CHAPTER 2 TRANSFORMERS

2.1 Single-phase Transformer

A transformer is a device that couples two or more windings through a
common magnetic core.
Usages:
In power systems to step-up or step-down the voltage.
In low-power low-current electronic circuits.
A 1:1 transformer is used to isolate grounds of two electronic circuits
2.1.1 No-Loa Coni!ions
Assume ideal transformer.

i
2 1
N N

+
e

+
v
Open
20 10
10
10
20
10
2.5 All dimensions are in cms
Core type transformar
Figure 2-1 wo-winding transformer
For ideal transformer! v " e
1#
Faraday$s law
m rms
m rms
m m
m
m
m
fN E
fN E
N E
where
t E t e
or
t N t e
Then
t t
If
dt
d
e

1
1
1
1
%% %
2
2
.
"os # $
"os # $
sin # $

mwb
turns N
Hz f
V V
g e
fN
V
Therefore
V E
m
m
m
rms rms
.
% % .
& 'e (ill "ore !he in fl)* !he Then
. .
.
+
& '
&''' (' %% %
2%'
&'''
('
2%'
%% %
1
1

E*er"ise: )etermine the relative permea*ility of the a*ove core if the

current is 1'mA.
2.1.2 ,o! Con-en!ion
1. )etermination of the dots on a two-winding transformer
2'
2

1
i
1
1
b
a
2
2
b
a
2 1
N N
2
i

Figure 2-2 wo-winding transformer dot determination

a. Assign a dot to one of the windings. +et a
1
*e the dotted terminal
of winding N
1
.
*. Assume that current i
1
is into the dotted terminal a
1
of winding N
1
.
c. +et a current i
2
into a
2
terminal of winding N
2
.
d. ,hec- the direction of the flu.es that are provided *y the two
windings using the right-hand rule.
e. If the flu.es
1
and
2
are supporting one another! i.e. in the same
direction! a
2
is the dotted terminal of winding N
2
. If not! then *
2
is
the dotted terminal.
2. )etermination of the direction of the currents in the two dotted windings.
A current i
1
entering a dotted terminal of winding N
1
induces a voltage
dt
di
M e
1
2

with the positive polarity at the dotted terminal of winding N
2

which is *
2
.
If a load is connected to N
2 winding
! it will draw a current i
2
that is leaving the
dotted terminal *
2
.
Figure 2-& wo-winding ideal transformer with given dots
2.1.. /eal Transformer
21

1
i
2 1
N N Load
2
i

+
1
v

+
2
v

+
1
e

+
2
e
Figure 2-% Ideal transformer
For the ideal transformer! we have the following assumptions:
1. he lea-age flu. of the two windings is neglected.
2. he two windings resistances are neglected.
&. he relative permea*ility of the core is so high that negligi*le mmf is
re/uired to esta*lish the flu. in the core.
%. ,ore losses are negligi*le.
Using Fraday$s law!
0
dt
d
N
dt
d
e

1
1
1

Using assumptions 1 and 2!
0
1 1
v e
Also!
0
dt
d
N
dt
d
e

2
2
2

and!
0
2 2
v e
therefore!

N
e
N
e
2
2
1
1

dt
d
or

-
-
N
N
e
e
2
1
2
1
2
1

he net mmf acting on the core at any instant is
22
!)rn - A
1 2 2 1
i N i N F
Using assumption &! i.e. " !
'
A
l
R

therefore0

1
'
2 2 1
R i N i N F
and

1 2 2 1
i N i N
or

1
2
2
1
N
N
i
i

2 1
2 2 1 1
1
2
2
1
p p
i v i v
or
N
N
i
i

1
2
-
-

For ideal transformer! instantaneous power in"instantaneous power
out.
2.1.1 Sin)soial E*"i!a!ion
1ince the sources used for transformers are usually sinusoidal! phasor
representation can *e used for the ideal transformer.
1
I
2 1
N N
2
I

+
1
V

+
2
V

+
1
E

+
2
E
L

Load Ideal
Transforme
r
Source
Figure 2-2 Ideal transformer with sinusoidal e.citation
2&
sie. primar2 !he !o referre impean"e loa
sie primar2 !he !o referre ")rren! Se"onar2
N
N
/
Also+
0 0 0
N
N
0
0
sie primar2 !he !o referre -ol!age Se"onar2
N
N
E
E
3
3 1
1
3
1
2
1
3
2 2 1
2
1
2
1
3
2
1
2
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

L
L L

N
N

I
N
N
V
N
N
I
V

I I
N
N
E E
N
N
E
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2 2
2
1
2 2
2
1
1
he ideal transformer with the load impedance circuit will reduce to:
1
I

+
1
V
3
L

Load
Source
Figure 2-( +oad impedance of an ideal transformer referred to the primary
side
E*ample 2-1
An ideal transformer rated 2%'412' 5 is supplying a load impedance of
6"&78% 9hms at 12' 5. )etermine the secondary current! primary current!
impedance seen *y the source! the load real and reactive power! the load
power factor! and the supply real power .
2%
2.1.4 E5)i-alen! Cir")i! of a Real Transformer
Assumptions for a :eal ransformer:
1. ;ach winding resistance may *e represented *y a lumped parameter at
the terminal of the winding.
2. Flu. produced *y the mmf of one of the windings may *e divided into
two distinct parts:
22
a. +ea-age flu. lin-ing all the turns of the winding producing it! *ut
none of the turns of the other winding.
*. <utual flu. that is lin-ing all turns of *oth windings.
&. he permea*ility of the core is constant.
%. he core losses are neglected.
Figure 2-= :eal transformer
he following figure shows the dc circuit model of the transformer$s
magnetic core.
Figure 2-> ), model of the magnetic core

2(
?rimary @inding AN
1
B 1econdary @inding AN
2
B
1. Flu. +in-age

1 1 1
N
1. Flu. +in-age

2 2 2
N
2. C,+ Flu.es

1
1 l m
+

2. C,+ Flu.es

2
2 l m

&. Faraday$s +aw

dt
d
N
dt
d
e
1
1
1
11


dt
d
N
dt
d
N e
l
m 1
1 1 11

+
&. Faraday$s +aw

dt
d
N
dt
d
e
2
2
2
22


dt
d
N
dt
d
N e
l
m 2
2 2 22

%. +ea-age Flu. induced voltage
1 1
1 1
i L N
l l

dt
di
L
dt
d
N e
l
l
l
1
1
1
1
1


%. +ea-age Flu. induced voltage
2 2
2 2
i L N
l l

dt
di
L
dt
d
N e
l
l
l
2
2
2
2
2


2. <utual Flu. induced voltage
dt
d
N e e
m
m

1 1 1

2. <utual Flu. induced voltage
dt
d
N e e
m
m

2 2 2

(. C5+
11 1 1 1
e R i v +
1
1
1 1
1
e
dt
di
L R i
l
+ +
(. C5+
22 2 2 2
e R i v +
2 2
2
2
2
R i
dt
di
L e
l

Figure 2-# :esistances and lea-age inductances at the terminals of the
transformer
For ideal transformer0

N
N
e
e
2
1
2
1

and

3
1
2
2
2
N
N
i
i

2=
+et i
m
*e the current in N
1
re/uired to produce the mutual flu. D
m
. his
current is -nown as the magnetiEing current of the transformer.
i
m 1 1 2 2 1
N R i N i N F
! m net

herefore0
i
m 1 1 2 2 1
N i N i N +
and

m 1
i i
N
N
i +
2
1
2
or
m
3
1
i i i +
2
Figure 2-1' ;/uivalent circuit with the ideal transformer *etween primary
and secondary circuits
+
m
is the magnetiEation inductance of the transformer.

m
i L N
m m m

1

m
m
m
i
N
L

1

m " m
R i N
1

1
"
m m
N
R
i

"
2
1
R
N
N
R
N
L
!
m
m
m

1
1

2.1.6 Real Transformer (i!h Sin)soial E*"i!a!ion

If v
1
AtB is a sinusoidal voltage and the load is linear! we get the following
e/uivalent circuit:
2>
Figure 2-11 ;/uivalent circuit in the fre/uency domain
@here0
1
1 1 1
2 " $fL %L "
l l l

2
2 2 2
2 " $fL %L "
l l l


N
N
I I
1
2
2 2

3
:eferring all secondary parameters to the primary side! we get the following
e/uivalent circuit:
Figure 2-12 ;/uivalent circuit referred to the primary side
;.act e/uivalent circuit referred to the primary side.
E
N
N
E E
1
2
1
2 2

3

N
N
V V
2
1
2 2

3

N
N
I I
1
2
2 2

3

N
N
R R
2
2
1
2 2

,
_

3

N
N
" "
2
2
1
2 2

,
_

3
2#

N
N

L L
2
2
1

,
_

3
2 2 2 2
"os I V & &
Load

2
1
2
2
2
1
2 2
"os
N
N
I
N
N
V & &
Load

2 2 2 2
"os
3 3
I V & &
Load

2.1.7 Phasor ,iagram
# $
# $
3
3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1
2 1
1
2 2 2 2 1 2
'" R I E V
I I I
'"
E
I
'" R I V E E
m
m
m
+ +
+

+ +
Figure 2-1& ;/uivalent circuit phasor diagram
2.1.8 Transformer Core Losses
@ith no load connected to the secondary side of the transformer! the
secondary current is Eero. his means that the primary current supplied to
the transformer is primarily to magnetiEe the core and to supply the core
losses.
&'
Figure 2-1% 1ingle-phase transformer with no load connected
i.e.
I I
e(

1
1ince
I
e( is flowing in an inductive circuit! it lags the applied voltage *y a
certain angle NL

.
Figure 2-12 No-load transformer phasor diagram.
I
e( has two components! magnetiEing component!
I
m ! that produces the
flu. in the core and core loss component! ! I .
m ! e(
I I I +
I I
NL e( !
"os
and
I I
NL e( m
sin

I I I
m ! e(
2 2
+ and
!
m
NL
I
I

1
!an
he flu. will *e modeled *y a magnetiEing reactance F
m
and the core loss
will *e modeled *y a resistance :
c
.
he following is the complete e.act e/uivalent circuit referred to the
primary side:
&1
Figure 2-1( ;.act e/uivalent circuit.
[ ]
# $
# $
3
3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1
2 1
1 1
1
1
2 2 2 2 1 2
1 1
'" R I E V
I I I
') * E
"
'
R
E I I I
R
E
I
'"
E
I
'" R I V E E
e(
m !
m !
m ! e(
!
!
m
m
+ +
+

1
]
1

+ +
E*ample 2-2
A 12 <5A! 1&2422 C5! (' GE! has the following parameters:
. parame!ers H0S are 9 an R . . 9 an
: . R : ; 9 : ; ..< R : 9 :
m " 2
2 m " 1


2 1
1 ' 1(= (' 2
1
R
he transformer is supplying full-load at 22 C5 with '.> pf lagging.
)etermine the following:
1B Input 5oltage 2B Input current &B Input power factor %B 5oltage
:egulation
2B ;fficiency (B All-day efficiency for the following load cycle:
12 hours full-load at '.> pf and 12 hours no-load .
&2
2.1.= Appro*ima!e E5)i-alen! Cir")i!s
1. he magnetiEing impedance moved across the source
Figure 2-1= Appro.imate circuit with magnetiEing impedance across the
source.
3
3
3 3
3
# $
2 1
2 1
2 2 1
2 1 1
" " "
R R R
'" R I V V
E E V
e+
e+
e+ e+
+
+
+ +

he appro.imation is that the e.citation current is not flowing in the primary
impedance A:
1
78F
1
B.
&&
2. he magnetiEing impedance is across the load
Figure 2-1> Appro.imate circuit with magnetiEing impedance across the
load.
# $
3
3 3
e+ e+
'" R I V V
V E E
+ +

1 2 1
2 2 1
he appro.imation is that the e.citation current is flowing in the secondary
impedance A:$
2
78F$
2
B.
&. Neglecting the e.citation current
Figure 2-1# ;/uivalent circuit with e.citation current neglected.
&%
# $
3
3
e+ e+
'" R I V V
I I
+ +

1 2 1
2 1
he appro.imation is that the e.citation current is too small compared to
rated current and can *e neglected.
%. Neglecting the e/uivalent resistance
Figure 2-2' ;/uivalent circuit with windings$ resistances neglected.
# $
3
3
e+
'" I V V
I I
1 2 1
2 1
+

he e/uivalent resistance of large transformers Aseveral <5A ratingsB is

very small compared to the e/uivalent reactance and can *e neglected.
2.1.1< ,e!ermina!ion of !he E5)i-alen!-Cir")i! Parame!ers
aB 9pen-,ircuit est Aat rated voltageB
Figure 2-21 ;/uivalent circuit with the secondary winding left open.
For open-circuit test!
e(
I I
therefore
I I

1
2 2
' '
+
an
3
&2
and since0
m !
m !
'" '" R
therefore
'" R '" R
>> R !o "ompare negle"!e is
# >> $ # $
1 1
1 1
+
<< +
Figure 2-22 ;/uivalent circuit for open circuit test
<easure 5
1oc
! I
oc
! ?
oc!
and 5
2oc
2
1
2
1
N
N
V
V
o!
o!

urns ratio.
o!
o!
!
&
V
R
2

,ore-loss resistance
o!
o!
!
V
&
I
,ore-loss current
2 2
! o! m
I I I <agnetiEing current
m
o!
m
I
V
"
<agnetiEing reactance
?
oc
" core losses
*B 1hort-circuit est Aat rated currentB
A fraction of the rated voltage is sufficient to produce the rated current in
the primary side with the secondary winding shorted.
1ince the applied voltage is small and :
c
and F
m
are large! then the
e.citation current is very small and can *e neglected. herefore! the
e/uivalent circuit will reduce to:
&(
Figure 2-2& 1hort circuit test
he primary and secondary impedances are connected in series and can
*e com*ined together to form an e/uivalent impedance.
Figure 2-2% ;/uivalent circuit for short circuit test.
3
3
2 1
2 1
" " "
R R R
e+
e+
+
+
<easure 5
1sc
! I
sc
! and ?
sc
2
s!
s!
e+
I
&
R
;/uivalent resistance
s!
s!
e+
I
V

;/uivalent impedance
2 2
e+ e+ e+
R " ;/uivalent reactance
Assume0
2
2
2 1
2 1
e+
e+
"
" "
R
R R


3
3
?
sc
" copper losses of the transformer.
ransformer tests$ summary
<ethod 1 <ethod 2
&=
Open-"ir")i! !es!
<easured values
5
1oc
! I
oc
! ?
oc
1.
o!
o!
!
&
V
R
2

2.
o!
o!
!
V
&
I
&.
2 2
! o! m
I I I
%.
m
o!
m
I
V
"
Open-"ir")i! !es!
<easured values
5
1oc
! I
oc
! ?
oc
1.

o! o!
o!
o!
I V
&
pf
2.
o! o!
pf
1
"os
&.
o!
o!
o!
o!
V
I
,
%.
m ! o!
') * ,
2.
m
m
!
!
)
"
*
R
1 1
an
<ethod 1 <ethod 2
Shor!-"ir")i! !es!
<easured values
5
1sc
! I
sc
! and ?
sc
1.
2
s!
s!
e+
I
&
R
2.
s!
s!
e+
I
V

&.
2 2
e+ e+ e+
R "
Shor!-"ir")i! !es!
<easured values
5
1sc
! I
sc
! and ?
sc
1.
s! s!
s!
s!
I V
&
pf
2.
s! s!
pf
1
"os
&. s!
s!
s!
e+
I
V

%. e+ e+ e+
'" R +
E*ample 2-.
he following data were ta-en on a 1'-C5A! 22''422'-5! ('-GE single-
phase transformer:
9pen-circuit test: 5"22' 5! I"2.2 A! ?"1'' @
1hort-circuit test: 5"12' 5! I"%.22 A! ?"212 @
&>
1B )etermine the parameters of the appro.imate circuit referred to the
low voltage side A+51B!
2B ;.press the e.citation current as a percentage of the rated current!
&B )etermine the efficiency of the transformer at rated-load and '.> pf
lagging!
%B )etermine the voltage regulation of the transformer at rated-load and
'.> pf lagging!
2B )etermine the all-day efficiency of the transformer for the following
load cycle:
> hours full-load and '.> pf lagging
> hours 2'H full-load and '.> pf lagging
> hours 2H full-load and '.> pf lagging.
2.2 Three-phase Transformer Conne"!ions
2.2.1 ?2e-(2e "onne"!ion
&#
A
I
2 1
N N
a
I

+
AN
V
)
I
b
I
-
I
!
I

+
)N
V

+
-N
V

+
A)
V

+
)-
V

+
-A
V

+
ab
V

+
b!
V

+
!a
V

+
an
V

+
bn
V

+
!n
V
A
)
-
N
n
a
b
!
Figure 2-22 hree-phase transformer I-I connection
Figure 2-2( ?hasor diagram for I-I connection.
ab
A)
A
a
an
AN
V
V
I
I
N
N
V
V

2
1
an ab AN A)
V V V V & & an
For a wye-connected circuit0
ph L ph L
I V V / an &
here is no phase shift *etween the line voltages of the primary and
secondary windings of a wye4wye connected three-phase transformer. i.e.
phase - in are an
ab A)
V V
.
%'

& & &

&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
'. & /
I V I V .
I V I V
I V I V
I V I
V
I V I V &
A AN L L
A AN L L
A AN A A)
A AN A
A)
A AN A AN
+





# sin$
# "os$
# "os$
# "os$
# "os$
2.2.2 ,el!a>el!a "onne"!ion
A)
I
2 1
N N
ab
I
)-
I
b!
I
-A
I
!a
I

+
A)
V

+
-A
V

+
ab
V

+
b!
V

+
!a
V
A
)
-
a
b
!
A
I
)
I
-
I
a
I
b
I
!
I
Figure 2-2= hree-phase transformer delta-delta connection
Figure 2-2> ?hasor diagram for delta-delta connection.
A
a
A)
ab
ab
A)
I
I
I
I
N
N
V
V

2
1
=< an : 14< - : .< -
A) - A) ) A) A
I I I I I I & & &
%1
here is no phase shift *etween the line voltages of the primary and
secondary windings of a )elta4delta connected three-phase transformer.
i.e.
phase - in are an
ab A)
V V
.
2.2.. ?2e>el!a Conne"!ion
2 1
N N
ab
I
b!
I
!a
I

+
A)
V

+
-A
V

+
ab
V

+
b!
V

+
!a
V
A
)
-
a
b
!
A
I
)
I
-
I
a
I
b
I
!
I

+
)-
V

+
AN
V

+
)N
V

+
-N
V
Figure 2-2# hree-phase transformer I-J connection.
Figure 2-&' ?hasor diagram for I-J connection.
here is a &'K phase shift *etween the line voltages of the primary and
secondary windings of a @ye4delta connected three-phase transformer.
i.e.
.< '2 leas
ab A)
V V
. he power engineer must chec- the connections
of the e.isting three-phase transformer *efore connect another three-
phase transformer in parallel. he two three-phase transformer must have
the connections to avoid high circulating currents.
%2
AN A)
ab
AN
V V
N
N
V
V
&
2
1
an
2
1
& N
N
V
V
ab
A)

2
1
&
N
N
V
V
ab
A)

ph
ph,
L
L,
N
N
V
V
&
ab a
ab
A
I
N
N
I
I
&
1
2
/ an

1
2
&N
N
I
I
a
A

ph,
ph
L
L,
N
N
I
I
&

2.2.1 Open ,el!a

2 1
N N

+
A)
V

+
)-
V

+
ab
V

+
b!
V

+
!a
V
A
)
-
a
b
!
A
I
)
I
-
I
a
I
b
I
!
I

+
-A
V
Figure 2-&1 9pen delta connection.
In a delta4delta connection! if one of the three transformers is removed!
the remaining two transformers can still provide 2>H of the delta4delta
three-phase power.
)elta4delta 9pen delta
ph L
V V
ph L
I I &
pf I V &
L L
&
&


ph L
V V
ph L
I I
pf I V &
L L
&
&


%&
pf I V &
ph ph
&
&


pf I V &
ph ph
&
&


2> '
&
1
.
P
P

> - .
open - .



E*ample 2-1
A three-phase transformer supplies a load of =2 C5A at %%' 5 line-to-
line and unity power factor. he primary to secondary phase turns ratio is
2:1. )etermine the phase and line voltages and phase and line currents of
the primary and secondary of the transformer for the following
connections:
aB )elta4delta!
*B @ye4delta!
cB @ye4wye. Assume ideal transformers.
%%