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Chapter 1
Path Loss and Shado ing Path Loss and Shadowing
Ha Hoang Kha, Ph.D
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
Email: hhkha@hcmut.edu.vn
Outline
Signal Propagation Overview
P th L ss M d ls Path Loss Models
Free-space Path Loss
Ray Tracing Models
Simplified Path Loss Model
Empirical Models
2 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
1. Propagation Characteristics
Path Loss (includes average shadowing)
Shadowing (due to obstructions)
Multipath Fading
P
r
/P
t
P
r
P
t
v
Very slow
Slow
Fast
d=vt
d=vt
3 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
Pathloss is caused by dissipation of the power radiated by
the transmitter as well as effects of the propagation.
O i l di (100 100 )
Shadowding: is caused by obstacles between the transmitter
and receiver that absorb power.
Occuring over very large distances (100-100 meters)
Occuring over distances proportional to the length of the
obstructing object (10-100 meters) obstructing object (10 100 meters)
Pathloss and Shadowing are referred to as large-scale
propagation or local mean attenuation.
Path Loss and Shadowing 4 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
2
Path Loss Modeling
Maxwells equations
Complex and impractical
Free space path loss model Free space path loss model
Too simple
Ray tracing models
Requires site-specific information
Empirical Models
Dont always generalize to other environments y g
Simplified power falloff models
Main characteristics: good for high-level analysis
5 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
2. Transmit and receive signal model
Signals in wireless communications is the UHF and SHF
(Ultra and super high frequency) bands, from 0.3-3 GHz
and 3-30 GHz.
where is a complex baseband signal with in-
We model the transmitted signal as
f
c
is the carrier frequency (B <<f
c
) and
0
is an initial phase offset.
phase component and , quadrature component
, bandwidth B and power P
u
.
The power in the transmitted signal s(t) is P
t
=P
u
/2
Path Loss and Shadowing 6 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
Transmit and receive signal model
If s(t) is transmitted through a time-invariant channel
v(t)=u(t)*c(t), where c(t) is the equivalent lowpass channel
impulse response for the channel.
The received signal will have
p p
Path loss:
P i i d f ( ) P
t
is transmitted power of s(t)
P
r
is received power of r(t)
Path Loss and Shadowing H. H. Kha, Ph.D
Remark: P(dB)=10log
10
(P(W)), P(dBm)=10log
10
(P(mW))
7
3. Free Space Propagation Model
Free space power received by a receiver antenna which
is separated from a radiating transmitting antenna by a
distance d (Friis free space equation):
P
t
: the transmitted power
P
r
(d): the received power
G
t
, G
R
: the transmitter and receiver antenna gain
2
2 2
. . .
( )
(4 ) . .
t t r
r
P G G
P d
d L

=
t
,
R
g
d : the T-R separation distance in meters
L: the system loss factor not related to propagation (L 1)
: the wavelength in meters
Path Loss and Shadowing H. H. Kha, Ph.D 8
3
Free-space path loss
Assume there is no obstructions between the transmitter
and receiver, i.e., a line-of-sight (LOS) channel.
Received signal: ece ved s g a :
=c/f
c
: wavelength
d: distance of the wave travels
: the product of the transmit and receive antenna field
radiation patterns in the LOS direction
Path Loss and Shadowing 9 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
radiation patterns in the LOS direction.
Ratio of received to transmitted power is computed by
Free Space Propagation Model
The path loss for the free space model when antenna
gain are included is given by
2
P GG

When antenna gains are excluded, the antennas are
assumed to have unity gain and path loss is given by
( )
( )
2
2
10log 10log
4
t t r
L
r
P GG
P dB
P
d

= =


( )
2
10l 10l
t
P
P dB


( )
( )
2
10log 10log
4
t
L
r
P dB
P
d

= =


Path Loss and Shadowing 10 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
Free Space Propagation Model
The free space propagation model is used to predict
received signal strength when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path receiver have a clear, unobstructed line of sight path
between them.
The free space model predicts that received power
decays as function of the transmitter-receiver (T-R)
separation distance raised to some power.
The carrier frequency increases the received power The carrier frequency increases, the received power
decreases. However, the antenna gain of highly
directional antennas can increase with frequency.
Path Loss and Shadowing 11 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
Example
Consider an indoor wireless LAN with f
c
=900 MHz,
cell radius 10m, and nondirectional antennas. Under the
free-space path loss model, what transmit power is free space path loss model, what transmit power is
required at the access point such that all terminals
within the cell receive a minimum power of 10uW.
How does this change if the frequency is 5 GHz.
Path Loss and Shadowing 12 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
4
4. Ray Tracing Model
Models all signal components
Reflections
Scattering
Diffraction
Requires detailed geometry and dielectric properties of
site
Si il t M ll b t i th Similar to Maxwell, but easier math.
Computer packages often used
13 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
Two-Ray Model
Used when a single ground reflection dominated the
multipath effect.
Suitable for isolated areas with few reflectors such as Suitable for isolated areas with few reflectors, such as
rural roads or highways.
Not a good model for indoor environments
Path Loss and Shadowing 14 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
Two-Ray Model
Received signal:
-
:the time delay of the ground reflection relative to the
LOS ray.
: the product of transmit and receive antenna field
radiation in the LOS direction.
: the product of transmit and receive antenna field
radiation patterns corresponding to the refection rays. p p g y
R: the ground refection coefficient
If the transmitted signal is narrowband relative to the
delay spread then
Path Loss and Shadowing 15 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
Ray Tracing Approximation
Represent wavefronts as simple particles
Geometry determines received signal from each
signal component
Typically includes reflected rays, can also include
scattered and defracted rays.
Requires site parameters
Geometry
Dielectric properties
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5
Two-Ray Model
The received power of the two-ray model for
narrowband transmission
-
: the phase difference between the two signal
components.
When d>> h
t
+h
r
, we have
and 0, and R=-1.
Path Loss and Shadowing 17 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
Two-Ray Model
For asymptotically large d,
and R=-1, the received power is approximately
or, in dB
The critical distance d
c
is the distance after that the
signal power falls off proportionally to d
-4
.
Cell radius are typically smaller than d
c
.
Path Loss and Shadowing 18 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
Received Power versus Distance
Path Loss and Shadowing 19 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
Two Path Model
Path loss for one LOS path and 1 ground (or
reflected) bounce
Ground bounce approximately cancels LOS path
above critical distance
Power falls off
Proportional to d
2
(small d)
Proportional to d
4
(d>d
c
)
Independent of (f)
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Example
Determine the critical distance for the two-way model
in an urban microcell (h
t
=10m, h
r
=3m) and indoor
microcell (h
t
=3m and h =2m) at f =2GHz. microcell (h
t
3m and h
r
2m) at f
c
2GHz.
Solution:
Urban microcell: d
c
=800 m
Urban microcells are on the order of 100 m to maintain
large capacity.
I d d 160 Indoor system: d
c
=160 m
Typically indoor system has a smaller cell radius, on the
order of 10-20 m.
Path Loss and Shadowing 21 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
Dielectric Canyon (Ten-Ray Model)
A model for urban area transmission
Other empirical studies have obtained power falloff
with distance proportional to d-

where lies anywhere

between to and six.
Path Loss and Shadowing 22 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
In the simplified model, path loss as a function of
distance is commonly used for system design.
Most important parameter is the path loss exponent ,
d i d i i ll
5. Simplified Path Loss Model
determined empirically.
or, in dB
d
0
is a reference distance for the antenna far-field. (d
0
=1-10m
for indoor and 10 100m for outdoor environments for indoor and 10-100m for outdoor environments.
K is the free space path loss at distance d
0
:
The path loss exponent can be obtained via a minimum
mean square error (MMSE) fit to empirical measurements.
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Typical Path Loss Exponents
Macrocell radius: 1Km-30 Km
Microcell radius: 200-2000 m
Picocell radius: 4m-200 m
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Example
Given a transmitter produces 50 W of power. If this power is
applied to a unity gain antenna with 900 MHz carrier frequency,
find the received power at a free space distance of 100 m from
the antenna. What is P
r
(10 km). Assume unity gain for the
receiver antenna
Ans: P
r
(100m)=-24.5 dBm; Pr(10Km)=-64.5 dBm
Path Loss and Shadowing 25 H. H. Kha, Ph.D
Consider the set of empirical measurements of P
r
/P
t
given in the
table below for an indoor systems at 2 GHz. Find the path loss
exponent that minimizes the MSE between the simplified model
Example
p p
and the empirical dB power measurements, assuming that d
0
=1m
and K is determined from the free space path loss formula at this
d
0
.
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6. Empirical Models
Okumura model
Empirically based (site/freq specific)
Awkward (uses graphs) ( g p )
Hata model
Analytical approximation to Okumura model
Cost 136 Model:
Extends Hata model to higher frequency (2 GHz)
Walfish/Bertoni:
Cost 136 extension to include diffraction from rooftops
Commonly used in cellular system simulations
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Indoor Propagation Models
Indoor environments differ widely in
The materials used for walls and floors
The layout of rooms, hallways, windows, and open areas, y y p
The location and material in obstructing objects
The size of each room and the number of the floors.
At higher frequency the attenuation loss per floor is
typically larger.
Table is the
28 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
partition losses
measured at 900-
1300 MHz
8
Indoor Propagation Models
The simple path loss for indoor environment:
is obtained from the path loss for a same floor
measurement.
FAF
i
represents the floor attenuation factor (FAF) for the ith
floor traversed by the signal.
PAF
i
represents the partition attenuation factor (PAF)
associated with the ith partition traversed by the signals associated with the ith partition traversed by the signals.
N
f
and N
p
are the number of floors and partitions traversed
by the signal:
29 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
Example
Suppose, in an office building, a 2.4 GHz transmitter
located at a workstation is separated from the network
access node (receiver) by a distance of 35 m. The
transmission must pass through 5 m of an office,
through a plasterboard wall, and then through a large
open area. The propagation is modeled as free space for
the first 5 m and with a loss exponent of 3.1 for the
remainder of the distance. The plasterboard wall causes
6 dB attenuation of the signal. The isotropic transmitter
radiated 20 dBm. Can the link be closed if the receiver
has a sensitivity of -75 dBm?
30 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
Main Points
Path loss models simplify Maxwells equations
Models vary in complexity and accuracy Models vary in complexity and accuracy
Power falloff with distance is proportional to d
2
in free
space, d
4
in two path model
General ray tracing computationally complex
Empirical models used in 2G simulations Empirical models used in 2G simulations
Main characteristics of path loss captured in simple
model P
r
=P
t
K[d
0
/d]

31 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing

In addition to path loss, a signal will typical experience
random variation due to blockage from the signal path
Changes in the reflection surfaces and scattering objects
7. Shadowing
is the path loss caused by shadowing which is a random
variable. Empirically, is a log-normal distribution given by
32 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
9
In previous example, we found the exponent for the
simplified path loss model that best fit the
measurements was =3.17. Assuming the simplified
Example
path loss model with this exponent and the same K=-
31.54 dB, find , the variance of log-normal
shadowing about the mean path loss based on these
empirical measurements.
Ans:
33 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
Models for path loss and shadowing are typically
superimposed to capture power falloff versus distance
along with the random attenuation about this path loss
8. Combined Path Loss and Shadowing
from shadowing.
P /P
t
Slow 10log
is a Gauss-distributed
random variable with mean zero
and variance
34 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
P
r
/P
t
(dB)
log d
Very slow
-10
and variance
In wireless systems, there is typically a target minimum
received power level P
min
below which performance
become unacceptable.
9. Outage Probability under Path Loss and
Shadowing
Outage probability is the probability that the
received power at a given distance d, , falls below P
min ,
i.e.
where
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Normal or Gaussian Distribution
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Q- function
37 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
Q- function
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Example
39 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
Outage Probability
and Cell Coverage Area
Path loss: circular cells
Path loss+shadowing: amoeba cells
r
P
Tradeoff between coverage and interference
Outage probability
Probability received power below given minimum
Cell coverage area
%of cell locations at desired power % of cell locations at desired power
Increases as shadowing variance decreases
Large % indicates interference to other cells
40 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
11
References
[1] A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications, Cambridge University
Press, 2005.
[2] A Goldsmith Wireless Communications Lecture Notes [2] A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communications, Lecture Notes,
http://www.stanford.edu/class/ee359/archived_material/2010/lec
tures.html
41 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing
Homeworks
Problems: 1, 2, 13, 18, 21 in Chapter 2 of [Goldsmith 2005]
42 H. H. Kha, Ph.D Path Loss and Shadowing