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SEKOLAH MENENGAH KEBANGSAAN TAMAN

KOSAS,
AMPANG, SELANGOR DARUL EHSAN.

Assignment: BIOLOGY - Chapter 9 -
Endangered Species

Name:
Identification Card Number:
Class/Year:
Teachers Name:

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Contents

Introduction 1

Human Activities That Threaten the Ecosystem
and the Impact of the Human Activities 2 - 27

Types of pollution and sources of pollution 27 - 31

Effects of pollution on living things and 31 - 34
environment

Strategies to solve problems related to air and 34 - 35
water pollution

Green House Effect 36 - 40

Relationship between concentration of carbon 41 - 46
dioxide in the atmosphere with global warming

Thinning of ozone layer and the impact on 47 - 49
ecosystem



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Introduction

An endangered ecosystem is a natural environment that is threatened with collapse
and disappearance due to human activity, pollution and species extinction or
overpopulation among other factors. Living and non-living entities interact form
interdependent relationships and exchange energy and matter in ecosystems that can be as
large as the planet or as small as a fishbowl. When the interdependence between an
environments species and physical and chemical factors is disrupted, the ecosystem
becomes endangered and can possibly disintegrate completely. The consequences of
ecosystem collapse include mass extinction, species populations surging beyond control,
disruption of human food supplies, erosion, flooding, and acceleration of climate
change and the disintegration of large regions of the natural environment.

There are many natural and human causes of an endangered ecosystem, causes that
often disrupt an ecosystems food chain and physical environment. Overfishing of a
particular aquatic species such as sharks or Bluefin tuna can detrimentally impact a food
chain by depleting large predators that keep smaller species populations from surging out of
control. Without large predators, many species will breed beyond the immediate
environments ability to support them thus resulting in resource and food diminution and an
endangered ecosystem.

When the resources of the current ecosystem are exhausted, an overbred species
may then move to a new environment where it may become invasive and destructive.
Species can also be introduced into an ecosystem by man in an effort to control the
population of a native animal or insect but have a disruptive effect instead.
Pollutants can have a domino effect on an endangered ecosystem by destroying the
physical environment and killing or mutating species. For example, a pollutant introduced
into an aquatic ecosystem can kill the plants that the larger fish and crustaceans consume.
These herbivore species begin to die and thus deplete the food sources of the systems
carnivorous predators that also perish in large numbers or migrate to a new ecosystem in
search of sustenance. Additionally pollutants can cause an ecosystems species to mutate
resulting in everything from infertility to extra limbs and crippling physical defects.
Construction, development and other human activities including hunting can result
in an endangered ecosystem. Improperly managed or excessive hunting can weaken the
population of a species by removing animals faster than they can breed and thus interrupt
the food chain. Construction and development may destroy an ecosystems physical
environment that the living species depend on for survival. Unless the endangered
ecosystems species can be successfully relocated they may be threatened with extinction.


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Human Activities That Threaten The Ecosystem And The
Impact Of The Human Activities.
Causes:
Agriculture



Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which take place
on a global scale. Global warming is projected to have significant impacts on conditions
affecting agriculture, including temperature, precipitation and glacial run-off. These
conditions determine the carrying capacity of the biosphere to produce enough food for
the human population and domesticated animals. Rising carbon dioxide levels would also
have effects, both detrimental and beneficial, on crop yields. The overall effect of climate
change on agriculture will depend on the balance of these effects. Assessment of the effects
of global climate changes on agriculture might help to properly anticipate and adapt farming
to maximize agricultural production.
At the same time, agriculture has been shown to produce significant effects on
climate change, primarily through the production and release of greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, but also by altering the Earth's land cover,
which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light, thus contributing to forcing.
Land change such as deforestation and desertification, together with use of fossil fuels, are
the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide; agriculture itself is the major
contributor to increasing methane and nitrous oxide concentrations in earth's atmosphere.


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Fishing



Involve the availability of fish to be caught, such as overfishing, sustainable fisheries,
and fisheries management; and issues that involve the impact of fishing on other elements
of the environment, such as by-catch. These conservation issues are part of marine
conservation, and are addressed in fisheries science programs. There is a growing gap
between how many fish are available to be caught and humanitys desire to catch them, a
problem that gets worse as the population grows. Similar to other environmental issues,
there can be conflict between the fishermen who depend on fishing for their livelihoods and
fishery scientists who realise that if future fish populations are to be sustainable then some
fisheries must reduce or even close.

Topsoil loss
The industrialization of agriculture during the last 150 years, specifically the
widespread use of fossil fuel powered farm machinery for ploughing, has resulted in massive
top soil loss. Soils are currently lost at the rate of inches per decade while it takes hundreds
of years for one inch of new topsoil to form.

Palm oil
Included loss of carbon-sequestering forest land. There is also concern over
displacement and disruption of human and animal populations due to palm oil cultivation.


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Irrigation



The changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as a result of irrigation and the
ensuing effects on natural and social conditions at the tail-end area of the river basin and
downstream of an irrigation scheme. The impacts stem from the changed hydrological
conditions owing to the installation and operation of the scheme.
An irrigation scheme often draws water from the river and distributes it over the
irrigated area. As a hydrological result it is found that:
the downstream river discharge is reduced
the evaporation in the scheme is increased
the groundwater recharge in the scheme is increased
the level of the water table rises
the drainage flow is increased

Meat production
Environmental effects are the pollution through fossil fuel usage, and water and land
consumption. Meat is obtained through a variety of methods, including organic
farming, free range farming, intensive livestock production, subsistence
agriculture, hunting and fishing.


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Energy industry



Biodiesel - High use of bio-diesel leads to land use changes including deforestation.



Coal mining and burning - Included the consideration of issues such as land use, waste
management, and water and air pollution caused by the coal mining, processing and the
use of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning produces
hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including fly ash, bottom
ash, and desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and
other heavy metals.

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Electricity generation - Significant because modern society uses large amounts of
electrical power.



Nuclear power - Results from the nuclear fuel cycle, operation, and the effects
of accidents. The routine health risks and greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear

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fission power are small relative to those associated with coal, oil and gas.
However, there is a "catastrophic risk" potential if containment fails,
[1]
which in
nuclear reactors can be brought about by over-heated fuels melting and releasing
large quantities of fission products into the environment. The public is sensitive to
these risks and there has been considerable public opposition to nuclear power.



Oil shale industry - Included the consideration of issues such as land use, waste
management, and water and air pollution caused by the extraction and processing of oil
shale. Surface mining of oil shale deposits causes the usual environmental impacts
of open-pit mining. In addition, the combustion and thermal processing generate waste
material, which must be disposed of, and harmful atmospheric emissions,
including carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas. Experimental in-situ conversion
processes and carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce some of these
concerns in future, but may raise others, such as the pollution of groundwater.

Reservoirs - Comes under ever increasing scrutiny as the global demand for water and
energy increases and the number and size of reservoirs increases.


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Petroleum - Often negative because it is toxic to almost all forms of life.



Wind power - Relatively minor, slightly higher than the environmental impact of hydro
power on a life-cycle basis. Unlike electricity derived from fossil fuel-powered generating

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plants and nuclear power plants, wind power consumes no fuel and emits no air
pollution in operation.

Manufactured products



Cleaning agents - The consequences of chemicals contained in the products that
are essential for their effectiveness.

Nanotechnology - Possible effects that the use of Nano technological materials and
devices will have on the environment.

Paper - Significant, which has led to changes in industry and behaviour at both
business and personal levels.


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Paint - Traditional painting materials and processes can have harmful effects on the
environment, including those from the use of lead and other additives.



Pesticides

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Pharmaceuticals and personal care products



Mining
Included erosion, formation of sinkholes, loss of biodiversity, and
contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water by chemicals from mining
processes.

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Transport

Creates air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a
significant contributor to warming through emission of carbon dioxide,
[1]
for which
transport is the fastest-growing emission sector. By subsector, road transport is the
largest contributor to global warming.



Aviation - occurs because aircraft engines emit noise, and particulates and gases
which contribute to climate change.

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Roads - include the local effects of highways (public roads) such as on noise,
water, habitat destruction/disturbance and local air quality; and the wider effects
which may include climate change from vehicle emissions.



Shipping - Includes greenhouse gas emissions and oil pollution.

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War
Scorched earth methods during, or after wars have been in use for much of
recorded history but with modern technology war can cause a far greater
devastation on the environment. Unexploded ordnance can render land unusable for
further use, or make access across it dangerous or fatal.

















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Effects of unplanned development and mismanagement of the ecosystem:

Soil erosion.



Definition: Soil erosion occurs when soil is removed through the action of wind and
water at a greater rate than it is formed.

Process:
When a raindrop hits soil that is not protected by a cover of vegetation and where
there are no roots to bind the soil, it has the impact of a bullet.
Soil particles are loosened, washed down the slope of the land and either end up in
the valley or are washed away out to sea by streams and rivers.
Erosion removes the topsoil first. Once this nutrient-rich layer is gone, few plants
will grow in the soil again.
Without soil and plants the land becomes desert like and unable to support life.

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Causes of soil erosion:
These farming practices are:
Overstocking and overgrazing
Inappropriate farming techniques such as deep ploughing land 2 or 3 times a year
to produce annual crops
Lack of crop rotation
Planting crops down the contour instead of along it.

Measures can be implemented to prevent soil erosion:
The use of contour ploughing and windbreaks
Leave unploughed grass strips between ploughed lands (strip cropping)
Make sure that there are always plants growing on the soil, and that the soil is
rich in humus
Avoid overgrazing
Allow indigenous plants to grow along riverbanks
Conserve wetlands
Cultivate land, using a crop rotation system
Minimum or no tillage
Encourage water infiltration and reduce water runoff














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Flash flood.



Definition: A rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry
lakes and basins. It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a severe
thunderstorm, hurricane, tropical storm, or melt water from ice or snow flowing
over ice sheets or snowfields.

Causes:
Precipitation falls rapidly on saturated soil or dry soil that has poor absorption ability.
The runoff collects in gullies and streams and, as they join to form larger volumes,
often forms a fast flowing front of water and debris. Flash floods most often occur in
normally dry areas that have recently received precipitation, but may be seen
anywhere downstream from the source of the precipitation, even many miles from
the source. In areas on or near volcanoes, flash floods have also occurred after
eruptions, when glaciers have been melted by the intense heat.







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Landslide.



Definition: A geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground
movements, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows, which
can occur in offshore, coastal and onshore environments.

Causes:

Geological causes
Weathered Materials e.g. heavy rainfall
Sheared materials
Jointed or fissured materials
Adversely orientated discontinuities
Permeability contrasts
Material contrasts
Rainfall and snow fall
Earthquakes
Working of machinery

Morphological causes
Slope angle
Uplift
Rebound

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Fluvial erosion
Wave erosion
Glacial erosion
Erosion of lateral margins
Subterranean erosion
Slope loading
Vegetation change
Erosion

Physical causes
Intense rainfall
Rapid snow melt
Prolonged precipitation
Rapid drawdown
Earthquake
Volcanic eruption
Thawing
Freeze-thaw
Ground water changes
Soil pore water pressure
Surface runoff
Seismic activity
Soil erosion

Human causes
Excavation
Loading
Draw-down
Land use change
Water management
Mining
Quarrying
Vibration
Water leakage
Deforestation
Land use pattern
Pollution




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Eutrophication.

Definition: The ecosystem response to the addition of artificial or natural
substances, such as nitrates and phosphates, through fertilizers or sewage, to an
aquatic system.

Sources of Nutrient Pollution:

Nutrient pollution released to freshwater and coastal areas comes from many
diverse sources including agriculture, aquaculture, septic tanks, urban wastewater,
urban storm water runoff, industry, and fossil fuel combustion. Nutrients enter
aquatic ecosystems via the air, surface water, or groundwater.

From region to region, there are significant variations in the relative
importance of nutrient sources. For example, in the United States and the European
Union, agricultural sourcescommercial fertilizers and animal manureare typically
the primary sources of nutrient pollution in waterways, while urban wastewater is
often a primary source of nutrients in coastal waterways of South America, Asia and
Africa.





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Two of the most acute and commonly recognized symptoms of eutrophication:

Harmful Algal Blooms

Harmful algal blooms can cause fish kills, human illness through shellfish poisoning,
and death of marine mammals and shore birds. Harmful algal blooms are often
referred to as red tides or brown tides because of the appearance of the water
when these blooms occur.

Hypoxia

Hypoxia, considered to be the most severe symptom of eutrophication, has
escalated dramatically over the past 50 years, increasing from about 10 documented
cases in 1960 to at least 169 in 2007. Hypoxia occurs when algae and other
organisms die, sink to the bottom, and are decomposed by bacteria, using the
available dissolved oxygen. Salinity and temperature differences between surface
and subsurface waters lead to stratification, limiting oxygen replenishment from
surface waters and creating conditions that can lead to the formation of a hypoxic or
dead zone. The formation of dead zones can lead to fish kills and benthic mortality.
Because benthic organisms are bottom dwelling and cannot easily flee low-oxygen
zones, they are often the most severely impacted.

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The increase of nitrate or phosphate from fertilisers into water causes eutrophication.












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Extinction of living things

Living organisms are dependent on the environment and other species for their survival.
When the environment changes, organisms are not as well adapted to it.
Individuals that are poorly adapted to their environment are less likely to survive and
reproduce than those that are well adapted. Similarly, it is possible that a species that is
poorly adapted to its environment will become extinct.
Some factors that can cause a species to become extinct:
rapid changes to the environment, such as the climate
new diseases
new predators
new competitors

Because we are all part of a giant food web, changes in one part of the web can have a
big impact on other parts of the web. When one food source disappears, a predator will
have to find another food source in order to survive.
The fossil record shows that since life on Earth began many species have become extinct.
Extinction is still occurring, a lot of it because of human activity. We compete with other
living things for space, food and water, and are very successful predators.




















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Floods



Definition: An overflow of water that submerges land which is normally dry.
The European Union (EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of
land not normally covered by water.

Sources of flooding:

An overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river or lake, in which the water
overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of that water escaping its usual
boundaries.
An accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an area flood. While the size of
a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and
snow melt, these changes in size are unlikely to be considered significant unless they
flood property or drown domestic animals.
The flow rate in rivers exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends
or meanders in the waterway.





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Acid Rain



Definition: A rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning
that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH).



Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react
with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.

Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils,
killing insect and aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having
impacts on human health.

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Biochemical oxygen demand

Definition: The amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological organisms
in a body of water to break down organic material present in a given water sample at
certain temperature over a specific time period. The term also refers to a chemical
procedure for determining this amount.

Natural sources of organic matter include plant decay and leaf fall. However, plant
growth and decay may be unnaturally accelerated when nutrients and sunlight are
overly abundant due to human influence.
Urban runoff carries pet wastes from streets and sidewalks; nutrients from lawn
fertilizers; leaves, grass clippings, and paper from residential areas, which increase
oxygen demand.
Oxygen consumed in the decomposition process robs other aquatic organisms of the
oxygen they need to live. Organisms that are more tolerant of lower dissolved
oxygen levels may replace a diversity of more sensitive organisms.

Background Information

Microorganisms such as bacteria are responsible for decomposing organic waste.
When organic matter such as dead plants, leaves, grass clippings, manure, sewage,
or even food waste is present in a water supply, the bacteria will begin the process
of breaking down this waste. When this happens, much of the available dissolved
oxygen is consumed by aerobic bacteria, robbing other aquatic organisms of the
oxygen they need to live.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen used microorganisms to
decompose this waste. If there is a large quantity of organic waste in the water
supply, there will also be a lot of bacteria present working to decompose this waste.
In this case, the demand for oxygen will be high (due to all the bacteria) so the BOD
level will be high. As the waste is consumed or dispersed through the water, BOD
levels will begin to decline.

Nitrates and phosphates in a body of water can contribute to high BOD levels.
Nitrates and phosphates are plant nutrients and can cause plant life and algae to
grow quickly. When plants grow quickly, they also die quickly. This contributes to the
organic waste in the water, which is then decomposed by bacteria. This results in a
high BOD level. When BOD levels are high, dissolved oxygen (DO) levels decrease
because the oxygen that is available in the water is being consumed by the bacteria.
Since less dissolved oxygen is available in the water, fish and other aquatic organisms
may not survive.

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Relationship between the development activities that are
unplanned and mismanaged and their effect on the
environment

Unplanned Development Effects On The Environment
Uncontrolled development of light and
heavy industries
Water, air, thermal and noise
pollution
Thinning of the ozone layer
The greenhouse effect
Uncontrolled cutting down of
forests(deforestation)
Soil erosion
The greenhouse effect
Climatic change
Global warming
Flash floods
High-rise glass buildings Thermal pollution
The greenhouse effect
Excessive mining Soil erosion
Flood
Excessive use of fertilisers Eutrophication
Water pollution
Excessive use of pesticides and chemical
substances
Air and water pollution
Extinction of living things
Burning of fossil fuels The greenhouse effect
Air pollution
Burning of domestic wastes Air pollution
The greenhouse effect

Types and Sources of Pollution

Definition: Undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of the natural environment, brought about by human
activities.

Types of pollution:
Air pollution
Water pollution
Thermal pollution
Noise pollution




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Air Pollution

Cause: Introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological
materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other
living organisms such as food crops, or damage the natural
environment or built environment.

Sources of pollution:

Man-Made Sources - related to burning different kinds of fuel

"Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities
(factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-
burning heating devices. In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass
burning is the major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop
waste and dung.
"Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of
sound etc.
Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry
management.
Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents
Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly
flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air.
Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry.

Natural sources

Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with few or no vegetation
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle
Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colourless,
odourless, naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay
of radium.
Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.
Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on
warmer days.
Volcanic activity, which produce sulphur, chlorine, and ash particulates.



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Water Pollution

Cause: Contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and water
ground. Water pollution occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged
into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.

Sources:

Pathogens
High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges.
This can be caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary
treatment (more typical in less-developed countries). In developed countries, older
cities with aging infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes,
pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also
have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms.
Chemical and other contaminants
Organic water pollutants include:
Detergents.
Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such
as chloroform.
Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and
grease.
Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organ halides and other chemical
compounds.
Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil)
and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion by-products, from storm
water runoff.
Tree and bush debris from logging operations.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper
storage.
Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall
to the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser.
Polychlorinated biphenyl.(PCBs)
Trichloroethylene.
Perchlorate.
Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.


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Inorganic water pollutants include:
Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulphur dioxide from power
plants)
Ammonia from food processing waste
Chemical waste as industrial by-products
Fertilizers containing nutrients - nitrates and phosphates - which are found in storm
water runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use
Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff) and acid mine
drainage
Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or
land clearing sites.
Macroscopic pollution - large visible items polluting the water - may be termed
"floatables" in an urban storm water context, or marine debris when found on the
open seas.
Trash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the
ground, along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by
rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters
Plastics, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets
Shipwrecks, large derelict ships.

Thermal Pollution
Cause: Degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient
water temperature.
Source: A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power
plants and industrial manufacturers. When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural
environment at a higher temperature, the change in temperature decreases oxygen supply,
and affects ecosystem composition. Urban runoffstorm water discharged to surface waters
from roads and parking lotscan also is a source of elevated water temperatures. When a
power plant first opens or shuts down for repair or other causes, fish and other
organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by the abrupt
change in water temperature known as "thermal shock."





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Noise Pollution
Cause: Disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activity or balance of human
or animal life.
Source: Machines and systems, traffic, building activities, music performances, and
some workplaces, motor, aircrafts, and trains, and poor planning of environment.
Outdoor noise is summarized by the word environmental noise.

Effect of Pollution on Living Things and Environment
Air Pollution
Source of
pollution
Pollutant Harmful Effect
Cement
factories,
quarries,
sawmills
Dust Respiratory diseases
Cough and allergy
Dirty buildings
Factories and
industries
Burning of
rubbish
Motor
vehicles
Dust and soot Cause haze
Reduce visibility
Prevent sunlight from reaching the earth
surface and also block the stomata.
Hence, the rate of photosynthesis and
the agricultural productivity are reduced
Cause lung cancer









Burning of
fossil fuels
and rubbish
Car exhaust
fumes




Carbon monoxide A toxic gas which combines easily with
haemoglobin as compared to oxygen.
Therefore it reduces the efficiency of blood
to carry oxygen
Carbon dioxide Causes the greenhouse effect which
increases the atmospheric temperature
Changes in climate cause floods,
typhoon and droughts
Polar ice caps melt, causing floods
Sulphur dioxide Irritates the eyes, respiratory tract and
lungs
Damages lung tissues
Causes acid rain
Acid rain corrodes metal structures in
bridges and limestone of buildings
Lower the pH level of soil and water
Causes a reduction on the yield or

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agricultural products and death of
aquatic organisms
Nitrogen dioxide Causes acid rain and effects of acid rain
Damages lung tissues and causes
bronchitis and lung cancer
Irritates the eyes and respiratory tracts
Car exhaust
fumes which
contain lead
Lead Toxic, harmful and non-biodegradable.
Hence, lead can accumulate in the body.
When it reaches a high toxic level it can cause
mental retardation in children
Activities of
agricultural
industry
Agrochemical
substances
Can be passed in the food chains and
become concentrated in the body,
causing harm to the organisms because
it is non-biodegradable
Hinder the physiological process
Toxic to the body
Nuclear power
stations
Radioactive radiations Causes mutation causes cancer and
genetic diseases
Causes cancer and genetic diseases
Aerosol and
foam industries
Chlorofluorocarbon(CFC) Causes ozone depletion
Causes global warming(changes in
climate)
Skin cancer

Water Pollution
Source of pollution Pollutant Harmful effect
Discharge of
domestic wastes
into rivers
Untreated
sewage(faeces
and liquid
wastes)
Rubbish
Detergents
Encourage growth of bacteria, causing
diseases such as cholera, typhoid and
dysentery.
Number of bacteria increases due to
increased concentration of nitrates and
phosphates in untreated sewage.
Bacteria use up the oxygen supply in
water to decompose the untreated
sewage and other organic wastes. This
reduces the concentration of oxygen in
the river and kills off fish and other
aquatic plants and animals. The
decomposition of dead plants and fish
further increases the population of
bacteria in the water. This will reduce
the concentration of oxygen in the
water.
Cause bad odour and unsightly view
Rubbish that is non-biodegradable

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prevents sunlight from reaching the
plants in the river and prevents
diffusion of oxygen. This threatens
aquatic life.
High concentration of detergents also
reduce the concentration of oxygen in
the water and threatens the lives of
aquatic organisms
Discharge of
industrial wastes
Organic wastes
from remains of
oil palms and
rubber plantations
Toxic chemical
wastes from
electronic
factories such as
arsenic, lead,
mercury and zinc
Contaminate the water physically
Decomposition of organic wastes
reduces the concentration of oxygen in
the water
Accumulation of toxic chemicals that is
non-biodegradable through the food
the food chain in aquatic organisms
results in the poisoning of aquatic
animals and man. These toxic
substances also damage body organs
and are harmful to man, causing cancer
an mutation
Discharge of
agricultural
wastes(leaching
from farm to
nearby rivers)


Fertilisers and faeces
which contain nitrates
and phosphates



The high concentration of nitrates and
phosphates in rivers or ponds results in
eutrophication. The nitrates and phosphates
promote rapid growth of algae, the algae will
later use up the oxygen supply in the water,
killing fish and other aquatic organisms
Agrochemicals such as
insecticides,
pesticides, herbicides
and fungicides
Agrochemicals are non-biodegradable, highly
toxic and harmful as they can be passed on
in food chains accumulate in the bodies of
aquatic animals and man. These chemical
wastes in significant amounts are poisonous
to aquatic animals and can damage the
organs in the body, cause cancer and
contaminate water supplies
Oil spillage Oil that spills form ships
oil tanks
Cause death to all life forms in the seas
Cause death of seas bird and sea lions
Pollutes the beaches






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Thermal Pollution
Sudden and periodic increase in temperature producing a thermal effect
Changed dissolved oxygen
Distribution of organisms among major and minor communities.
Death of stenothermic animals
Changes to reproductive powers and increased susceptibility to disease
Production of heat shock proteins for thermo tolerance.
Changes in migration time and pattern may be affected.
Bio indicators are the first to show the effects
Decrease in productivity of the water body.
Economic and environmental damage
Noise Pollution
Headaches, irritability and nervousness
Feeling of fatigue, decreases work efficiency
Hearing impairment
Anxiety, stress reaction, hypertension
Ischemic heart disease
Sleep disturbance, annoyance
Changes in immune system and birth defects
Increase blood pressure
Cause deafness
Effects on the growth of some plants.
Birds which using sound to find prey

Strategies To Solve Problems Related To Air And Water
Pollution
Air Pollution
Use public mode of transportation: Encourage people to use more and more public
modes of transportation to reduce pollution. Also, try to make use of car-pooling
Conserve energy: Switch off fans and lights when you are going out. Large amount of
fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. You can save the environment from
degradation by reducing the amount of fossil fuels to be burned.

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Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: Do not throw away items
that are of no use to you. In-fact reuses them for some other purpose. This
minimises the dependence of producing new things.
Emphasis on clean energy resources: Clean energy technologies
like solar, wind and geothermal are on high these days. Governments of various
countries have been providing grants to consumers who are interested in
installing solar panels for their home.
Use energy efficient devices: CFL lights consume less electricity as against their
counterparts. They live longer, consume less electricity, lower electricity bills and
also help you to reduce pollution by consuming less energy.
Switch to renewable energy: Some governments are investing in wind, nuclear,
biomass geothermal, radiant, hydroelectricity and solar energy, as well as
other renewable energy, that are considered to be environmentally friendly and
harness natural processes to minimize burning of fossil fuels, which cause heavy air
pollution. These sources of energy provide an alternate cleaner source of energy,
helping to negate the effects of certain forms of pollution.
Water Pollution
Educate people on how to conserve and preserve our natural resources such as
water
Do not throw chemicals, oils, paints and medicines down the sink drain, or the toilet
Buy more environmentally safe cleaning liquids for the use at home and other public
places.
Keep machinery in good working order
Clean up beaches and waterways
Pick up litter and never throw rubbish away.
Organize cleaning parties
Avoid plastics when possible
Use reusable bags
Use water wisely








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Green House Effect

A greenhouse is a building made of glass that allows sunlight to enter but traps heat
inside, so the building stays warm even when it's cold outside. Because gases in the Earth's
atmosphere also let in light but trap heat, many people call this phenomenon the
greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect works somewhat differently from an actual
greenhouse, but the name stuck, so that's how we still refer to it today.
If it were not for greenhouse gases trapping heat in the atmosphere, the Earth would
be a very cold place. Greenhouse gases keep the Earth warm through a process called the
greenhouse effect.


Definition: The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary
surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions.
Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it
results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the
absence of the gases.


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Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, which makes the Earth warmer. People are
adding several types of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, and each gas's effect on
climate change depends on three main factors:
How much?
People produce larger amounts of some greenhouse gases than others. Carbon
dioxide is the greenhouse gas you hear people talk about the most. That's because
we produce more carbon dioxide than any other greenhouse gas, and it's
responsible for most of the warming.

How long?
Some greenhouse gases stay in the atmosphere for only a short time, but others can
stay in the atmosphere and affect the climate for thousands of years.

How powerful?
Not all greenhouse gases are created equal! Some trap more heat than others. For
example, one pound of methane traps about 21 times as much heat as one pound of
carbon dioxide.

The pie chart shows major greenhouse gases from peoples activities.

Carbon dioxide
Where does it come from?
Burning fossil fuels to produce electricity and heat buildings
Burning gasoline and other fossil fuels to run vehicles
Cutting down and burning trees or other vegetation.

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Some industrial and manufacturing process like producing cement and certain
chemicals

How long does it stay in the atmosphere?
Anywhere from 50 to thousands of years

Methane

Where does it come from?
Rising livestock. Certain animals-especially cows and sheep-produce methane as they
digest food. Manure also releases methane when it decays
Lanfills.as trash in a landfill breaks down over time, it releases methane
Producing and transporting natural gas. Natural gas is made mostly of methane,
which is released if there are even small leaks in gas pipes
Mining coal and can be released during mining
How long does it stay in the atmosphere?
About 12 years
How much heat does it trap?
Over 20 time more heat than the same amount of carbon dioxide

Other gases

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) - damages the earths ozone layer.

Nitrous oxide

Where it come from?
Farming practices such that adds fertilizer. Certain bacteria that live in the soil turn
this extra nitrogen into nitrous oxide
Burning fossil fuels
Some industrial and manufacturing processes

How long does it stay in the atmosphere?
About 114 years

How much heat does it trap?
About 298 times more heat than the same amount of carbon dioxide





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Fluorinated gases

Where do they come from?
Leaking coolants. Fluorinated gases used as coolants can be released by leaky
refrigerator, freezers, and air-conditioners in cars and homes
Some industrial and manufacturing processes, like producing computer chips

How long do they stay in the atmosphere?
Each gas is different. Some of these gases can last for thousands of years

How much heat do they trap?
Depending on the gas, anywhere from a few hundred to 23,000 times more heat
than the same amount of carbon dioxide

Greenhouse gases come from all sources, such as producing electricity,
transportation, industry, agriculture, businesses, and homes.

The graph below shows how the world's total greenhouse gas emissions are continuing to increase every year.







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Info graphic about the greenhouse effect.

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Relationship between Concentrations of Carbon Dioxide in
the Atmosphere with Global Warming

There is little doubt the air's CO2 concentration has risen significantly since the inception
of the Industrial Revolution; and there are few who do not attribute the CO2 increase to
the increase in humanity's use of fossil fuels. There is also little doubt the earth has
warmed slightly over the same period; but there is no compelling reason to believe that
the rise in temperature was caused by the rise in CO2. Furthermore, it is highly unlikely
that future increases in the air's CO2 content will produce any global warming; for there
are numerous problems with the popular hypothesis that links the two phenomena.

A weak short-term correlation between CO2 and temperature proves nothing
about causation. Proponents of the notion that increases in the air's CO2 content lead to
global warming point to the past century's weak correlation between atmospheric
CO2 concentration and global air temperature as proof of their contention. However,
they typically gloss over the fact that correlation does not imply causation, and that a
hundred years is not enough time to establish the validity of such a relationship when it
comes to earth's temperature history.

The observation that two things have risen together for a period of time says nothing
about one trend being the cause of the other. To establish a causal relationship it must
be demonstrated that the presumed cause precedes the presumed effect. Furthermore,
this relationship should be demonstrable over several cycles of increases and decreases
in both parameters. And even when these criteria are met, as in the case of solar/climate
relationships, many people are unwilling to acknowledge that variations in the presumed
cause truly produced the observed analogous variations in the presumed effect.

In thus considering the seven greatest temperature transitions of the past half-
million years - three glacial terminations and four glacial inceptions - we note that
increases and decreases in atmospheric CO2 concentration not only did not precede the
changes in air temperature, they followed them, and by hundreds to thousands of
years! There were also long periods of time when atmospheric CO2 remained
unchanged, while air temperature dropped, as well as times when the air's CO2 content
dropped, while air temperature remained unchanged or actually rose. Hence, the
climate history of the past half-million years provides absolutely no evidence to suggest
that the on-going rise in the air's CO2concentration will lead to significant global
warming.

Strong negative climatic feedbacks prohibit catastrophic warming. Strong negative
feedbacks play major roles in earth's climate system. If they did not, no life would exist

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on the planet, for some perturbation would long ago have sent the world careening into
a state of cosmic cold or horrendous heat; and we know from the fossil record that
neither of these extremes has ever occurred, even over billions of years, and in spite of a
large increase in the luminosity of the sun throughout geologic time.

Consider, in this regard, the water vapour that would be added to the atmosphere
by enhanced evaporation in a warmer world. The extra moisture would likely lead to the
production of more and higher-water-content clouds, both of which consequences would
tend to cool the planet by reflecting more solar radiation back to space.

A warmer world would also mean a warmer ocean, which would likely lead to an
increase in the productivity of marine algae or phytoplankton. This phenomenon, in turn,
would enhance the biotic production of certain sulphur-based substances that diffuse
into the air, where they are oxidized and converted into particles that function as cloud
condensation nuclei. The resulting increase in the number of cloud-forming particles
would thus produce more and smaller cloud droplets, which are more reflective of
incoming solar radiation; and this phenomenon would also tend to cool the planet.

All of these warming-induced cloud-related cooling effects are very powerful. It has
been shown, for example, that the warming predicted to result from a doubling of the
air's CO2 content may be totally countered by: (1) a mere 1% increase in the reflectivity
of the planet, or (2) a 10% increase in the amount of the world's low-level clouds, or (3) a
15 to 20% reduction in the mean droplet radius of earth's boundary-layer clouds, or (4) a
20 to 25% increase in cloud liquid water content. In addition, it has been demonstrated
that the warming-induced production of high-level clouds over the equatorial oceans
almost totally nullifies that region's powerful water vapour greenhouse effect, which
supplies much of the temperature increase in the CO2-induced global warming scenario.

Most of these important negative feedbacks are not adequately represented in
state-of-the-art climate models. What is more, many related (and totally ignored!)
phenomena are set in motion when the land surfaces of the globe warm. In response to
the increase in temperature between 25N latitude and the equator, for example, the
soil-to-air flux of various sulphur gases rises by a factor of 25, as a consequence of
warmth-induced increases in soil microbial activity; and this phenomenon can lead to the
production of more cloud condensation nuclei just as biological processes over the sea
do. Clearly, therefore, any number of combinations of these several negative feedbacks
could easily thwart the impetus for warming provided by future increases in the air's
CO2 content.

Growth-enhancing effects of CO2 create an impetus for cooling. Carbon dioxide is a
powerful aerial fertilizer, directly enhancing the growth of almost all terrestrial plants and

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many aquatic plants as its atmospheric concentration rises. And just as increased algal
productivity at sea increases the emission of sulphur gases to the atmosphere, ultimately
leading to more and brighter clouds over the world's oceans, so too do CO2-induced
increases in terrestrial plant productivity lead to enhanced emissions of various sulphur
gases over land, where they likewise ultimately cool the planet. In addition, many non-
sulphur-based biogenic materials of the terrestrial environment play major roles as
water- and ice-nucleating aerosols; and the airborne presence of these materials should
also be enhanced by rising levels of atmospheric CO2. Hence, it is possible that
incorporation of this multifaceted CO2-induced cooling effect into the suite of equations
that comprise the current generation of global climate models might actually tip the
climatic scales in favour of global cooling in the face of continued growth of
anthropogenic CO2 emissions.

There is no evidence for warming-induced increases in extreme
weather. Proponents of the CO2-induced global warming hypothesis often predict that
extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and hurricanes will become more
numerous and/or extreme in a warmer world; however, there is no evidence to support
this claim. In fact, many studies have revealed that the numbers and intensities of
extreme weather events have remained relatively constant over the last century of
modest global warming or have actually declined. Costs of damages from these
phenomena, however, have risen dramatically; but this phenomenon has been
demonstrated to be the result of evolving societal, demographic and economic factors.

Elevated levels of atmospheric CO2 are a boon to the biosphere. In lieu of global
warming, a little of which would in all probability be good for the planet, where do the
above considerations leave us? Simply with the biosphere benefits that come from the
aerial fertilization effect of atmospheric CO2 enrichment: enhanced plant growth,
increased plant water use efficiency, greater food production for both people and
animals, plus a host of other biological benefits too numerous to describe in this short
statement.

And these benefits are not mere predictions. They are real. Already, in fact, they are
evident in long-term tree-ring records, which reveal a history of increasing forest growth
rates that have closely paralleled the progression of the Industrial Revolution. They can
also be seen in the slow but inexorable spreading of woody plants into areas where only
grasses grew before. In fact, the atmosphere itself bears witness to the increasing
prowess of the entire biosphere in the yearly expanding amplitude of its seasonal
CO2 cycle. This oscillatory "breath of the biosphere" - its inhalation of CO2, produced by
spring and summer terrestrial plant growth, and its exhalation of CO2, produced by fall
and winter biomass decomposition - has been documented to be growing greater and

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greater each year in response to the ever-increasing growth stimulation provided by the
on-going rise in the air's CO2 content.

Atmospheric CO2 enrichment brings growth and prosperity to man and nature
alike. This, then, is what we truly believe will be the result of the on-going rise in the air's
CO2 content: a reinvigorated biosphere characteristic of those prior periods of earth's
history when the air's CO2 concentration was much higher than it is today, coupled with
a climate not much different from that of the present. Are we right? Only time will
tell. But one thing is certain now: there is much more real-world evidence for the
encouraging scenario we paint here than for the doom-and-gloom predictions of
apocalypse that are preached by those who blindly follow the manifestly less-than-
adequate prognostications of imperfect climate models.
Our policy prescription relative to anthropogenic CO2 emissions is thus to leave well
enough alone and let nature and humanity take their inextricably intertwined course. All
indications are that both will be well served by the on-going rise in atmospheric CO2.

Global warming

Definition: The rise in the average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans since
the late 19th century and its projected continuation. Since the early 20th century, Earth's
mean surface temperature has increased by about0.8 C (1.4 F), with about two-thirds of
the increase occurring since 1980.


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Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and scientists are more than 90%
certain that it is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse
gases produced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all major.


In the case of carbon dioxide, it is actually its invisibility that is the key factor in how it
causes global warming.
When sunlight reaches the Earth, it passes through our atmosphere. Greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide are invisible to sunlight, also known as shortwave radiation because
of its short wavelength. This allows the sunlight to pass through the atmosphere unhindered
by greenhouse gases, and warm the Earth's surface.
The warm surface of the Earth radiates infrared heat, also known as long wave radiation
because of its long wavelength. Greenhouse gases absorb long wave radiation. This results
in the atmosphere trapping some of the Earth's heat as it tries to escape out to space. Heat-
trapping gases such as carbon dioxide make the atmosphere warmer than it would be
without any greenhouse gases.
Currently, we are adding greenhouse gases to the atmosphere through the burning of
fossil fuels. As more greenhouse gases accumulate in the atmosphere, more heat is being
trapped. This causes global warming. Consequently, the fact that carbon dioxide lets
sunlight pass freely through the atmosphere is an integral aspect of the greenhouse
effect. Carbon dioxide's invisibility is a key part of what causes global warming.


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Our confidence that humans are causing global warming is based on many, independent
lines of evidence. Human fingerprints are being observed all over our climate.












49

Thinning of Ozone Layer [Ozone Depletion] and Its Impact
on the Ecosystem

Definition: The wearing out (reduction) of the amount of ozone in the stratosphere. Unlike
pollution, which has many types and causes, Ozone depletion has been pinned down to one
major human activity.

Industries that manufacture things like insulating foams, solvents, soaps, cooling
things like Air Conditioners, Refrigerators and Take-Away containers use something called
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These substances are heavier than air, but over time, (2-5years)
they are carried high into the stratosphere by wind action.

Depletion begins when CFCs get into the stratosphere. Ultra violet radiation from
the sun breaks up these CFCs. The breaking up action releases Chlorine atoms. Chlorine
atoms react with Ozone, starting a chemical cycle that destroys the good ozone in that area.
One chlorine atom can break apart more than 100,000 ozone molecules.
There are other Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) such as methyl bromide used in
pesticides, halon used in fire extinguishers, and methyl chloroform used in making industrial
solvents. Measurements of CFCs in the stratosphere are made from gas balloons, aircraft
and satellites.
Sadly, there isnt much humans can do to replenish the depleted Ozone, as it tends
to recover slowly by itself. All we can do is to be more responsible with our manufacturing
needs so that we do not introduce more CFCs into the air.


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How Ozone Depletion Affects UV Levels?
Depletion of the ozone layer has consequences on humans, animals and plants. This typically
results from higher UV levels reaching us on earth.

Humans
Research confirms that high levels of UV Rays cause non-melanoma skin cancer.
Additionally, it plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. UV is also linked to cataracts
(a disease of the eye which clouds the eyes lens).

Plants
The damage that extreme UV levels have on plants is one that our eyes do not see much, but
humans can feel the impact. Plant growth, as well as its physiological and developmental processes
is all affected negatively. These include the way plants form, timing of development and growth,
distribution of plant nutrients and metabolism, etc. These changes can have important implications
for plant competitive balance, animals that feed on these plants, plant diseases, and biogeochemical
cycles.

Marine (or water) Ecosystems
Phytoplanktons form the foundation of aquatic food webs. These usually grow closer to the
surface of water, where there is enough sunlight. Changes in UV levels are known to affect the
development and growth of phytoplankton, and naturally, the fish that feed on them. UV radiation is
also known to have affected the development stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and other
animals. When this happens, animals in the upper food chain that feed on these tiny fishes are all
affected.

Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles
The power of higher UL levels affect the natural balance of gasses (and greenhouse gases) in
the biosphere: e.g., carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonyl sulphide (COS) and
ozone. Changes in UV levels can cause biosphere-atmosphere feedback resulting from the
atmospheric build-up of these gases.








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What is Ozone Hole?

Top atmospheric researchers confirm that Ozone levels vary by season and latitude.
Sometime in 1979, it was observed the considerable Ozone depletion in the upper latitudes, Arctic
and Antarctic. This massive stretch of ozone depletion (hole) is estimated to be about the size of
America.

Particularly in the Antarctic, satellite images were released showing a disturbing thinning of
the ozone layer. The phenomenon is what we usually call the Ozone hole, and it was most observed
over the Antarctic every year during the spring.


In the winter, temperatures drop below -78C (-109F) in the Poles (Antarctic). Thin clouds
form of ice, nitric acid, and sulphuric acid mixtures. Chemical reactions on the surfaces of ice crystals
in the clouds release active forms of CFCs. This sets the ozone depletion going by spring, a lot of
depletion has occurred.
Why does the Ozone hole only occur in the Antarctic?

Researchers say it is not only in the Antarctic, but in many places in other latitudes where
populations are dense. It is believed that these places have cloud types that aid in the chemical
reactions that cause ozone depletion.
In spring, temperatures begin to rise, the ice evaporates, and the ozone layer starts to
recover.