheduled preventive maintenance program is the most important

factor in correcting electrical deficits and preventing electrical breakdown.

Inspections should be made by a competent electricians. He should pay special

attention to equipment in hazardous locations.
 ABBREVIATIONS

1. BLEVE - Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion

2. VCE - Vapor Cloud Explosion
3. OISD - Oil Industry Safety Directorate
4. ISRS - International Safety Rating System
5. DGFASLI - Directorate General Factory Advice Service & Labor
Institutes
6. CIMAH - Control of Industrial Major Accident Hazards
7. NSC - National Safety Council
8. MIC - Methyl Iso Cyanate
9. SCBA - Self Contained Breathing Apparatus
10. TREMCARD - Transport Emergency Card
11. PEL - Permissible Exposure Limit
12. STEL - Short Term Exposure Limit
13. TWA - Time Weighted Average
14. TLV - Threshold Limit Valve
15. MSDS - Material Safety Data Sheet
16. COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand
17. BOD - Biological Oxygen Demand
18. APELL - Awareness And Preparedness For Emergencies At Local
Level
19. CFC - Chloro Fluoro Carbons
20. UL - Underwriters Laboratories
21. HAZOP - Hazard and Operability Studies
22. BIS - Bureau of Indian Standards
23. ISO - International Organization for Standardization
24 WTO - World Trade Organization
25. ISO-9001 - Quality Management Systems
26. ISO 14001 - Environmental Management Systems.
27. EIP - Emergency Information Panel
28. OHSMS - Occupational Health & Safety Management
Systems
29. ACGIH - American Conference of Government Industrial
Hygienists
30. CCOE - Chief Controller Of Explosives
31. ELCB - Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
32. FLP - Flame Proof
33. PLT - Pipe Line Transfer
34. ILO - International Labor Organization
35. TAC - Tariff Advisory Committee
36. NDC - Non-Destructive Testing
37. PPE - Personal Protective Equipment
38. LPA - Loss Prevention Association
39. NEERI - National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
40. MAH - Major Accident Hazard
41. LEL - Lower Explosive Limited
42. UEL - Upper Explosive Limit
43. IDLH - Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health
44. P&ID - Process and Instrumentation Diagram
45. PFD - Process Flow Diagram
46. UNICEF - United Nations International Children Emergency Fund
47. IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency
48. AGFFF - Aqueous Gel Film Forming Foam
49. AFFF - Aqueous Film Forming Foam
50. SHE - Safety, Health And Environment
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Safety Magazines

• Internet

• Safety Manuals

• Safety Handbooks