2010

Daniel Mulherin

Student Number
2758181

1903 ARCHITECTURAL
HISTORY ASSIGNMENT 2

CASE STUDY- MACHU PICCHU
What are the classical techniques and influences of Incan civilization represented in the
Design and Architecture of the Lost City of the Incas, Machu Picchu?
Source: http://sceneryseries.blogspot.com/2008/12/machu-picchu.html
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181



Table of Contents



1.0 Introduction page 1
2.0 Historic overview page 2
2.1 Location and Development page 2
2.2 Civilisation page 3
3.0 Architectural Techniques page 3
3.1 Stonework page 3
3.2 Structures page 4
4.0 Design Influences page 6
4.1 Power and Security page 6
4.2 Sustainability page 6
4.3 Spirituality page 7
5.0 Conclusion page 9
6.0 References page 10
7.0 Bibliography page 12

2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181

Image 1.1: Machu Picchu as it is found today. Historically it would have had high grass roofs and agriculture in
the tiered gardens.
Source http://theunexplainedmysteries.com/machu-picchu.html
1.0 Introduction
Hidden for hundreds of years and containing a heritage and culture shrouded in secrecy is
the city of Machu Picchu or The Lost City (see image 1.1). This citadel has an amazing
history complemented by the intricacy of its design and the mystery of its purpose. This
illustrated essay will endeavour to interpret the built form of Machu Picchu. Through careful
deduction, (unfortunately my visit will not be until December 2010) and with reference to
peer reviewed articles and respected scholars, this essay will attempt to convey the key
techniques and concepts that are portrayed in both the design and architecture of the city.
As mentioned above there is extreme secrecy and mystery surrounding this citadel and its
past, and the Machu Picchu of the present day is very difficult to interpret.
This illustrated essay will firstly outline a brief history of the sight and civilisation of Machu
Picchu and then discuss some of the key techniques and the factors that influenced its
development. This paper will draw specific reference to the architecture and design of The
Lost City with mention of some of the structures of Machu Picchu such as the Temple of the
Sun and the Intihuatana or hitching post of the sun. Overall this paper aims to recognize
the architecture and design characteristics of this amazing and mystifying city. A city, of
which, very little is known about and understood.
1
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181
Image 2.1: Machu Piccu is located high in the Andes
mountains in Peru, South America.
Source: http://www.fibcool.com/cheap-flights/where-is-machu-picchu/
2.0 Historic overview
In an attempt to understand and interpret what can be seen in its current built form; we
must first look at a brief history of Machu Picchu and its major influences.
2.1 Location and Development
Machu Picchu is situated in South America (See Appendix 2.1) and was constructed during
the height of the Incan empire. From its establishment in the 13
th
century, throughout the
14
th
and 15
th
centuries, the Incan empire
had steady growth and development. This
expansion represented power and
intimidation which in turn assisted the
Incan Empire to spread and conquer
many different civilisations, regions and
towns. This growth continued up until its
decimation by the Spaniards in 1533AD
(Somervill, 2005). Machu Picchu and its
monuments were not raided and
destroyed by the Spaniards as the rest of
the Incan empire was. Machu Picchu and
its memory seemed lost in time until the
citadel was rediscovered by Hiram
Bingham in 1911 and coined The Lost
City of The Incas(2006).
It is widely believed that, during its most
prosperous era, Machu Picchu was
constructed as a religious province under one of the Incas most successful and powerful
emperors, Pachakuti (Ching et al, 2007). It was likely reserved in secrecy for nobles and the
spiritually enlightened which explains why it remained undiscovered for such a period of
time. What doesnt have an explanation is why the city appears to have been abandoned so
suddenly, perhaps even prior to the invasion of the Spaniards.
The Inca civilisation kept records using a complex system of knots however did not have any
developed form of writing. The loss of a sufficient way of interpreting this system of records
means specific historic details are difficult to confirm. Interpretations must be made based
on what remains of the civilisation. Machu Picchu contains preserved examples of the Incan
built form and is easily identified as a magnificent specimen of the ideals, attributes and
skills of what would have been a prosperous and dominant civilisation.
Whatever its purpose, its inaccessibility by design, its difficult and sophisticated
construction, and its beautiful natural setting are a wonder to behold
-(Vannoy, 2002)
2
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181

2.2 Civilisation
The term Inca we use today in ancient times actually referred to the one individual ruler of
the Incan civilisation and has somewhat lost this translation over time (Bingham, 1952,
pp.29). The Incan civilisation had a very distinct political hierarchy with an emperor, nobles,
priests, craftsmen, workers, all the way down to commoners and slaves. There were
different cities and regions of Incan society however they were all ruled by the Emperor.
The Emperor was in possession of almost all items of value and commoners, workers, even
the nobles, were allowed to have only objects directly needed for survival and daily use. This
hierarchy was represented in the architecture of the buildings and housing of Machu Picchu.
Incas believed spiritually in all of the cosmos including the stars and most importantly the
sun and moon. They were seen as the mother and father through whom all life was
provided. These beliefs are dominant in the location and design of key zones of Machu
Picchu. The incorporation of sun and moon alignment, star visibility and other important
beliefs were commonly integrated into the layout and planning of Incan cities. Through
time, and from much Spanish destruction, these spiritual elements have been badly
damaged. Machu Picchu remained undiscovered until 1911, and subsequently contains
undamaged, pristine examples of this spiritual influence.
3.0 Architecture Techniques
3.1 Stone work
The preserved stone work of The Lost City is some of the most perfect and skilled of all
Incan cities. The precision of a crafting profession perfected over hundreds of years is on
clear display from the construction of walls to the intricate carving of the deity rocks.
Throughout time mortar had been used to join stonework however the Incans had such
precision that the stone work of Machu Picchu and other Incan cities required no use of
mortar or cement. The Incans typically applied masonry styles of carving and polishing
stones to such perfection that they were laid together without the need for binding. The
stones were laid to fit so tightly together that in some instances it is impossible to fit even a
knife blade between the rocks. (Bingham, 1952, pp.30)
With the stonework of the Incan civilisation were two distinct masonry styles, coursed and
polygonal. Coursed stonework consisted of rows of square or trapezoidal rocks lined up
deliberately and also included the feature that as the rows got higher the stones would get
smaller and smaller. This could have been due to the weight of the stones however many
archaeologists believe this was to give structures a more precise aesthetics and make them
appear balanced (see image 3.1). This coursed style of architecture was a more specialised
and valued style to Incans. Course masonry was reserved for important structure such as
temples and palaces. Polygonal stonework was a style that involved the intentional, yet
random, formation of masonry stones (see image3.2). One stone would fit neatly next to
3
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181
another however the randomness gives an unorganised appearance and hence was used for
basic housing and construction of walls while coursed masonry was applied to the same
structures around doorways and openings.

3.2 Structures
Incorporation of shapes and styles into structures allowed the distinction between different
buildings and the purposes of structures. Cancha and kallanka refer to the types of
buildings and structures of Incan city construction and the incorporation of rectangular,
square or trapezoidal shapes in their design and outlay (McEwan, 2006). The incorporation
of cancha houses were typical of Incan architecture and involved the arrangement of houses
based around square and trapezoidal shapes (see image 3.3). Kallanka refers to the
construction of larger temples and palaces and again the use of rectangular shapes in their
construction. Both cancha and kallanka were the typical buildings styles involved in Incan
construction however other shaped buildings and structures were not uncommon.
Image 3.3: Cancha houses and
structures were arranged using
trapezoids and rectangles. The
rectangular shapes are incorporated
in the layout of buildings as well as
the architecture of the buildings
themselves. Central to this picture
can also be seen the Temple of the
Sun identified by its distinctive
semicircular shape.
Source:
http://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/kF
eoGRosubEInQcWE6wOuw

Image 3.2: Polygonal Stonework. Oddly shaped rocks seem
to fit perfectly together forming strong precise walls almost
effortlessly.
Source: http://yellowmagpie.com/great-wall-builders-the-incas-
and-machu-picchu

Image 3.1: Coursed stonework. This image shows the
layered and precise stonework art of the Incans.
Source:
http://www.motojournals.com/journals.asp?section=southameric
a_part1&page=7

4
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181

Interesting shapes are represented in many of the monuments of Machu Picchu. The
Intihuatana incorporates different shapes and appears abnormal however it was precisely
carved. The temple of the sun is also one of the more oddly shaped buildings, perhaps due
to its purpose of accommodating an enormous carved stone also used for astronomy. It is
easily identified for the very reason of its semicircular shape.
Architecturally, one of the most notable design trait of
the Incan civilisation would have to be the shape of
windows, doorways and openings (see image 3.4).
Slightly angled rectangular shapes dominate the ruins
of Machu Picchu as they do in all abandoned Incan
cities. These angled openings coupled with the Incan
stonework techniques add exceptional strength. The
buildings can easily withstand an earthquake which is
attributed to this engineered design and precision.
Image 3.4: A typical, slightly angled doorway in Machu Picchu.
Source: http://www.budcollinstennis.com/?tag=machu-picchu


The architecture of Incan roofs also contains
distinguishing features. Classic Incan houses had high
a-frame roofs made of gables, beams and thatched
grasses (see image 3.5). In instances where the
building was too long for a beam to run the length of
the gable, Incas would use a support beam. The high
a-frame roofs were an architectural design to help
shed water quickly (McEwan, 2006). The most notable
architecture technique of Incan roofing would have to
be the exclusion of chimneys. This was perhaps a
design principle that allowed homes to be easily
heated as warmth would slowly escape through the
grass thatched roofs rather than speedily through a
chimney.

Image 3.5: A restored Incan house showing shape and roof design. The
high a-frame roof gables had small holes for beams to poke through
which assisted in tying down and securing the roof. Also the roof could
have had an underlay of mats to assist in waterproofing and sealing.
Source: http://www.rutahsa.com/gables-6.jpg





4
5
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181
4.0 Design Influences
4.1 Power and Security
Throughout the design of Machu Picchu are strong representations of security and power.
The site of Machu Picchu itself is located in the Andes Mountains at a height of almost 8000
feet above sea level. This choice of location represented important attributes related to
security and power in the Incan society.
Machu Picchus location was a deterrent for
intruders as the height and surrounding cliffs
would be seen as impenetrable and dangerous by
invading forces. Perhaps from the surrounding
valleys, The Lost City was often not seen at all (see
Image 4.1). Machu Picchu projected an ominous
personality to attacking forces while empowering
and providing safety for its citizens.
Death is in the atmosphere as you look
down, the more so because the famous site hovers
over a U-bend in the river Urubamba, with
terrifying vertiginous precipices on all sides.
- (Davey, 2001)
Image 4.1: Steep Descent. Overlooking the edge of one of the cliffs
of Machu Picchu
Source: http://jeffwheeland.wordpress.com/2008/11/16/five-days-to-
machu-picchu-day-five-machu-picchu/
4.2 Sustainability
Sustainability is by no means a new concept, more recently it has been described as
meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their needs (World Commission on Environmental Development, 1990 pp.87).
Historically, however, the design of cities incorporated sustainability due to simple necessity
and the attempt for prosperity. The use of sustainability concepts is present through many
civilisations and some of these concepts are incorporated in the design of Machu Picchu.
Water efficiency is one of the predominant features in the design of Machu Picchu. Studies
have shown that careful consideration of ground water sources and the annual rainfall of
the site were incorporated in the design of the city (Wright et al, 1997). Irrigation of the
crops was not by ground water springs unless necessary as annual rainfall amounts were
considered and shown to be of sufficient amounts for survival prior to the cities
construction. A network of drainage incorporated in the design of Machu Picchu allowed
access to the natural spring while backup water could be accessed from the Urubamba River
below if necessary. These water sensitive design principles were primitive however
represent the knowledge and sophistication of the Incan civilisation.
6
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181
Orientation is another dominant feature of sustainability used by the architects and
planners of The Lost City. Whether this is a result of the religious influence or through smart
design remains to be confirmed however the outlay of the buildings and structures are
strongly based on the inclusion of the sun, wind and other environmental elements. The
incorporation of existing ground contours, rocks or stone walls in housing and temples was
common. This represents Incans utilising nature in design and adapting construction rather
than construction dominating the environment. Within Machu Picchu probably the most
prime example of this sustainability technique is in the location of the tiered agricultural
gardens. These gardens were
designed and adapted to suit the
steep inclines and declines of the
cliffs surrounding the city (see
image 4.2).
Image 4.2: The agricultural tiers of Machu
Picchu designed into the natural slope of the
land.
Source:
http://www.sacredsites.com/americas/peru/machu_
picchu.html
With only one entrance, the city of Machu Picchu appears to have been designed so that
complete segregation from the outside world (perhaps in the event of an attack) was
achievable. Based on population numbers and the amount of agricultural land, Machu
Picchu was not completely self sufficient, however, with the inclusion of sustainable design,
in the event of segregation, the population of The Lost City could sustain themselves for
prolonged periods.
4.3 Spirituality
The location of significant spiritual
areas was determined by the path
and orbit of the sun, moon and other
planets. Worship platforms,
monuments and shrines are
integrated completely into the layout
of Machu Picchu. The Temple of the
sun is a prime example of the
incorporation of astronomy elements
and shown in image 4.3. The large
awkwardly shaped rock located
inside the temple of the sun was
believed to be used to track different
elements of astronomy. Even window
positioning was based on the suns
path; shining light on religious zones
Image 4.3: The Temple of the Sun. This structure houses an
important religious stone which was used by the Incans to
track the movements of planets and astronomy
Source: http://famouswonders.com/machu-picchu/

7
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181
at particular times and during events
such as the solstice (Gullberg, 2010)
The Intihuatana also needs a special
mention in regards to its spiritual
importance as its location and
purpose relate specifically to Incan
religion and beliefs (see image 4.4).
This, hitching post of the sun, in
Incan legend was the site where the
Incans would tie the sun during the
summer and winter solstice in order
to stop the sun deviating from its
path.


It could also be deduced that the city is located at such a high altitude as to be close to the
Incan spiritual deities. Ascending to this height would supply security and power second only
to the gods themselves. This provided Machu Picchu with a dominant spiritual, enlightened
and soaring character which is why the Lost City is widely believed to be a religious citadel
designed for the worship of the gods (Peterson, 2005, pp.10).

Image 4.4: The Intihuatana, commonly known as the
hitching post of the sun. As in winter it seemed the sun
would disappear for longer and longer each day, this
ceremony would tie the sun to the intihuatana to ensure the
sun would not leave the Incans
Source: http://www.rutahsa.com/mpinti5m.jpg

8
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181
5.0 Conclusion
Overall the constructions of Machu Picchu are in excellent condition and have been
preserved due to the inaccessibility of the location and secrecy of both its past and purpose.
Unfortunately it is this secrecy and inaccessibility that results in the lack of understanding of
this amazing Incan development.
This illustrated essay has discussed the built environment of Machu Picchu. Based on
respected scholars information, this paper has attempted to represent the key ideals and
techniques present in the preserved development. Ultimately religion, sustainability, the
cosmos, power and security decided the location and outlay of the Lost City of the Incans.
Religious elements are present throughout the city and in most cases the structures are
directly designed to accommodate them. The citadel is designed with the land and
environment given the upmost respect and inclusion and the location provides security and
power. As far as the architecture of Machu Picchu is concerned, stonework ingenuity and
perfection as well as the incorporation of different shapes and structure styles dominate.
These influences and techniques may not be unique to the Incan civilisation; the same
influences have developed civilisations throughout history. It is the preservation, the level of
perfection, and the ways in which the Incan civilisation responded to these influences that
makes Machu Picchu and the entire Incan civilisation unique.

Source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/1492/images/machu.jpg

9
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181
6.0 References
Bingham H 1952, The Lost City of the Incas, Phoenix House, New York, viewed 20
September 2010, <http://www.amazon.co.uk/Lost-City-Incas-Phoenix-
Press/dp/1842125850#reader_1842125850>
Ching F, Jarzombek M and Prakash V, 2007, A Global History of Architecture, 1400CE,
Machu Picchu, pp. 420423, John Wiley and Sons inc, New Jersey
Davey P 2001, Outrage, The Architectural Review, viewed 3 October 2010
<http://find.galegroup.com.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/gtx/infomark.do?&contentSe
t=IAC-
Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=EAIM&docId=A79759800&source=
gale&srcprod=EAIM&userGroupName=griffith&version=1.0>
Gullberg S 2010, Journal of Cosmology Inca Solar orientations in Southeastern Peru, Vol 9,
viewed 2 October 2010
<http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientAstronomy104.html>
McEwan G 2006, The Incas: New Perspectives, Material Culture, Building types, pp. 175-
177, ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, California, viewed 20 September 2010 <
http://books.google.com.au/books?id=EFD-iAC-
xKEC&pg=PA176&lpg=PA176&dq=Cancha+architecture&source=bl&ots=a7_ybezkQX
&sig=-
1ybnKIYZ_VhX4HtCWYxkUBg4pc&hl=en&ei=Jx6xTKfNMYWmcLu91PYK&sa=X&oi=bo
ok_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Cancha%20arc
hitecture&f=false>
Peterson S 2005, Machu Picchu, Ancient wonders of the world, pp10, The Creative
Company Minnesota, viewed 12 October 2010 <
http://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RaV3B4YWMaYC&oi=fnd&pg=PT7
&dq=machu+Picchu+religious+retreat&ots=ks50CHgvJF&sig=ush_Zf7g64AF8HT-
C27YH5mHCYs#v=onepage&q&f=false>
Somervill B 2005, Francisco Pizarro: Conquerer of the Incas, Compass Point Books,
Minneapolis viewed 21 September 2010
<http://books.google.com.au/books?id=amAMMZxt4jYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=S
omervill,Barbara+Conqueror+of+the+2005&source=bl&ots=V8Tv03vR76&sig=z9gVq
4bz7LOTIs3zPoHKnXdnnU4&hl=en&ei=SpWsTJDLNsfIcefz5d8E&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Somervill%2CBarbara%
20Conqueror%20of%20the%202005&f=false>
Vannoy D 2002, Machu Picchu: visiting and shooting Peru's Lost City. PSA Journal, 68.4,
pp.29+, Expanded Academic ASAP, viewed 10 October 2010
<http://find.galegroup.com.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/gtx/infomark.do?&contentSe
t=IAC-
Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=EAIM&docId=A84971163&source=
gale&srcprod=EAIM&userGroupName=griffith&version=1.0>
10
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181
World Commission on Environmental Development 1990, The Bruntland Report: Our
Common Future, pp.87, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Wright K, Witt D, and Zegarra A, 1997, Hydrogeology and paleohydrology of ancient Machu
Piccu. Ground Water, 35.4 pp.660+, Expanded Academic ASAP, viewed 2 October
2010
<http://find.galegroup.com.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/gtx/infomark.do?&contentSe
t=IAC-
Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=EAIM&docId=A19956670&source=g
ale&srcprod=EAIM&userGroupName=griffith&version=1.0>



11
11
2010 1903 ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY CASE STUDY MACHU PICCHU



Daniel Mulherin
S2758181
7.0 Bibliography
Hay I 2006, Communicating in Geography and the Environmental Sciences, Oxford
University Press, Melbourne
Macquarie K 2007, The Last Days of the Incas, Portrait, London, viewed 29 September 2010
<http://www.amazon.co.uk/Last-Days-Incas-Kim-
MacQuarrie/dp/0749950692/ref=cm_lmf_img_1#reader_0749950692>
Burger R and Salazar C, Machu Picchu Unveiling the mystery of the Incas, Yale University
Press, New Haven, viewed 11 October 2010 <http://www.amazon.co.uk/Machu-
Picchu-Unveiling-Mystery-
Incas/dp/0300097638/ref=cm_lmf_tit_7#reader_0300097638>
12