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Introduction-
Architectural history studies the evolution and history of architecture across the
world through a consideration of socio-cultural, political, economic and
technological influences.
Stone Age:
The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely
used to make implements with a sharp edge, a point, or a percussion
surface.
The period lasted roughly 3.4 million years, and ended between 6000 BCE
and 2000 BCE with the advent of metalworking.
They also killed animals for food and clothing.
The Stone Age is divided by archaeologists (people who study relics) into
three sections:
Paleolithic ("old stone"),
Mesolithic ("middle stone")
Neolithic ("new stone").
The oldest known stone tools have been excavated from several sites at
Gona, Ethiopia.
Stone tools were made from a variety of stone. For
example, flint and chert were shaped (or chipped) for use as cutting tools
and weapons, while basalt and sandstone were used for ground
stone tools.
During the most recent part of the period, sediments (such as clay) were
used to make pottery.
Agriculture was developed and certain animals were domesticated.
Food sources of the Paleolithic hunter-gatherers were wild plants and
animals harvested from the environment.
Around 2 million years ago, Homo habilis is believed to have constructed
the first man-made structure in East Africa, consisting of simple
arrangements of stones to hold branches of trees in position. Around 2
million years ago, Homo habilis is believed to have constructed the first
man-made structure in East Africa, consisting of simple arrangements of
stones to hold branches of trees in position.
Mostly animals were painted, in theory ones that were used as food or
represented strength, such as the rhinoceros or large cats .

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Neolithic Age:
The Neolithic Era, or New Stone age, was a period in the development of
human technology, beginning about 10,200 BC.
Traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age
The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics
and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops and
of domesticated animals.
The organization of settlements and the architectural structure of houses
differed according to regions and periods and reflected environmental,
economic and social changes taking place during the long Neolithic Period
In the Neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated
with plaster.
The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible.
Doorways were made on the roof, with ladders positioned both on the
inside and outside of the houses
The roof was supported by beams from the inside.
The rough ground was covered by platforms, mats, and skins on which
residents slept.
Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by
finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for
fastening leather.








Asia Minor Civilization:

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Asia Minor, a
peninsula also called Anatolia, comprises most of the Asian part of Turkey.
The seas surrounding Asia Minor are the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea and
the Mediterranean Sea. Because Asia Minor is
between Christian Europe and Asia, many different cultures have lived
there.
Remnants (small parts) of these cultures are there today.
Eastern Anatolia contains the oldest monumental structures in the world.
Anatolia is known as the birthplace of minted coinage, as a medium of
exchange, sometime in the 7th century BC in Lydia.
Remains of some of mankind's earliest permanent communities, dating
back to 7000 B.C., have been found in Asia Minor.
Its peoples developed a high culture and built up a brisk trade with
neighboring regions, but they did not invent a system of writing.



Egyptian Civilization and its Architecture:
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa,
concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the
modern country of Egypt.

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The history of ancient Egypt occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms,
separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate
Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle
Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late
Bronze Age.
One of the most influential civilizations throughout history, which
developed a vast array of diverse structures and great architectural
monuments along the Nile, among the largest and most famous of which
are the Great Pyramid of Giza and the Great Sphinx of Giza.
Due to the scarcity of wood, the two predominant building materials used
in ancient Egypt were sun-baked mud brick and stone, mainly limestone,
but also sandstone and granite in considerable quantities.
Ancient Egyptian houses were made out of mud collected from the Nile
River. It was placed in molds and left to dry in the hot sun to harden for
use in construction.
Fortunately, the dry, hot climate of Egypt preserved some mud brick
structures. Examples include the village Deir al-Madinah, the Middle
Kingdom town at Kahun, and the fortresses at Buhen

and Mirgissa.
Also, many temples and tombs have survived because they were built on
high ground unaffected by the Nile flood and were constructed of stone.
Thus, our understanding of ancient Egyptian architecture is based mainly
on religious monuments.
Exterior and interior walls, as well as the columns and piers, were covered
with hieroglyphic(a formal writing system) and pictorial frescoes(a
painting done rapidly in water colour on wet plaster on a wall or ceiling,
so that the colours penetrate the plaster and become fixed as it dries.)
and carvings painted in brilliant colors.
Many motifs of Egyptian ornamentation are symbolic, other common
motifs include palm leaves, the papyrus plant, and the buds and flowers
of the lotus.

Indus Valley Civilization

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The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization extending
from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and
northwest India.
It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, one of the major rivers
of Asia, and the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which once coursed through
northwest India and eastern Pakistan
At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of over five
million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new
techniques in handicraft and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin).
The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses,
elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large
non-residential buildings.
The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappa Civilization.
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in
the Indus Valley Civilization making them the first urban centers in the
region.
The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban
planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority
on hygiene, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual.

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Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water
from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for
bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the
major streets.
Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The house-
building in some villages in the region still resembles in some respects the
house-building of the Harappans.
The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive
dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls.
There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or templesor of kings,
armies, or priests.
Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is
an enormous well-built bath (the "Great Bath"), which may have been a
public bath.
Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with
others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods.
Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing
seals, beads and other objects.
The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring
length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of
uniform weights and measures.
Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, and anatomically detailed
figurines in terracotta, bronze, and steatite have been found at excavation
sites.
A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses
reveal the presence of some dance form.
The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly
on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport
technology.
The IVC may have been the first civilization to use wheeled transport.
Between 400 and as many as 600 distinct Indus symbols
[55]
have been
found on seals, small tablets, ceramic pots and more than a dozen other
materials, including a "signboard" that apparently once hung over the
gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira.

Aryan Civilization-

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Around 1500 BCE, a new culture, the Aryans, entered India through the
Khyber Pass, and began integrating themselves into the social framework
of the Indus Valley civilization.
The Aryans furnished civilization in the Indian subcontinent with many
impressive cultural and religious contributions and shaped Indian society
for thousands of years with the creation of the caste system.












This new society, which included Aryans and non-Aryans, was
hierarchically divided into four varnas (i.e. castes).
The four varnas, from the top down, were: the BrahminsAryans (priests,
scholars, and philosophers); the KshatriyasAryans (rulers and warriors);

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the VaishyasAryans (farmers, traders, merchants, and craftsmen); and
the lowest caste, the Shudrasnon-Aryans (laborers, peasants, and
servants for the other castes).
Although they left almost no archaeological record, the history of the
Aryan invaders is contained in the Vedas.
Aryan religious beliefs and practices were profusely described in their
religious literature, particularly their Vedas. Vedas (knowledge) are
ancient texts written in Sanskrit. There are four Indo-Aryan Vedas:
The Rig Veda: contains hymns about their mythology.
The Sama Veda: consists mainly of hymns about religious rituals.
The Yajur Veda: contains instructions for religious rituals.
The Atharva Veda: consists of spells against enemies, sorcerers, and
diseases.
The Samhita: mantras or hymns in praise of various deities.
The Brahmanas: instructions for religious rituals.



Hindu Architecture-
India's Hindu temple architecture is developed from the creativity of
Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of whom belong to the larger community of
craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma (caste).
A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the garbha graha or
womb-chamber, in which the idol or deity is housed, often
called circumambulation, a congregation hall, and sometimes an
antechamber and porch.



Nagara architecture-
Nagara temples have two distinct features:
In plan, the temple is a square with a number of graduated projections in the
middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with a number of re-entrant
angles on each side.

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In elevation, a Sikhara, i.e., tower gradually inclines inwards in a convex
curve.
An example of Nagara architecture is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple,
Khajuraho temples.











Architecture of khajuraho temple

Dravidian architecture-
Dravidian style temples consist almost invariably of the four following parts,
differing only according to the age in which they were executed:
The principal part, the temple itself, is called the Vimana (or Vimanam). It
is always square in plan and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or
more stories; it contains the cell where the image of the god or his
emblem is placed.
The porches or Mandapas (or Mantapams), which always cover and
precede the door leading to the cell.
Gate-pyramids, Gopurams, which are the principal features in the
quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable temples.
Pillared halls or Chaultrisproperly Chawadis -- used for various
purposes, and which are the invariable accompaniments of these
temples.

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Besides these, a temple always contains temple tanks or wells for water (used
for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests), dwellings for all grades
of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or
convenience.

Structure of a typical Drvaidan viman Dravida Style Thanjavur temple


Badami Chalukya architecture-
The Badami Chalukya Architecture Chalukya style originated during 450
CE in Aihole and perfected in Pattadakal and Badami.
Between 500 and 757 CE, Badami Chalukyas established the foundations
of cave temple architecture, on the banks of the Malaprabha River.
Those styles mainly include Aihole, Pattadakal and Badami.
The sites were built out of sandstone cut into enormous blocks from the
outcrops in the chains of the Kaladgi hills.
At Badami, Chalukyas carved some of the finest cave temples.
Pattadakal is a (World Heritage Site), where one finds the Virupaksha
temple; it is the biggest temple, having carved scenes from the great epics
of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

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Gadag Architecture style-
The Gadag style of architecture is also called Western Chalukya
architecture.
A typical Western Chalukya temple may be examined from three aspects
the basic floor plan, the architectural articulation, and the figure
sculptures.
Chalukyan temples fall into two categories the first being temples with
a common mantapa (a colonnaded hall) and two shrines (known
as dvikuta), and the second being temples with one mantapa and a single
shrine (ekakuta).
The Chalukyan architects retained features from both northern and
southern styles.
The height of the temple was also constrained by the weight of the
superstructure on the walls and, since Chalukyan architects did not use
mortar, by the use of dry masonry and bonding stones without clamps or
cementing material
The absence of mortar allows some ventilation in the innermost parts of
the temple through the porous masonry used in the walls and ceilings.
The modest amount of light entering the temples comes into the open
halls from all directions, while the very subdued illumination in the inner
closed mantapa comes only through its open doorway.

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The vestibule receives even less light, making it necessary to have some
form of artificial lighting (usually, oil lamps) even during the day. This
artificial source of light perhaps adds "mystery" to the image of the deity
worshipped in the sanctum.












Shrine wall and superstructure in Kasivisvesvara temple at Lakkundi

Kalinga Architecture-
The Kainga architectural style is a style which flourished in the
ancient Kalinga region or present eastern Indian state of Odisha and
northern Andhra Pradesh.
The style consists of three distinct type of temples namely Rekha Deula,
Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. Deula means "temple" in the local
language.
The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya and Shiva temple
while the third is mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples.
The prominent examples of Rekha Deula are Lingaraj Temple of
Bhubaneswar and Jagannath Temple of Puri. One of the prominent

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example of Khakhara Deula is Vaital Deula. The Konark Sun Temple is a
living example of Pidha Deula.

Mru-Gurjara temple architecture-
Mru-Gurjara temple architecture originated somewhere in 6th century
in and around areas of Rajasthan.
Mru-Gurjara architecture has two prominent styles: Maha-Maru and
Maru-Gurjara.
According to M. A. Dhaky, Maha-Maru style developed primarily in
Marudesa, Sapadalaksa, Surasena and parts of Uparamala whereas Maru-
Gurjara originated in Medapata, Gurjaradesa-Arbuda, Gurjaradesa-
Anarta and some areas of Gujarat.
There is a connecting link between Mru-Gurjara
Architecture and Hoysala Temple Architecture. In both of these styles
architecture is treated sculpturally.
Styles of Rajasthani architecture include:
Jharokha
Chhatri
Haveli
Stepwell (baoli or bawdi)
Johad

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Jaali
Char Bagh or Charbagh
Architecture in Rajasthan represents many different types of buildings,
which may broadly be classed either as secular or religious.











Nagda temple, an example of Mru-Gurjara architecture

Khajuraho Temple-
Spread over an area of approximately 20 square kilometers on the north
eastern part of Madhya Pradesh, Khajuraho is a major tourist and
archaeological site in Madhya Pradesh.
Khajuraho has the largest group of medieval Hindu and Jain temples,
famous for their erotic sculptures.
The name Khajuraho, ancient "Kharjuravhaka", is derived from the
Sanskrit words kharjura = date palm and vhaka = "one who carries"
The Khajuraho Group of Monuments has been listed as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site, and is considered to be one of the "seven wonders" of India.
The temples are grouped into three geographical divisions: western,
eastern and southern.

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The most popular temple complex in Khajuraho of the three is the
western complex on the western side as the name suggests, which houses
the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple - the largest temple at Khajuraho.
Brahma Temple, Vamana & Javari Temples and the Parshvanatha Temple
the largest Jain temple in Khajuraho is in the eastern complex.
The southern group of temples in Khajuraho comprises of Duladeo temple
and the Chaturbhuja temple.
The Khajuraho temples are made of sandstone. The builders didn't use
mortar: the stones were put together with mortise and tenon joints and
they were held in place by gravity.
The columns and architraves were built with megaliths that weighed up
to 20 tons.


















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Rabindranath Tagore-
Born: 7 May 1861, Calcutta, India
Died: 7 August 1941, Calcutta, India
The youngest son of Debendranath Tagore.
A leader of the Brahmo Samaj, which was a new religious sect in
nineteenth-century Bengal and which attempted a revival of the ultimate
monistic basis of Hinduism as laid down in the Upanishads.
He was educated at home; and although at seventeen he was sent to
England for formal schooling, he did not finish his studies there.
In his mature years, in addition to his many-sided literary activities, he
managed the family estates, a project which brought him into close touch
with common humanity and increased his interest in social reforms.
He also started an experimental school at Shantiniketan where he tried
his Upanishadic ideals of education.
How is he related to Shantiniketan?
A small town near Bolpur in the Birbhum district of West
Bengal, India.
It was made by the famous Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore,
whose vision became what is now a university town (Visva-Bharati
University) that attracts thousands of visitors each year.
Santiniketan is also a tourist attraction because Rabindranath
Tagore wrote many of his literary classics here, and his house is a
place of historical importance.
It was here that Rabindranath Tagore started Patha Bhavana, the
school of his ideals, whose central premise was that learning in a
natural environment would be more enjoyable and fruitful. After
he received the Nobel Prize (1913), the school was expanded into a
university in 1921. By 1951, it had become one of India's central
universities.
Attractions-
Prayer Hall
Dehali
China Bhavana
Black House
Shantiniketan Griha

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Kala Bhavana
Uttarayan Complex
Bichitra
Sangeet Bhavan
Chhatimala
Kankalitala
Visva Bharati Central Library
Gardens & Parks
Shopping
Eateries

Works of Rabindranath Tagore

Poetry-
1. Manasi
2. Sonar
Tari
3. Gitanjali
4. Gitimalya
5. Balaka
1890
1894

1910
1914
1916

Dramas-
1. Valmiki
Prathibha
2. Visarjan
3. Raja
4. Dak Ghar
5. Achalayatan
1881

1890
1910
1912
1912


Fiction-

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1. Nastanirh
2. Gora
3. Ghare
Baire
4. Yogayog
1901
1910

1916
1929

Association with Music and Theatre
Tagore was also an accomplished musician and painter. Indeed, he wrote
some 25000 songs; together, these comprise rabindra sangeet now an
integral part of Bengali culture.
Yet, Tagore's music is inseparable from his literature, most of which
poems or parts of novels, stories, or plays alike became lyrics for his
songs.
These ran the gamut of human emotion, and are still frequently used to
give voice to a wide range of experiences.
Such is true of two such works: Bangladesh's Aamaar Sonaar Baanglaa and
India's Jana Gana Mana. Tagore thus became the only person ever to have
written the national anthems of two nations.
Tagore also had an artist's eye for his own handwriting, embellishing the
cross-outs and word layouts in his manuscripts.
At twenty he wrote his first drama-opera: Valmiki Pratibha (The Genius of
Valmiki).In it the pandit Valmiki overcomes his sins, is blessed
by Saraswati, and compiles the Ramayana. Through it Tagore explores a
wide range of dramatic styles and emotions, including usage of
revamped kirtans and adaptation of traditional English and Irish folk
melodies as drinking songs.
Another play, Dak Ghar (The Post Office), describes the child Amal defying
his stuffy and puerile confines by ultimately "falling asleep", hinting his
physical death.
Awards and Achievements-
Nobel Prize in Literature, 1913.
The first Indian to won Nobel Prize.



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Amrita Shergil
Born: 30January1913Budapest, Kingdom of Hungary
Died: 5December1941 (aged28) Lahore, British India (present day Pakistan)
She was an eminent Indian painter born to a Punjabi Sikh father and
a Hungarian Jewish mother.
Today considered an important woman painter of 20th century India,
whose legacy stands at par with that of the Masters of Bengal
Renaissance.
She is also the 'most expensive' woman painter of India.
Influence by Indian Art-
Amrita Shergil returned to India in 1934 and since then, began her never-
ending journey in the field of Indian art traditions.
In India Mughal miniatures schools and Ajanta paintings had a great
impact on her.
When she journeyed to the southern parts of India, the famous South-
Indian trilogy paintings came into being by her brush and paint. She
evolved her own distinctive style.
According to her, it was basically Indian in spirit, subject, and technical
articulacy.
Then her paintings took the villagers, the poor and beggars as subjects.
Amrita's art was strongly influenced by the paintings of the two Tagores,
Rabindranath and Abanindranath who were the pioneers of the Bengal School
of painting. Her portraits of women resemble works by Rabindranath while
the use of chiaroscuro (the treatment of light and shade in drawing and
painting) and bright colours reflect the influence of Abanindranath.

Her Paintings-
Three Girls
Brides Toilet
Tribal Women
Hill Women

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Red Clay Elephant
Two Elephants
Hungarian Market Scene
Hill Men
Young Girls
Camels
Awards and Achievements-
The Government of India declared her illustrious works as National Art
Treasures.
Gold Medal from the Grand Salon in 1933.
Gold medal at Bombay Art Societys 46th annual exhibition, 193

M.F. Hussain-
Birth name: Maqbool Fida Husain
Born: 17 September 1915
Died: 9June 2011
M. F. Husain was born into a Muslim family on 17 September 1915 in
Pandharpur, Maharashtra to a Sulaymani Bohra family.
Primarily self-taught, Husain painted cinema posters in Mumbai early in
his career. To earn extra money, he worked for a toy company designing
and building toys. He often travelled to Gujarat to paint landscapes when
he could afford to.
He was an Indian painter and Film Director.
His narrative paintings, executed in a modified Cubist style, can be
caustic and funny as well as serious and sombre.
His themessometimes treated in seriesinclude topics as diverse
as Mohandas K. Gandhi, Mother Teresa, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata,
the British raj, and motifs of Indian urban and rural life.

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One of the most celebrated and internationally recognized Indian artists
of the 20th century, he also received recognition as a printmaker,
photographer, and filmmaker.
He was one of the original members of the Bombay Progressive Artists'
Group founded by Francis Newton Souza.
[5]
This was a clique of young
artists who wished to break with the nationalist traditions established by
the Bengal school of art and to encourage an Indian avant-garde, engaged
at an international level. The artists cite "The Partition" of India and
Pakistan 14 August 1947, with its resulting religious rioting and heavy loss
of life as their reason for forming The Progressive Artist's Group in
Bombay in December, 1947.
In 1967, he made his first film, Through the Eyes of a Painter. It was
shown at the Berlin Film Festival and won a Golden Bear.
M.F. Husain, wrote his autobiography in Urdu. Titled M.F. Husain Ki
Kahani Apni Zubani.

Paintings of M.F. Hussain:
Between the Spider & the Lamp
Mother India
Maiden's Flight
Bharat Mata
Gaja Gamini
Awards and Achievements-
Padma Shri(1966)
Padma Bhushan(1973)
Padma Vibhushan(1991)

Nandlal Bose:
Born: December 3, 1882
Died: April 16, 1966

He was an Indian painter of the Bengal school of art.

He became the principal of Kala Bhavan, Santiniketan in 1922.

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He was influenced by the Tagore family and the murals of Ajanta; his
classic works include paintings of scenes from Indian mythologies,
women, and village life.

He was also famously asked by Jawaharlal Nehru to sketch the emblems

for the Government of Indias awards, including the Bharat Ratna and
the Padma Shri.

Along with his students, Nandalal Bose took up the historic task of
beautifying/decorating the original manuscript of the Constitution of
India.
Nandlal Bhose Paintings-
Village Huts
Dolan Champa
Darjeeling and Fog
Gandhi March (Bapuji)
Floating a Canoe
Radha's Longing (Radha's Viraha)
Yama with Nachiketa
Sati
Annapurna
Evening
Awards and Achievements-
In 1956, he became the second artist to be elected Fellow of the Lalit Kala
Akademi, India's National Academy of Art. In 1954, Nandalal Bose was awarded
the Padma Vibhushan.


Satish Gujral-
Born: 25 December 1925
Field: Painter, Sculpting, Mural, Architect and Writing, Graphic Designer.

Satish Gujral born in Jhelum, west Punjab, British India.

His elder brother was former Indian Prime Minister Gujral.

At the age of 8, a sickness resulted in impairment of hearing.

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A full feature film on his life is in the making. A 24 minute documentary

called A Brush with Life was released on 15 February 2012. The film
explores the literary, cultural, political and personal influences on his life
and works.

Four books of his work have been published including an autobiography.

His design of the Belgium Embassy in New Delhi has been selected by the
international Forum of architects as one of the one thousand best built in
the 20th century round the world.

His work shown in this collection reflects the spirit of traditional Indian
Miniatures and Temple Sculptures.
Paintings of Satish Gujral-
Mourning en masse
Femmes assises
Ganesha
Lovers
Prophet
Days of Glory
Raising of Lazarus
Village
Resurrection
Awards and Achievements-
Padma Vibhushan in 1999


NDTV Indian of the Year Award in April 2014.











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