The Respiratory System

A. Structure and Function of The Path of Air Flow

Nasal Cavities (2): narrow canals separated by bone and cartilage
Upper cavity Special ciliated cells in the narrow upper nasal
cavity act as odor receptors Lower cavity
Tear glands drain into the nasal cavities via tear ducts
Pharynx: air taken in by nose or mouth enters the pharynx (the throat)
The air passage and the food passage temporarily join
Trachea lies in front of the esophagus
Glottis: opening into the larynx
Epiglottis: a flap of tissue that prevents food from passing into the larynx
Larynx: contains the vocal chords which are mucous membrane folds
supported by elastic ligaments stretched across the glottis
When air passes over, they vibrate, producing sound
Trachea: a tube supported by C-shaped cartilaginous rings that lies between
the larynx and the bronchi (windpipe)
Smoking is known to destroy the cilia here
Bronchi: 2 major divisions of trachea leading to the lungs
Bronchioles: one of the smaller air passages in the lungs that eventually
terminate in alveoli
Alveoli: air sacs made of simple squamous epithelium surrounded by blood
capillaries. Site of gas exchange
Diaphragm: a sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the
abdominal cavity in higher animals

Ribs: move upward and outward when you inhale, move down and inward when
you exhale
Pleural membrane: a serous membrane that encloses the lungs
Thoracic cavity: the area between the diaphragm and ribs containing the lungs
and heart
B. Structure Aids Function of Alveoli
Thin membrane: easy for diffusion
Large surface area:
Increase efficiency of gas exchange Millions of alveoli in each lung About
40 times the surface area of the skin
Surrounded by capillaries: provides easy, direct access to blood

C. Breathing through the nose
1. Airisfiltered 2. Airiswarmed 3. Airismoistened
1. Air is Filtered large particles are filtered out by coarse
nose hairs in the nostril small particles are filtered cilia + mucus in
the rest of the nasal cavity and trachea
cilia beat upward, carrying mucus and debris into the pharynx where it is
swallowed or expectorated (spat out)
2. Air is warmed
As air is inhaled, it passes through the porous bone in the nasal cavity,
capillaries warms the air
As air is exhaled, it is cooled
Put your hand over your mouth and exhale. Compare the temperature of the air
to that from your nose!
3. Air is moistened
Warmer air is able to hold more moisture than cool air
Compare the moisture in the air in the tropics vs here!
As air is inhaled and warmed, the mucus moistens the air, as to not dry and
damage the alveolirespiratory surfaces must be moist!
As air is exhaled and cools, it is able to hold less moisture (dew point) and
drops the moisture on the lining of the windpipe and the nose
Doesnt remove all the moisturecan see breath on a cold dayyour air
condensing

D. Mechanics of Breathing
Inspiration, inspire, inhale: breathing in Expiration, expire, exhale:
breathing out
Structure of the Thoracic Cavity
the lungs are contained within a sealed off thoracic cavity
the ribs contain the top and sides, the diaphragm is below
ribs: hinged to the vertebral column and sternum intercostals muscles are
between the ribs
diaphragm: dome shaped horizontal sheet of muscle and connective tissue
pleural membrane encloses the lungs outer membrane is attached to the
rib cage
and diaphragm
inner membrane is attached to the lungs
is separated by a fluid (prevent friction and it lubricates the lungs)
Mechanism of Breathing
Inspiration + Exhalation
The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata
Stimuli
Increased concentration of CO
2
& H
+
detected by chemoreceptors in carotid artery &
aorta
Alveoli expanding detected by stretch receptors in the alveoli
Signal
Signal sent to medulla oblongata to contract respiratory muscles
Signal sent to medulla oblongata to relax respiratory muscles
Intercostal Muscles
contract ribs moves UP + OUT contract moves down + flattens
relax ribs moves DOWN + IN relax pushed up by abdominal
Diaphragm
organs decrease in volume
Thoracic Cavity
increase in volume Decrease air rushes in lungs
Air PSI in Lungs
Increase forces air out of lungs Passive respiratory muscles relax
Active or Passive
Active respiratory muscles contract
Inhalation
Exhalation
Therefore, it is better to not give pure oxygen to a patient to get breathing going
(should be a mixture of oxygen and carbon dioxide).
The breathing rate is also subject to partial conscious control. Why do you
suppose that is?

E. External / Internal Respiration
Respiration includes:
External respiration: gas exchange between air and blood (at alveoli)
Internal respiration: gas exchange between blood and tissue fluid (at your
body cells)
Cellular respiration: production of ATP in cells (at the mitochondria)
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is an iron-containing respiratory pigment found within red blood
cells.
It serves 3 functions: carries oxygen carries carbon dioxide acts as a
buffer
How does hemoglobin work?
pick up oxygen in cooler & basic lungs release oxygen in warmer & acidic
tissues

EXTERNAL RESPIRATION
gas exchange between air (at alveoli) and blood (in pulmonary capillaries).
Both alveoli walls and capillary walls are one cell layer thick.
This exchange of gases is by diffusion alone. (recall that law of diffusion states
that material will flow from area of high concentration to area of low
concentration).

At the Lungs
Oxygen transport in the lungs
Oxygen enters the capillaries and is taken up by hemoglobin (Hb) at the lungs
where the temperature is cooler and more basic than elsewhere in the body as
oxyhemoglobin (HbO
2
)
Hb + O
2
-> HbO
2
(oxyhemoglobin)

INTERNAL RESPIRATION
gas exchange of O2 and CO2 between BLOOD and TISSUE FLUID.



At the Tissue
Oxygen transport at the tissues
Oxyhemoglobin releases oxygen at the tissue where the temperature is
warmer and acidic than at the lungs. Oxygen exits the capillaries to be used by
the tissue cells.
HbO
2
-> Hb + O
2


At the cell
Oxygendiffusesfromtheinterstitialfluidintothe cell to be used by the mitochondria
in cellular respiration.
O
2
+ glucose -> ATP + CO
2
+ H
2
O
CO
2
transport at the tissues
CO
2
diffuses into the capillary Some CO
2
is carried by hemoglobin.
Hb + CO
2
-> HbCO
2
(carbaminohemoglobin)
Most CO
2
is dissolved into water to form carbonic acid which dissociates into
H
+
and bicarbonate ion.
CO
2
+ H
2
O -> H
2
CO
3
-> H
+
+ HCO
3
-

H
+
transport at tissue
Hydrogen ions make the pH acidic, so hemoglobin acts as a buffer, taking up
excess H
+
ions, forming reduced hemoglobin
H b + H
+
-> H H b
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION CONTINUTED
Hydrogen transport in the lungs
Reduced hemoglobin drops off its hydrogen ion
H H b -> H
+
+ H b
CO
2
transport in the lungs
The hydrogen ion then binds with the bicarbonate ion to form carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid then dissociates to water and carbon dioxide which diffuse into
the alveoli
H
+
+ HCO
3
-
-> H
2
CO
3
-> H
2
O + CO
2

Carbaminohemoglobin dissociates to form carbon dioxide and hemoglobin
HbCO
2
-> Hb + CO
2