Chapter 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Boundless studies prevalent to self-esteem can be seen all over the

circulation. Researchers has shown stupendous interest as to what really provokes

self-esteem may it be high or low which is arduously in explainable. Self-esteem is

important in terms of how one thinks, feels, and responds to stressful life events.

Research has also shown a relation between low self-esteem and feelings of

depression and hopelessness towards people (Overholser, 1995).

According to Andrews 1998, females with low self-esteem are twice as

likely to develop depression following a stressful life event than those with average

or high self-esteem. During adolescence, a person may experience increased stress

in relation to school, friends, and family, as well as new responsibilities and

interests. An important influence on the social construction of self-esteem is the

degree to which the individual perceives interpersonal acceptance as relatively

unconditional versus contingent on one's successes and failures.

A concern with such contingencies of interpersonal acceptance may be shared by

all people to a degree, and indeed may be the basis of self-feelings and
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socialization. For example, in order to maintain a sense of secure relatedness to

others, children are generally motivated to act in ways that make significant others

more responsive and nurturing, rather than anxious and rejecting. More recently,

Leary, et.al, 1995 have argued that feelings of self-esteem proceed from a sense of

acceptance by others. Successes and failures, therefore, bolster or undermine

feelings of self-esteem precisely because they affect one's expectations of being

accepted or rejected by others. The specific content of these contingencies may vary

depending on one's culture and upbringing, of course, but most people would have

no difficulty identifying socially-desirable traits and behaviors (e.g., success,

competence, morality, physical attractiveness, social skills) that generally lead a

person to be accepted and included by others, and corresponding negative traits and

behaviors (failure, incompetence, immorality, unattractiveness, lack of social skills)

that lead a person to be rejected or avoided by others.

Self-esteem can be related to a person’s healthy development. Self-

esteem is a complex construct that has been shown to be both positive and negative

under different conditions in a person’s life. Most researchers investigating the

relationship of self esteem and person’s behavior relative to activities such as sex

have used a generalized or global self-esteem scale to determine participants’ self-

esteem.

Among studies reviewed, there was a consensus as to the

conceptualization and operational definition of self-esteem. Realistically, very few

researchers who have examined the relationship between self-esteem and sexual

behavior have offered a concrete operational definition of self-esteem; writers and

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readers have some intuitive common sense idea of what self-esteem is and what it

does. It often seems necessary to spell out its nature and the process by which it

operates; such an oversight can be very serious.

Studies have shown that at least some aspects of self-esteem are

related to sexual involvement. A significant number of today’s young Filipinos

have engaged in premarital sex. How early does this happen affecting their self-

esteem or not? What factors tend to encourage girls to have sexual contact

prematurely in observance of the 21st century culture? The purpose of this study is

to compare the self-esteem profile of virgins and non-virgins in an exclusive all

girls’ school in mendiola. Considering that people now evolves in the 21st century,

myriads of teenagers engage in sex anxiously. Influence is also to be considered

even with the existence of norms and guidance.

Subsequently, this research yields to the self-esteem of virgins and

non-virgins, whether being a non-virgin affects the respondents’ self-esteem or

lingering to the sanctity of being a virgin has a positive or negative impact towards

self. Knowing that the recent culture enormously believes that virginity is not as

important as it is.

Background of the Study

La Consolacion College of Manila has been teaching women for

over a hundred years. In April 06, 1883 four Augustinian sisters arrived in Manila

from Barcelona, Spain. One of them Sor Rita Barcelo y Pages later became the

foundress of the Augustinian sisters of Our Lady of Consolacion. With the

 4

assistance of the Spanish Augustinian fathers, they settled in Mandaluyong and

dedicate themselves to care for and educate the abandoned orphans of the 1882-

cholera epidemic. That taught them catechism, home arts, and needle work. Two

years later, more Filipino aspirants to religious life joined the community and were

trained to carry on the mission of which was the Asilo de Mandaloya. In 1880, the

orphanage became a boarding school for girls called Asilo- Colegio de Mandaloya.

Unfortunately, Philippine revolution of 1896 came forcing the founding sisters to

go back to Spain. Other Augustinian sisters were told to disband but decided to

pursue their vocation as Augustinian Religious, the following years the

Congregation grew in Manila.

In 1902, history was made. His Excellency Msgr. Chapelle, the

Papal Nuncio offered the Augustinian sisters a house at R. Hidalgo st. Quiapo to

establish a school for women called Colegio de la Consolacion. In 1909, with

another mishap, the school was burned. But in 1910, the streets of San Rafael,

Arlegui, and Mandiola surrounded the new building of Colegio de la Consolacion

which served as classrooms and dormitory. Thus, Colegio de la Consolacion

received government’s new recognition and a permit to include high school course.

Alumnae Association was organized in 1926. An annex building was

constructed due to the growing needs of the institution. When 1941 world war came

most schools including Colegio de la Consolacion were occupied by the Japanese

army forcing the school to close. In 1946, regular classes resumed. 1952 was La

consolacion’s golden jubilee; the Office of the College Dean was established.
 5

Moreover, the first course leading to a bachelor’s degree was offered. Hereafter,

more courses were added in the curricular offering of the college department.

Today, La Consolacion College offers multitude of courses from

kindergarten to bachelor’s degree. Recognizably, for over a century La Consolacion

College Manila has been teaching women from house work, needle work to

molding them and preparing them towards their future, including development of

personality. 2002 marked the confinement of nursing course in La Consolacion

College. The school year 2005 comprises 894 nursing students from 1st year to 4th

year.

College students have wide variety of sexual experiences including

those in La Consolacion College. Point of views towards life varies depending on

age, upbringing and environment. Self-Esteem according to Myers, 1999, is ones

opinion towards self; it is based on ones attitude. The way a person value self, job

done, how others think, achievements, purpose in life, strengths and weaknesses.

High self-esteem is an important aspect in ones life especially to

college students striving hard to achieve success in life. Having a low self-esteem

may deteriorate favorable achievements (Brown, et.al., 1994). La Consolacion

College for instance, an all girls’ catholic school offering bachelors degree,

unquestionably the practice of Catholicism and values still dominates the

institution. But does it make a difference when comes to engaging in sexual

activity? Values which are as important among other Filipino cultural standards, the

Filipino culture is strict for its belief of preserving virginity, succumbing to

premarital sex is immorality. Since it is the 21st century this belief is imprudent.
 6

Teenagers are known to be impulsive, oblivious of the consequences.

Furthermore, it is observed that the population of teenagers enrolled in an all girls

school practices sexual acts daringly compared to teenagers from co-ed school.

Self-esteem can predict when adolescent girls become sexually active -- regardless

of when they reach puberty. A new study shows that girls with low self-esteem may

be especially at risk for losing their virginity too soon. Researchers say becoming

sexually active early in adolescence can create a variety of negative consequences.

Although the relationship between self-esteem and sexual activity has been

discussed often, few studies have looked at the issue as puberty sets in. Teenagers

who feel incomplete, inadequate and unappreciated are more likely to seek comfort

in a sexual relationship. But those with a life rich in relationships, family traditions,

activities, interests and — most of all — consistent love and affirmation are less

likely to embark on a desperate search for fulfillment that could lead to unwise

sexual decisions. It is this point of view that the researchers will conduct a study

comparing the self-esteem of virgins and non-virgins. In doing so, this research will

determine if there is a conclusive evidence to say that self-esteem is or is not related

to sexual behavior.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical assertion of the study was based on the theory by Stanley

Coopersmith. Stanley Coopersmith’s theory indicates that self-esteem refers to the

evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to

himself: it expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval, and attests the extent to

 7

which the individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful, and

worthy. In short, self-esteem is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed

in attitudes the individual holds toward himself.

Adolescents' and young adults' sexual attitudes and behaviors have

been the focus of a flurry of research in the past decade. Of great concern are the

high-risk behaviors engaged in by many adolescents and young adults (Desiderato

& Crawford, 1995). Moreover, the incidence of high-risk sexual practices seems to

be on the rise, especially on college campuses where norms of sexual

permissiveness and multiple partners are influential. Placing these behaviors in the

context of adolescents' and young adults' normative developmental preoccupation

with sexual exploration and experimentation highlights the complexity of their

sexual risk-taking, challenging research and the development of prevention and

intervention applications.Shaver and Hazan offered some initial predictions about

sexual experiences characteristic of each attachment style: Secure individuals

experience greater mutual intimacy and pleasure in sexual relationships, avoidant

individuals tend toward promiscuity in an effort to maintain emotional distance, and

anxious individuals use sex to satisfy their needs for security and love.(Shaver &

Hazan, 1990).

College students arrive on campus having had sexual experiences

ranging from abstinence to intercourse and a variety of activities in between. They

may have sex alone or with others; they may be acting under the influence of

alcohol, experimenting with new sexual feelings, or forcing or coercing a partner.

Although many adults may think that the sexual revolution is over, it's not so clear
 8

to today's college students. In fact, students today are engaging in the same sexual

behaviors that students engaged in during the 1970s.

So, just what are college students' chief concerns regarding sexuality? The

most frequently mentioned are virginity, pregnancy, disease, non-consensual sexual

encounters, sexual orientation, and sexual functioning. But college health personnel

and university administrators have somewhat different priorities. University

officials tend to worry about alcohol use, misuse, and abuse, and its impact on

sexual behavior, including risky sexual encounters and acquaintance rape.Sex is

still the number one issue students want to talk about. When having a chat about

sex, it will be heard that, while they are engaging in sexual activity, students carry

with them a good deal of baggage, packed with their desires, anxieties, and

inhibitions. Whether the issue is intimacy or alcohol, university staff must be aware

of what students have to say and be prepared with appropriate resources

 9

LA CONSOLACION
NURSING
STUDENTS

VIRGIN NON VIRGIN

SELF ESTEEM

Figure 1. Paradigm of the Study

The figure shows two classification which is the virgin and non virgin from La

Consolacion College. Diagram visually constricts the focus of the study to help

determine and fully understand the self-esteem profile of the respondents.

 10

Statement of the Problem

In every topic that is constructed there is a problem, by which this study

aims to measure the differences of the self esteem of selected virgins and non

virgins of La Consolacion College.

Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions:

1. What is the measured self-esteem of the participants when grouped

according to:

a.virgins

b.non-virgins

2.Is there a significant difference in the self-esteem level between virgins

and non-virgins?

Hypothesis

Null form capitalized the research hypothesis of the study. In reference to self-

esteem and pre marital sex, an average self esteem level will be reported by the

virgins as well as the non virgins of randomly selected respondents of La

Consolacion College, therefore explicating that there are no significant differences

adjacent to the self esteem level of virgins and non virgins.

Significance of the Study

As part of the attempt to understand self-esteem, researchers worldwide suggests

that a person’s self-esteem may be evaluated. Derived from the data collected the
 11

research study delineated to benefit the following; Psychologists, teenagers,

students, counselors. The proposed research may find insights and interests toward

self-esteem and sexual behavior of teenager’s or what is popularly known as

campus sexuality. So as they may analyze which the favorable factors are when it

comes to self-esteem.

To the Field of Psychology which hopefully continues their endless research

on how to gain favorable self-esteem may it be positive or negative. Likewise, the

inputs of the study are beneficial to the students to gain further understanding

towards self-esteem which is only an opinion to oneself. And to provide the most

effective treatment possible, counselors may recognize whether self-esteem is

created through success, or whether it is created through making a person feel better

about themselves without having to accomplish anything the client may feel better

about himself in session but be disappointed to find his new found self-esteem

vanish when confronted with the challenges of real life.

The conducted research also benefits the religious movements towards

premarital sex. Religion is one of the major influences in the lives of Filipinos.

Being concerned with the transmission of restrictive moral standards in sexuality;

religion may discourage the participation of the young in the risk behaviors. The

conservative teaching of the Catholic Church which forbids the use of modern

methods condom and contraceptive pills may have constrained the use of

contraceptives and may have contributed to the low level of contraceptive practice

among young Filipinos (Marquez, 2004).

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To the parents, that will hopefully stop avoiding and talking issues about

sexual risky behaviors with their children. This will also help the teachers and

school administrator to give comprehension and extend their understanding to those

in need of help towards self-esteem.

Though a lot of studies have been done regarding the subject, further

research must be conducted to be able to amplify perception towards self-esteem.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

For the acquisition of significance, exertion of statistical methods and

techniques was used; preferably descriptive method to determine the self-esteem

profile of selected students from La Consolacion College Manila. Out of the 894

population of BS Nursing students which was the scope of the study and

determinants in achieving the self esteem profile, 500 were selected to answer the

Women’s Health Questionnaire and Coopersmith Self Esteem Profile.

Researchers conducted the study during the school year 2005-2006. From

the 500 only 30 virgins and 30 non-virgins were selected using the snow-balling

technique for the analysis of data. Answers will also depend upon the openness and

honesty of the respondents.

Definition of Terms

The following terms are defined operationally:

Non-virgin -inexperienced person to sexual intercourse

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Nursing Students - currently enrolled in nursing course anxious to help

physically ill people.

Profile - A formal summary or analysis of data, representing distinctive

features or characteristics.

Selected - Chosen or preferred items or people considered as a group.

Self-Esteem - a feeling of pride in yourself, the quality of being worthy of

esteem or respect including self worth, attractiveness, and social competence.

Virgin - A person who has not experienced sexual intercourse

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Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This study deals with different gathered materials such as journals,

magazine, studies, literature of local and foreign authors.

Foreign Literature

Today, everyone seems to know what self-esteem is. But when we stop to

think about what the feeling of self-esteem is made of and how it comes about, we

see what a complex matter it really is. A great deal has been written on the topic as

it relates to psychoanalysis, especially as a part of the sweeping interest in

narcissism; indeed, from a psychoanalytic perspective, disturbances of self-esteem

belong to the realm of narcissistic disorders. Recently, there has also been a

dramatic rise in the number of studies dealing with the complex topic of the ”self” I

cannot embark on a detailed discussion of the various views that have been argued

here, preferring to restrict myself to a few points directly relevant to our topic.

Self-esteem refers to the worth or dignity that one ascribes to oneself. The

word “esteem” derived from the Latin word aestimare, denotes an estimation that I

make of my own value. This is relevant in connection with the problem of shame-
 15

anxiety, since one could describe shame as a “guardian” of dignity. Shame-anxiety

puts us on guard against “undignified” behavior, sensitizing us to whether or not a

given event will be experienced as “degrading.” The word “dignity” sounds a bit

old-fashioned, even pompous to us today. We think of “dignitaries” occupying

exalted positions or “reverend fathers” comporting themselves with “dignity.” To

say that “it is beneath my dignity” to get mixed up with someone or something can

easily make one sound arrogant. It is attempted to define self esteem which is very

difficult, although it is clearly an extremely important concept in psychology. It is

briefly referred to as the emergence of self as a development of the individual's

personality. Personality may be simplistically defined as the self acquired through

the development of adequate role performance. The concept of the acquisition

includes the total socialization process that prepares the individual for social action

and the humanization process.

The orientation process of social action includes all the values, attitudes,

norms, and mores -- all the codes of behavior that the culture provides for orderly

conduct. It is only by reference to these codes or standards of behavior that people

are able to even tentatively define normal, neurotic, or deviant behavior. Self

esteem develops in a social milieu (or social world), which is a part of the total

culture in which the individual is socialized. In the striving for superiority, or goal

striving, it is evident that the individual sets goals that are consistent with those of

the culture and fundamentally consistent with status positions created by the

culture. The culture is comprised of two dynamic aspects: the "organic," or

technological, material construct, and the "superorganic," the aspect of culture that
 16

is concerned with ideas, philosophies, values, standards, norms, and so forth. People

live in a period in which culture changes rapidly, in that many of the old values and

attitudes that were a part of the primary institutions are no longer viable.

Social and economic inequality and prejudice against those who are

disadvantaged have occurred in almost all societies (Branscombe, et.al, 1994).

Although the magnitude of inequality differs across societies and in societies over

time, almost every society has differences in economic resources, power, and social

regard available to groups in that society. The question that should be addressed

is what are the effects of the inequality on the self esteem of members of

disadvantaged groups? Social inequality and prejudice have many pernicious effects

on disadvantaged individuals, and the focus on self esteem does not imply that the

feeling is the most important consequence of prejudice and inequality.

Nonetheless, effects on self esteem are interesting and important for several

reasons. First, self esteem is a central aspect of the subjective experience and

quality of life. It is powerfully related to variables that influence the affective

tone of people's daily experience, with those who have high self esteem reporting,

for example, more positive affect ( Lind et. al, 1997 ), more life satisfaction ( Tajfel,

1995), less hopelessness (Bourhis, 1994), and fewer depressive symptoms than do

individuals who are low in self esteem. In a review of the literature, Berry (1994)

concluded that self esteem is the strongest predictor of life satisfaction.

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Local Literature

The majority of members of a convenience sample of 1,355 urban university

students in metropolitan Manila, the Philippines, were sexually abstinent (83%).

Most were knowledgeable about AIDS, about pregnancy risk and about

contraception in general (60-88%), but only 20% had adequate knowledge about

condoms. Approximately 90% of all students held no accepting attitudes toward

premarital and recreational sex. Males were more likely than females to have ever

had sexual intercourse (30% vs. 7%), and they were better informed about condoms

and about contraception in general. Sexually abstinent students were more likely

than sexually active students to attend church regularly (76% vs. 64%) and to feel

that premarital sex was unacceptable (92% vs. 67%). Males who disapproved of

premarital sex were nearly three times as likely, and females who did so were

nearly seven times as likely, to abstain from sex as were their peers who held more

accepting views. Young women who did not have a sister who had experienced an

adolescent pregnancy were nearly six times more likely than those with such a

sibling to abstain from intercourse.

A substantial amount of research has been conducted in developed countries

on the negative outcomes that may accompany early sexual activity. Unprotected

sexual intercourse can result in unwanted pregnancies and abortions and places

young people at an increased risk of infection with HIV and other sexually

transmitted diseases. Moreover, pregnant adolescents may go on to become

adolescent mothers, who typically have low educational attainment and face
 18

economic disadvantage .Similar outcomes may occur in less-developed countries

such as the Philippines.

In the 1995 nationwide Young Adult Fertility Survey (YAFS) of 11,000

Filipino males and females aged 15-24, the majority (82%) reported never having

had sexual intercourse (74% of males and 89% of females). These results are

similar to those reported among young Filipino women in the first YAFS conducted

in 1982. The majority of young Filipino adults choose to abstain from sex until they

are married, perhaps as a consequence of the traditional values fostered through the

church, the family and like-minded peers. Given the risks of unprotected sexual

intercourse during the adolescent years, it is important to obtain a comprehensive

understanding of those factors associated with protective behaviors like sexual

abstinence, as well as to address the needs of young people who may be at risk of

engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse. Many diverse factors influence

adolescents' level of sexual risk-taking behaviors. Poverty, race, ethnicity,

religiosity, age at puberty, peer relations, school performance, involvement in other

risk-taking behaviors and family composition and relationships have all been

identified as determinants of adolescent sexual behavior among youths in the

United States.

Similar factors have been recognized as antecedents of premarital sex

among young adult Filipinos. Research indicates that Filipino youths as a whole

remain traditional in their values and actions regarding premarital sex. However,

continued research and updated assessments are needed to accurately examine both

the protective and high-risk behaviors and attitudes of Filipino youths. The aim of
 19

this study was to determine the correlates of sexual abstinence (defined as not

having had sex during one's lifetime) by examining those factors most likely to be

associated with adolescent premarital sexual intercourse. Understanding these

correlates will be useful in developing interventions to maintain protective

behavior.

Foreign Studies

Schools are the one in the society regularly attended by most young people –

nearly 95% of all youth aged 5-20 years are enrolled (National Statistics, 1993)

Furthermore, virtually all youth attend schools for years before they initiate sexual

risk-taking behaviors, and the majorities are enrolled at the time they initiate

intercourse. There are a variety of kinds of evidence suggesting that being in school

does reduce sexual risk – taking behavior. In a multitude of developing countries

around the world, as the percentage of girls completing elementary school has

increased over time the teen birth rates have decrease. In the United States, youth

who have dropped out of school are more likely to initiate sex earlier (Rindfuss,

1998), to fail to use contraception (Oslak, 1999), to become pregnant and to give

birth (Manlove, 1998). In addition, among youth who are in school, grater

attachment is associated with less sexual risk-taking. In particular, investment in

school, school involvement, attachment to school, or school performance have been

found to be related to age of initiation of sex, frequency of sex, pregnancy, and

childbearing. Plans to attend college are also related to invitation of sex, use of

condoms, use of contraception, pregnancy and child bearing (Blum, 2000).

 20

Given the threat of AIDS, as well as the threat of other STDs and

pregnancy, more than 300 schools without school-based clinics have begun making

the 92 schools which make condoms available to students through school – based

clinics. The number of condom obtained by students from school varies greatly

from program to program. In some schools student obtain very few condoms from

the school; white in other schools they obtain large numbers (Kirby & Brown,

1986). In general, when schools make condoms available in baskets (a barrier-free

method), students obtain many more condoms than when they must obtain condoms

from school personnel or from vending machines. Finally, if schools have clinics,

students obtain many more condoms than when schools do not have clinics.

Gender differences have also been absent in older adolescents (Wade, 1991)

and adults (Hayes et al., 1999), it is also possible that women’s self-esteem

increases and/or men’s self-esteem drops between adolescence and adulthood. One

reason for gender differences in self-esteem may be that people’s overall view of

themselves is based partly on how satisfied they are with their bodies, and body

satisfaction differs between man and women. Age trends in self-esteem might have

a similar basis if body satisfaction also varies with age.

Research on adolescent’s anxiety has been dominated by classical turmoil

theory and more recent normality theory. Turmoil theory emphasizes

psychodynamics, such as coming to terms with sexuality and identity, whereas

normality theory de-emphasizes turmoil and conflict (Collins, 1991). Recent

research into adolescence has been divided into psychobiological and psychosocial

areas. Dusek (1997) offered two models to explain the effect of biological change in
 21

adolescence. The direct-effects model proposes a direct relationship between

physiological changes and psychological development. However, the mediated-

effects model proposes a much wider range of responsibility for psychological

development, including individual, cultural, and social factors.

Fear, when defined a normal reaction to a real or imagined threat, has been

identified as a phenomenon from clinical fear or phobia (Gullone & King, 1993).

Ollendick, King, and Farry (1999) found that females and preadolescence reported

more fear than did males and adolescents. However, in a later study, no age effect

was found (Ollendick, Yule, & Oilier, 1991). Fear reactions, including panic attacks

and phobias, arise from three fundamental fears: anxiety sensitivity, fear of negative

evaluation, and injury/illness sensitivity (Taylor, 1993). Anxiety sensitivity, which

involves the fear of anxiety symptoms, occurs as a result of the belief that anxiety

has harmful somatic, psychological, or social consequences. According to Reiss

(1991), fundamental fears provide the basis for learning a wide range of stimuli,

while common fears do not.

For individuals attending residential colleges, this period of exploration may

be intensified by the experiences of living away from home for the first time, and

living in an environment surrounded by many social, political, religious, and

interest-related activities. In terms of sexuality, individuals are mire likely to be

sexually active in emerging adulthood compared to high-school, but they are also

less likely than younger individuals to use condoms (CDC, 2000). In addition,

college students feel more accepting of casual sex and feel less guilt about sex than

do younger individuals (Chara & Kuennen, 1994) love and dating are qualifiedly
 22

different during emerging adulthood than they are during adolescence, with more

focus on sexuality as its relates to developing once on identity (Arnett, 2000).

Most study on religiosity and sexuality has focus on sexual behaviors rather

than sexual attitudes (Samuels, 1997). These studies provide important information

about how religiosity maybe protective for individuals. Included sexual attitude

have focused on general conservatism permissiveness towards sex but have not

examine other attitudes that may place emerging adults at risk for negative

outcomes, such attitudes about HIV or condoms. During emerging adulthood,

attitudes about sexuality may develop and solidify, and thus religiosity has

important implications not only for sexual behaviors, but also for sexual attitudes.

In addition to research on identity and behavior, another relatively

frequently examine area is religious attitudes or the important of religion. Reference

group theory suggests that identifying with a particular religion will lead individuals

to avoid sexual behaviors because of the teachings of there religion, more religious

individuals engaged in fewer sexual activities and have more conservative attitudes

about sex. Less research has address perceptions of religion’s negative sanctions

towards sexual behavior or the adherence to these sanctions, if emerging adults use

there religious institutions as reference groups, then perceptions of there religions’

negative sanctions should influence their sexual behavior and attitudes.

A substantial amount of research indicates that parents play an important

role in the lives of children and adolescents (Henricson & Roker, 2000; Liddle,

Rowe, Dakof, & Lyke, 1998; Maccoby, 1992; Smetana, 1999), although there have

been claims to the contrary (Harris, 1998). According to recent research, supportive
 23

parenting is linked to adolescent self-esteem (Dekovic & Meeus, 1997; Spoth,

Redmond, Hockaday, & Yoo, 1996; Rice, 1990). Conversely, lack of parental

support is cited as a strong correlate of adolescent substance problems and

delinquent behavior (Simons, Lin, & Gordon, 1998).

Barber (1992) has linked poor parental supervision to adolescent problem

behavior. Frick (1993) has reported the association of low parental supervision and

lack of knowledge of the adolescent's activities with adolescent behavior problems.

Similar findings linking poor parental monitoring and adolescent behavior problems

were also reported by Ary and colleagues (1999) and Dishion and McMahon

(1998). Forehand, Miller, Dutra, and Chance (1997) found an association between

parental monitoring and lower levels of adolescent deviant behavior.

Perception plays an important role in behavior. Research suggests that the

adolescent's perception of the parenting behavior may have greater influence on

adolescent behavior. For example, researchers have found that a mother's report of

her disapproval was only weakly linked to lower teen sexuality. Instead, the

daughter's perception of the mother's views was related more powerfully to the

daughter's delaying sex (Jaccard, Dittus, & Gordon, 1998).

Similar studies examining these differences have found the adolescent's

perception of the parent's behavior to be more valid and predictive of adolescent

behavior. Gonzales, Cauce, and Mason (1996) examined agreement between

mothers and daughters of maternal support and maternal control against

independent observer ratings. It was found that adolescent ratings of these maternal

behaviors were more valid than those reported by the mother.

 24

Adolescent exploratory behavior involving positive and negative risks can

engender stress or insecurity and prompt the need for "felt security". One of the

critical dimensions of this felt security is the support provided by parents. Bowlby

(1993) explicitly referred to parental support as essential to firmly establish healthy

autonomy. According to Bowlby, "the family experience of those who grow up to

become relatively stable and self-reliant is characterized by unfailing parental

support". Thus, parental support, though narrower in scope, reflects attachment

bonds. The adolescent's internalized schema of parental support during adolescence

facilitates the adolescent's ability to safely negotiate autonomy toward healthy,

adaptive functioning.

In addition to support, perceptions of monitoring also coincide with

concepts in Bowlby's theory. Bowlby posits a second class of behaviors related to

attachment, which he labeled caregiving behavior. Bowlby defines caregiving as

"serving a complementary function, that of protecting the attached individual".

Bowlby refers to caregiving parents as likely to keep a watchful eye" and "ready to

act at the shortest notice". In adolescence, increased exploration and autonomy

require parental monitoring as reflected in knowledge of their adolescent's daily

activities and peer relationships. Parental monitoring, then, provides guidance in

navigating the environmental opportunities and dangers.

The enduring and pervasive influence of the parent-child bond is a hallmark

of attachment theory. As Bowlby stated, "for most individuals the bond to parents

continues into adult life and affects behavior in countless ways". The findings from

this study provide evidence that extends and partially confirms propositions in
 25

attachment theory. Attachment theory postulates that bonds with parents have an

important bearing on future relationships. The findings from studies provide

evidence that parental support, a crucial dimension of attachment, is related to peer

relations. According to an attachment model, parental support contributes to the

schema that the adolescent develops about relationships, and the schema provides a

basis for interpretation and action in relationships with peers.

Besides confirming the hypothesized link between parental bonds and peer

relations, the findings also provide evidence that parental support is associated with

positive perceptions of the self. Attachment theory does not directly advance an

explanation for the mechanism by which supportive parent bonds benefit the

individual's sense of oneself. One explanation consistent with attachment theory,

however, is that individual attachment schema includes the representation of the

image of the self in the parent's eyes. Another explanation is that the supportive

attachment promotes successful environmental experiences, and that these

successes result in positive self-esteem. Future longitudinal research might explore

these or other competing explanations for the relationship between support and self-

esteem.

The present studies also provides evidence for a link between parental

support and successful and safe expoloration of the environment. All of the risk

factors assessed in the study were lower in conditions of high parental support.

Adolescents who perceived their parents as supportive were more likely to have less

delinquency, school misconduct, drug, and alcohol abuse. The findings provide an

extension of attachment theory in suggesting that supportive relationships provide

 26

the adolescent with a coherent schema. The schema provides a map that allows for

judicious exploration of the environment and avoidance of problematic or

dangerous aspects of the environment.

It should be noted, however, that the links between parental support and risk

behaviors are more modest than the effects of parental support on self-esteem. The

rather modest association between parental support and risk indicates that other

factors enter the explanation of adolescent risk behavior. Commonly attributed

factors might include temperament or genetic predispositions toward risk taking. In

addition, peer relationship networks that support more risky behavior might also

contribute. There is some evidence in the current study that peer pressure could

mediate the process. Low parental support was related to greater importance of peer

pressure, which was in turn related to peer pressure, which was in turn related to

substance abuse and misconduct.

Besides attachment, present studies also examined a construct that we

hypothesized would be related to what Bowlby called a "complementary class" of

caregiving behaviors. Bowlby advanced the notion of a complementary class of

behaviors that served a parallel function, that of insuring the survival and adaptation

of the offspring.

The decision to engage in sexual behavior with another person is greatly

influenced by the level of emotional investment and love felt for the individual.

Although actual practice may not always follow expressed attitudes and

expectations perfectly (Cohen & Shotland, 1996), attitudes in the U.S. generally

indicate greater approval for sexual behavior in relationships characterized by more

 27

emotional investment or stronger commitment to the relationship. Several studies

have examined the extent to which people actually initiate sexual behavior in

specific emotional contexts or relationship stages (outside of the traditional

distinction between premarital and marital intercourse; (Cohen & Shotland, 1996).

Research has demonstrated that the likelihood of sexual behavior increases with

increasing intimacy, commitment, and progression to later stages of relationship

involvement.

Of course, not all sexual behavior is initiated in the context of developing or

established relationships. Some environments are more conducive to interest in

casual sexual behavior, such as with the college culture and the phenomenon of

hookups. A hookup is defined as "... a sexual encounter, usually lasting only one

night, between two people who are strangers or brief acquaintances" (Paul,

McManus, & Hayes, 2000). The two people typically have little expectation of

further involvement, with the sole or primary goal being to experience the sexual

encounter. A second example of sexual contexts that are not oriented toward

relationship enhancement is the tradition of taking trips on spring break vacation;

norms associated with spring break trips permit, and even promote, sexual

encounters between strangers with little expectation of further involvement

(Maticka-Tyndale, Herold, & Mewhinney, 1998). Moreover, some individuals are

more likely to be interested in casual sex than are others. For example, in one study

college students lower in self-esteem, higher in dispositional exhibitionism, less

likely to indicate a secure attachment style, and higher in some aspects of fear of

intimacy were more likely to experience hookups (Paul et al., 2000). However, the
 28

concern of the current investigation regarded factors that relate to the initiation of

sexual behavior between individuals who are interested in cultivating a long-term

relationship with one another. It is likely that the factors that affect the initiation

process in developing relationships is different from factors affecting the process

for people not interested in forming a relationship with a sexual partner.

Within the framework of the investment model of relationship commitment

( Rusbult, Martz, & Agnew, 1998), commitment is conceived to be influenced by

satisfaction with the relationship, the quality of alternatives to the relationship, and

investment of resources in the relationship. According to this model, satisfaction

contributes to a dependence on the relationship, a state in which individuals come to

rely uniquely on the relationship for desired outcomes. To the extent that others

outside of the relationship are not able to provide similar levels of desired

outcomes, commitment to the relationship is strengthened by the experience of

greater satisfaction. Intimacy is a major component of satisfaction that is often

uniquely available from a romantic relationship (Rusbult et al., 1998), and in the

current study emotional investment is conceived as an aspect of dependence on the

relationship for the experience of such intimacy. Because this type of unique

intimacy implies a special trust and a mutual concern for romantic partners'

feelings, sexual behavior generally becomes more likely with increasing intimacy

and emotional investment in a relationship, given that sexual involvement is

generally viewed as a highly restricted and uniquely private type of interaction.

Although research has established the major role of emotional investment

and relationship commitment in affecting the likelihood of sexual behavior, the

 29

specific behaviors that create the level of emotional investment relevant to initiation

of sexual behavior have yet to be thoroughly examined. Closeness and intimacy

have been measured in previous researches on sexual behavior employing global

evaluations of the level of intimacy characterizing the relationship: that is, ratings of

general, subjective impressions of the overall nature of the relationship. The

exception to this approach is the study by Christopher and Cate (1995); in which in

that study, couples were asked about the types of behaviors related to maintaining

the relationship in which they had engaged at various stages of the relationship. The

occurrence of such behaviors was linked to the timing of the initiation of sexual

behavior. However, few other studies have focused on this level of behavioral

specificity. Within the investment model, satisfaction has been measured employing

global assessments of overall satisfaction levels in a relationship at a particular

point in time. Yet, such impressions are presumably based on individual

interactions with a romantic partner over an extended period of time. Specific

actions, gestures, expressions, and verbalizations combine to create rewarding

emotional experiences in given situations that accumulate to create such overall

perceptions of satisfaction.

Within the framework of the investment model of relationship commitment

( Rusbult et al., 1998), rewards are assumed to accumulate over time within

satisfying relationships, increasing satisfaction and commitment. However, very

little research has been conducted to document the process through which greater

levels of satisfaction develop from rewarding interactions in the relationship. That

is, research has not focused on the specific nature and type of the interpersonal
 30

transactions that constitute the rewards. In a related vein, the specific types of

rewarding interactions that increase the likelihood of sexual behavior in a particular

situation have not received substantial attention. Yet, a detailed and thorough

understanding of exactly how emotional intimacy and commitment lead to sexual

involvement is possible only by examining specific interactions and the specific

factors that promote intimate interactions (c.f. Hill, 1996, 1997b; Mischel, 1999).

Increasingly, evidence indicates that behavior occurs as a joint probability of

both situational and personal factors (Vansteelandt & Van Mechelen, 1998). That

is, behaviors do not occur unconditionally (with 100% probability) given the

presence of a single, albeit very important, factor, such as the development of a high

level of general intimacy in a relationship. Rather, the probability of a specific

behavior is determined by "if ... then ..." conditionality (Mischel & Shoda, 1995,

1998). This means that for a given type of personal characteristic, if a particular

type of situation occurs then a specific behavior will occur.

From the conditional probability perspective, the likelihood of sexual

behavior occurring within a relationship may be viewed as jointly determined by

the level of emotional investment felt in the relationship and by the occurrence of a

sexually instigating situation. Even given a high level of intimacy in a relationship,

some specific event, condition, or interaction takes place that causes individuals to

experience sexual interest, and defines sexual behavior as possible and appropriate

in that situation. Individuals involved in highly intimate relationships do not behave

intimately with one another all the time in all interactions; rather, they engage in

intimate behaviors only in particular, intimacy-appropriate situations. This is

 31

especially true with sexual behavior, given the highly regulated and restrictive rules

governing the appropriateness of this type of behavior.

Extrapolating from the conditional probability view (Mischel & Shoda,

1995, 1998), it is expected that the if/then relationship for sexually conducive

situations and sexual behavior varies across stages of relationship involvement.

Relationship stage may be expected to modify perceptions of the sexually

conducive situation in terms of the degree to which it is sexually arousing and the

degree to which sexual behavior is appropriate. The first aspect of the hypothesis

guiding the current study, therefore, was that individuals will indicate greater

likelihood of engaging in sexual behavior in response to sexually inviting behavior

of a hypothetical partner (the sexually conducive situation) at more established

relationship stages (i.e., involved in a long-term, committed relationship) compared

to less-established relationship stages (i.e., involved in a dating relationship for a

short time).

Yet another qualification of the relationship between the sexually conducive

situation and the relationship stage is the specific way in which the situation

provides the opportunity for sexual behavior. An especially significant factor in

determining whether behavior will occur is the nature of the rewards or positive

.experiences afforded by the situation (Heckhausen, 1991), with situations varying

in the extent to which they provide particular rewarding experiences. In the case of

sexual behavior, a major factor affecting whether sexual behavior will be perceived

as a rewarding experience is the degree to which it is linked to emotional

investment, as indicated previously. The occurrence of a sexually conducive

 32

situation in itself may not be expected to result in sexual behavior, in some. cases

even in the context of a more established relationship. To the extent that a sexually

relevant situation conveys or reinforces perceptions of emotional

investment, sexual behavior will be more likely to be perceived as rewarding and as

less likely to involve substantial cost ( Cohen & Shotland, 1996; Sprecher et al.,

1995).

To examine various types of sexually relevant situations that differ in terms

of emotional investment, a recent theoretical model of factors that motivate sexual

behavior (Hill, 1997a; Hill & Preston, 1996) was employed to identify dimensions

that influence perceptions of investment in sexual situations. The model maintains

that the availability or perceived likelihood of eight types of rewarding

interpersonal experiences, called incentives, increases sexual interest and the

probability of sexual behavior. These incentives are the rewards or goals of a given

interpersonal situation that motivate sexual behavior. The emotional experiences

perceived to result from interaction with a partner therefore constitute the rewarding

experience or incentive available in that situation.

Within this framework, pairs of the incentives may be conceived as

counterparts to one another, in that one incentive in a pair focuses on actions and

emotions of an individual and the counterpart incentive focuses on actions and

emotions of the partner. Specifically, one pair of sexual incentives involves a sense

of affection and positive regard resulting from sexual interaction: feeling valued by

one's partner and expressing value for one's partner.

 33

A second pair of incentives is related to compassion: providing nurturance

and comfort to one's partner and receiving comfort and relief from stress or

negative emotional states. A third pair involves expressions of power: exerting

power or feeling powerful over one's partner and submitting to the power of one's

partner. The remaining two incentives, experiencing pleasure and sensuality and

wanting to procreate, are not counterparts in same way as the above three pairs.

However, previous research (Hill, 1997a; Hill & Preston, 1996) suggests that a

pleasure orientation may be somewhat contrary to a procreation orientation, with a

focus on procreation involving a negative attitude about pleasure.

Situations explicitly conveying emotional investment. Partner behaviors

providing two specific pairs of incentives are hypothesized to explicitly

communicate a sense of emotional investment in the individual and in the

relationship: the affection incentives and the compassion incentives. This is because

they focus on the individual as a unique, valuable, and worthy person. Explicitly

expressing feelings of affection and attraction for a person, or focusing on positive

features, implies that the partner will desire future contact and is likely to engage in

similarly positive interactions in the future. Consequently, the sexual incentives of

feeling valued by partner or expressing value for partner are hypothesized to

enhance the sense of emotional investment, trustworthiness, and intimacy within an

interaction.

Expressing concern for negative events that have happened to the partner

and attempting to soothe feelings of stress, anger, and unhappiness (relevant to the

nurturance sexual incentive) even more directly conveys a sense of emotional

 34

investment in the partner. The counterpart behavior of indicating a desire for

support and understanding (relevant to the need for comfort sexual incentive) is also

likely to bolster the perception of emotional investment because of the trust and

confidence implied by the request for support (Collins & Feeney, 2000).

A fifth incentive, procreation, is additionally proposed to strongly

communicate a sense of emotional investment. Wanting to have a child with a

person explicitly indicates an interest in establishing and maintaining intimacy, and

being cooperative and supportive in raising the children. Interest in having children

with a partner may also imply that an individual will be concerned about the well-

being of the children and the partner in the future. This goes to the heart of the

phenomenon of commitment, and indicates the potential for emotional investment

in the partner. Within the investment model (Rusbult et al., 1998), expressing an

interest in having children would be conceptualized as an interest in investing very

important resources, a major factor in increasing commitment to the relationship. In

sexually relevant situations, conveying the desire to have children with a partner

affords the sexual incentive of procreation.

Situations not explicitly conveying emotional investment. Partner behaviors

related to the remaining three incentives (partner power, power, and pleasure) were

not assumed to convey a sense of emotional investment in the absence of additional

information provided by an ongoing, enduring relationship. Nonetheless, in some

contexts the opportunity to express or experience power produces sexual arousal

and excitement rather than fear, anger, revulsion, or other negative emotional

reactions for both men and women ( Hill, 1996, 1997a). Many individuals interested
 35

in expressions of power engage in power-related forms of sexual behavior to satisfy

sexual fantasies and obtain sexual gratification (Arndt, 1991), rather than to serve as

a means of expressing anger toward or intimidating their partner.

Although associations between power and sex may be related to sexual

aggression (Zurbriggen, 2000), other elements must come into play in order for the

power-sex-aggression linkage to develop. These additional factors may include

possession of lower levels of dispositional responsibility (Zurbriggen, 2000), biased

perception by men of women's hostility toward unwanted sexual advances

(Malamuth & Brown, 1994), positive attitudes of men toward violence against

women, generalized hostility by men toward women, general acceptance of

interpersonal violence in nonsexual situations, and specific attraction toward sexual

coercion. Research has generally indicated that no single factor individually

accounts for the tendency to engage in sexual coercion ( Zurbriggen,

2000).Nonetheless without the existence of prior mutual understandings and

experirnces, behaviors involving the expression of power may suggest a lack of

concern for partner a concerns about gaining an advantage over the partner, or a

desire to obtain somathing against a person’s will, to embarass or humiliate, or even

to physically hurt the person ( Byers and O’Sullivcan,1998). Ar minimum, power-

assertive behaviors typically do not actively reinforce the sense that an individual is

concerned about the well-being and self-esteem of the partner; instead, power-

assertive behaviore cast the partner in a low-status , potentially semeaning position.

Because of the inherent message of being concerned with one’s own well-being and

superior status, therefore power assertive behaviors were hypothesized not to

 36

inherently communicate a sense of trustworthiness or emotional investment in the

partner.

Even partner behaviors indicating a willingness to be controlled and

dominated may involve motivations that are not necessarily based on any special

investment in a romantic partner. Instead, the act of submission may be construed in

more negative ways in earlier stages of a relationship, or even in the later stages if

the behavior is uncharacteristic of a long-term relationship partner. However, the

intentions of a partner one has known for only a short period of time will

necessarily be less clear than those of a more familiar partner (Davila, Karney, &

Bradbury, 1999; Klohnan & John, 1998). In this case, willingness to be submissive

may be perceived as strange and bizarre, possibly indicating unstable or

maladaptive tendencies; alternatively, it could be perceived as an attempt to convey

a false sense of weakness for the purpose of masking a strategy to disadvantage or

harm the individual. For these reasons, behaviors relevant to both the power and

partner power incentives (sexual incentives e and f above) are conceived as not

inherently conveying a sense of emotional investment in the relationship partner.

Likewise, without further information provided by significant experience with a

relationship partner, attempts to engage in pleasure and physical sensuality suggest

a self-focus with no necessary regard for the individual. Traditionally, a focus on

physical, carnal aspects of sexuality has been viewed as antithetical to, and even

destructive of, loftier, more spiritual elements of intimacy (Bullough & Bullough,

1995). Unless it occurs in the context of other indicators of emotional investment in

a partner, the sense that an individual is strongly interested in experiencing physical

 37

stimulation and gratification with a partner conveys no intrinsic sense of emotional

investment in and commitment to the maintenance of the relationship.

Consequently, in potentially sexual situations, behaviors relevant to pleasure

(sexual incentive above) were hypothesized not to explicitly convey a sense of

emotional investment.

Virtually without exception, women report dramatically more negative

feelings about sexual behavior between individuals who have little emotional

investment in one another, although women and men express more similar and

more positive feelings about sexual behavior in loving or committed relationships

(Cohen & Shotland, 1996; Oliver & Hyde, 1993). The greater emphasis by women

on the importance of sexual behavior occurring within a caring, committed

relationship is consistent with the demands of female gender-role norms. A central

feature of such norms is a valuing of interpersonal warmth and an orientation to

maintaining relationships (Wood, Christensen, Hebl, & Rothgerber, 1997).

In keeping with their more permissive sexual attitudes, men expect to

engage in sexual behavior earlier in a relationship (Cohen & Shotland, 1996) and

are more likely to expect sex regardless of the physical attractiveness of the partner

and in the absence of emotional closeness (Cohen & Shotland, 1996). Likewise,

men report desiring more frequent sex than is actually occurring at the time in the

relationship in which they are involved, particularly in its earlier stages. Given the

greater concern of woman about emotional investment, it is logical to expect that

the extent to which sexual behavior is perceives as positive and desirable will

depend to a much greater extent foe women than men on whether it is linked to
 38

intimacy and commitment. For this reason, men were hypothesized to indicate

greater likelihood of sexual behavior than women at earlier relationship stages,

when the oppurtunity for sexual behavior occurs in situations not explicitly

conveying emotional investment.Yet, self-reported likelihood of sexual behavior

was expected to be equivalent for women and men with lower investment

situations at more involved relationship stages; this is because emotional investment

and commitment are typically more established in the relationship itself at these

stages. In other words, for sexual situations not intrisincally conveying emotional

investment, a statistical interaction between relationship stage and gender was

predicted, with self reported likelihood of sexual behavior affected by relationship

stage to a greater extent for women and men. Again, this predicted pattern contrasts

with that expected for situations conveying greater emotional investment, as

indicated previously.

Research based on the eight-dimension model of sexual motivation has

supported the existence of stable differences in the value individuals place on each

of the eight incentives (Hill & Preston, 1996). Enduring interest in a sexual

incentive is referred to as a dispositional sexual motive, in keeping with the more

general concept of dispositional motive (Heckhausen, 1991). The nature of

individuals' reactions to sexual incentives afforded in a given situation will be

determined, at least to some extent, by the strength of their dispositional motives.

Strong interest in an available incentive is likely to lead to an increased

motivational state and intensified behavior focused on experiencing the incentive,

with less dispositional interest likely to be related to lower levels of motivation and
 39

behavior. For example, an individual with a strong dispositional power motive

would be expected to react differently to a situation in which a partner indicated a

willingness to be dominated, compared to how an individual with less of a power

motive would react to such a partner. The strong-motive individual would be more

likely to display signals indicating increased psychological and physical arousal in

this situation, to become more alert to further signals of interest from the partner, to

attempt strategies of inspiring further interest by the partner in power-related sexual

behavior, and to attempt to initiate power-related sexual behaviors. In the same type

of situation, the individual with less of a power motive would react to such a partner

with little or no increase in arousal and few or no behaviors directed at initiating

power-related sexual behaviors.

Consequently, the dispositional strength of interest in each of the eight

sexual incentives was measured to control for differences in reactions to the

hypothetical interpersonal situations presented to participants in the current study.

To examine the effect of differences among situations in terms of the emotional

investment conveyed by the hypothetical partner, participants were asked to

respond to partner behaviors described in eight scenarios regarding their likelihood

of engaging in sexual behavior with the partner. By controlling for individual

differences in sexual motives, effects on likelihood ratings by gender and

relationship stage were independent of variations due to dispositional sexual

motivation. Moreover, the relationship of dispositional sexual motives to reactions

to each of the situations served as a type of empirical verification of the

motivational theme of each situation. For example, establishing that the nurturance
 40

sexual motive correlates with sexual behavior in the situation in which a

hypothetical partner needs comfort and support provides evidence for the proposal

that the situation is focused on nurturance.

Local Studies

Sexual attitudes and behavior differ from one group of Filipino youth to

another, depending on their social class, educational level, and place of residence.

In metropolitan and large cities, Manila, Quezon, Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, Dumaquete,

and Zamboanga, adolescents and young adults are exposed to the cosmopolitan life

and consequently receive more information on sex and sexuality. They are also

freer to experience numerous options than are less educated youths. Despite the

guilt and shame associated with sex, middle- and upper-class urban youth often

engage in sexual contacts with girlfriends, household maids, and even prostitutes.

For the youths of the poverty belts around the big cities, the situation is

compounded by the lack of money and self-control (Laurel, S. H. 1999).

Even if they would prefer to use a contraceptive, they cannot afford them

and there are no places where they can get them free. Oral contraceptives are only

given free to married women for family planning purposes by government-run city

and municipal health clinics. Although condoms were distributed freely in public

high schools in the early 1990s on a mandate from the Secretary of Health as part of

an STD and HIV prevention program, this practice was later discontinued because

of a public outcry that it was ineffective and because of the Church’s persistent

objections. (Duchene, L de B. 1997) The situation for rural (barrios) youth is quite
 41

different. They learn and receive information about sex and sexual behavior from

observing farm animals, from magazines, from clandestine “boys only” meetings,

and from the relations between parents and other family members in homes where

there is little privacy.

The prevailing Catholic dogma on sexual morality is written deep in the

unconsciousness of every boy and girl. Only a few years ago, 98 percent of the

youth associated premarital sex with guilt and sin. Only recently has this begun to

change. In 1994, the Youth Adult Sexuality Survey (Zablan,1994) revealed that

about 18 percent accepted premarital sex, although a majority of 80 percent still

believed it was a sin and morally unacceptable. It is becoming increasingly clear

that first premarital sexual activities are initiated at an earlier age, especially for

those in metropolitan areas, where the basic family structure often disintegrates

because of a lack of parental supervision, with both parents working or the father

absent and perhaps working overseas.

Young males pursuing college and graduate studies in the city are often

detached from parental supervision and frequently succumb to the lure of

metropolitan temptations, go-go bars, and adult entertainment houses. Among girls,

the memories of being deflowered were somewhat different from those of the boys.

Because of guilt and shame, the majority of young females did not bother to get

prior information about sexual intercourse and the possible consequences of their

first sexual encounters. They perceived their first intercourse as the fulfillment of

young love, motivated by peer pressure to keep their boyfriends, and at the same
 42

time as a “challenge” to parental authority or a gross transgression of a religious or

social taboo.

For the well-educated and sophisticated city dwellers, it was a calculated act

to get rid of the old-fashioned social taboo (virginity), which they perceived as an

obstacle to entering into a more mature and fulfilling sexual life, or plainly to catch

the men of their dreams. It is interesting to note that, compared with the United

States and other industrialized nations, Filipino teenagers are probably less sexually

active; thus teenage pregnancy is less of a problem than elsewhere.

 43

Chapter III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Presented in this section are the description of the methods used in the

research, how data were gathered and eventually how long they were processed and

treated statistically.

Research Design

The descriptive method was used in determining the self-esteem profile of

the randomly selected virgin and non virgin B.S. Nursing students.

According to De Silva (1998), young people are in a major transitional life

stage as they start to disengage from their family and are eager to achieve

independence through risky actions. As such they are oftentimes characterized as

risk-takers and pleasure-seekers with sex as one of the array of risky behaviors

which they engage in.

The study itself will demonstrate whether there is a significant difference

between the self esteem of virgins and non virgins.

 44

Selection and Description of the Respondents

According to the Registrars Office of La Consolacion College the second

semester of the school year 2005-2006 comprises 894 enrolled Nursing students. Of

the 894 students, the researchers employed the random sampling technique in order

to come up with the appropriate number of respondents authenticated by the

registrar’s office, to generate the desired statistical data and the appropriate number

of thirty (30) virgin and thirty (30) non-virgin female students of La Consolacion

College from first year to fourth year college contingency technique was used

congruent to the self-esteem profile.

Instrumentation

Self-esteem, the way people feel about themselves, is closely related to the

sense of identity of people, the formulation of which is a developmental task of

early adolescence. It is important, as an early adolescent, to both develop and

maintain good feelings about oneself. In this study, the Coopersmith Self-Esteem

Inventory (CSI) was used to measure the self esteem profile of nursing students of

La Consolacion College.

The twenty-five (25) items SEI is designed to measure and evaluate attitudes

toward the self in social, academic, family, and personal areas of experiences.

The CSI can be scored in a few minutes by using the scoring keys for the

term that have been administered.

A Woman’s Health Questionnaire (WHQ), which comprises fourteen (14)

items includes about female reproductive health. These items were created from
 45

literature and consultation from an obstetrician-gynecology specialist. WHQ is

designed to determine if the respondents involved in this study is a virgin or non-

virgin. It is also carefully employed and analyzed in order to be more comfortable

in answering the items and to avoid the confusion that may be subject to different

interpretations.

Data Gathering Procedure

In order to gather data on this study, respondents from the nursing

department of La Consolacion College will be receiving a composite health

questionnaire sheet and Coppersmith’s Self-Esteem Inventory (CSI) after which

several will be interviewed for further analysis and reliance. The score that will be

gathered will analyze the self-esteem profile of the respondents using Statistical

procedures.250 Women’s Health Questionnaire and 250 Coppersmith’s Self-

Esteem Inventory (CSI) was distributed to the 500 respondents to attain thirty (30)

virgins and thirty (30) non virgins and to acquire significance towards their self-

esteem

Statistical Treatment

In order for the interpretation and analysis of the data accumulated by the

researchers to be credible, the sampling technique adapted was the random

sampling method.

The researcher used the following formula:

1. Percentage
 46

P= n
N X 100

Where:

p- percentage

n- number of responses in a particular criteria

N- number of respondents

2. Mean

X=Σx

Where:

X-mean average

Σ- sum of scores

N-number of scores

3. t - Test of Independence

Where:

X1= mean of the first group

X2= mean of the second group

S1= standard deviation of the first group

S2= standard deviation of the second group

N1=total of the first group

N2= total of the second group

 47

Chapter IV

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF

DATA

This chapter deals mainly with the presentation, analysis and interpretation

of data. The results and findings are presented in tables 2 and 3.

Question1. What is the self esteem level of the participants when grouped

according to:

a. Virgins

b. Non virgins

Table 1

Percentage

Virgins

P = n 418 = 83.6%
N x 100 (500) (100)

Non – Virgins

P = n 82 = 16.4%
N x 100 (500) (100)
 48

Figure 2

Percentage Graph of Respondents

16.4%

83.6%

Table 2

Self Esteem Profile of Virgins and Non-virgins

Group Mean Interpretation

Virgin 65.333 Average
Non Virgin 73.933 Average
 49

To come up with the right number of respondents, the Adult Form of the

SEI was given to 500 Nursing students ranging from 16-19 years old from La

Consolacion College in Manila.

Table 2 shows the mean difference in scores between virgins and non

virgins. Although it shows that there’s a big difference with the score obtained, the

interpretation still came up average as 65.333 and 73.933 falls in the average

percentile rank.

Question 2.Is there a significant difference between the self esteem profile of

virgins and non virgins?

Table 3
Significance of their Self Esteem

Interpretati
ComputedValue Table Value on
1.954 2.000 Not Significant
df=58
level of significance= 0.05

The exploratory T-test confirms that there is no significance between the

self esteem level of sexually active females and non sexually active females.

Normality Test: Passed: (P=0.058)

Equal Variance Test: Passed :( P=0.210)

 50

Group N Missing

Virgin 30 0

Non virgin 30 0

Group Mean SEM

Virgin 65.333 2.775

Non virgin 73.933 3.415

Difference -8.600

t= -1.954 with 58 degrees of freedom ( P=0.005)

To come up with the right number of respondents, which are thirty (30)

virgins and thirty (30) non virgins, the Adult Form of the SEI was given to 500

Nursing students ranging from 16-19 years old from La Consolacion College in

Manila.

Table 1 shows the mean difference in scores between virgins and non

virgins. Although shown that there’s a big difference with the score obtained, the

interpretation still came up average as 65.333 and 73.933 falls in the average

percentile rank. The exploratory T-test confirms that there is no significance

between the self esteem level of sexually active females and nonsexually active

female
 51

Chapter V

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter presents the summary of findings conclusions and

recommendations.

Summary

As with the many psychological phenomena, scientific progress in

understanding self-esteem has two key requirements. The first is the clarity of

definition: what is self-esteem? The second is the availability of the procedures to

measure self-esteem. There is also, of course, a mutual dependence between these

two requirements.

A difficulty whether low self-esteem does in reality have consequences for

behavior is not the absence of evidence but its highly variable quality. The most

informative research is longitudinal. It follows the same individuals over time,

preferably a period of several years, and in such a way as to detect changes in both

self esteem and behavior of interest over that period. It should also control for the

effects of other factors; most problem behaviors have multiple causes and multiple
 52

risk factors. This review gave most weight to research that meets these

requirements.

Based on the statistical treatment the study obtained 16.4 % of non virgin

and 84.6% virgins of La Consolacion College. The selected thirty (30) virgin and

thirty (30) non virgin shows that the self esteem profile are average. The t-test

showed a t-value of -1.954 between the two groups at 0.05 level of significance,

with degrees of freedom of 58 results found no differences towards the self esteem

level of the respondents.

Conclusions

Teenagers now evolve in the 21st century. With the belief of not being “in” if

being a virgin in contrast to other research, this research showed that sexual

involvement and nonsexual involvement does not affect self esteem. Retaining

virginity is not a factor towards self esteem, it is a matter on how one views him/her

self, goes as well with losing ones virginity. Thus, religious beliefs, parents, peers

and other factors such as age, socio economic status did not support the hypothesis

due to time constriction and research mainly concentrated towards the self esteem

level of sexually active and non sexually active students of the said institution.

These factors may have aided the teens in adapting in building self concept

In conclusion, by obtaining an even score or average in the self esteem level

of the respondents, the study strongly supports the assertion that teenagers engaging

in sexual activity and decides to stay in the sanctity of virginity does not affect self

esteem at all. Therefore, gaining insignificance.

 53

Recommendations

1. The study covered the respondents from La

Consolacion College Manila measuring the self-esteem level of virgin and non

virgin students.

2. Based on the result of the data gathered, it is recommended that further

studies be conducted with more modified subject selection.

4. This study is recommended to the college students, to be safe and matured in

engaging towards sexual activity.

 54

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1

Random sample and percentile score of virgins and non virgins

VIRGINS NON VIRGINS

1 Random Sample Percentile Score Random Sample Percentile Score
2 19 76 12 48
3 23 92 18 72
4 11 44 13 52
5 17 68 25 100
6 14 56 22 88
7 13 52 24 96
8 15 60 21 84
9 16 64 25 100
10 25 100 18 72
11 21 84 21 84
12 12 48 13 52
13 19 76 23 92
14 11 44 22 88
15 24 96 19 76
16 19 76 13 52
17 18 72 11 44
18 12 48 24 96
19 19 76 24 96
20 14 56 24 96
21 17 68 14 56
22 16 64 14 56
23 16 64 22 88
24 12 48 13 52
25 13 52 17 68
26 12 48 14 56
27 15 60 21 84
28 15 60 21 84
29 20 80 12 78
30 17 68 16 64
31 15 60 11 44

.
 60

Appendix 2

Vicinity Map of La Consolacion College

 61

La Consolacion Centro Escolar

College, Manila University

Malacanang
College of
the Holy
San Beda College
Spirit

T
LR
 62

Appendix 3

Coopersmith Self Esteem Inventory

Name___________________________________

Like Unllike
me me

O O 1. Things usually don’t bother me

O O 2. I find it very hard to talk in front of a group
O O 3. There are lots of things about myself I’d like to change
O O 4. I can make up my mind without too much trouble
O O 5. I’m a lot of fun to be with
O O 6. I get upset easily at home
O O 7. It takes me a long time to get used to anything new
O O 8. I’m popular with persons my own age
O O 9. My family usually considers my felling
O O 10. I give in very easily
O O 11. My family expects too much of me
O O 12. It’s pretty tough to be me
O O 13. Things are all mixed up in my life
O O 14. People usually follow my ideas
O O 15. I have a low opinion of myself
O O 16. There are times when I would like to leave home
 63

O O 17. I often feel upset with my work

O O 18. I am not as nice looking as most people
O O 19. If I have something to say. I usually say it
O O 20. My family understands me
O O 21. Most people are better liked than I am
O O 22. I usually feel as if my family is pushing me
O O 23. I often get discouraged with what I am doing
O O 24. I often with I were someone else
O O 25. I can’t be depended