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Psychology of Music
http://pom.sagepub.com/content/40/5/595
The online version of this article can be found at:
DOI: 10.1177/0305735612449896
2012 40: 595 Psychology of Music
Jane W. Davidson
duo instrumentalists: Two distinctive case studies
Bodily movement and facial actions in expressive musical performance by solo and
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b
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b
b
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(
b
a
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s
1
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&
1
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)
N
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p
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N
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p
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b
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at University of New South Wales on August 27, 2012 pom.sagepub.com Downloaded from
608 Psychology of Music 40(5)
S
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b
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1
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&
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b
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&
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a
b
l
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1
.
(
C
o
n
t
i
n
u
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d
)
at University of New South Wales on August 27, 2012 pom.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Davidson 609
of movement undertaken, for if too much movement is present some of the technical control
issues of blowing are negatively affected. Surprisingly, there were very few facial expressions,
except for raised eyebrows, which were not consistent features of the run-throughs. The fact
that both instruments involve the mouth in holding the instrument and generating the breath-
flow required to produce the musical tone could affect the degree to which the face is used for
expressive ends.
Coordination is necessary for ensemble performance, so it was in this context that expressive
facial actions were specifically hypothesized as communicative tools.
The duos number 1 (duo A) and number 6 (duo B). The same process of descriptive analyses was
undertaken in the duos as in the case of the solo performances. Appendix 2 reveals the move-
ment profiles of players in the duo condition. Evidently these share strong characteristics with
the solo run-throughs. But, as Table 3 condenses this information, in the duo condition, we see
that the musicians modify the way in which they move in order to synchronize and interact
closely with one another.
The following points are worth noting:
1. Although once again there are no facial actions, these performances include a number of
glances to coordinate entrances, exits and musical effects;
2. Whilst the types of movements used are of the same gestural repertoire as those adopted
in the solos, in the ensemble condition the movements are clearly undertaken for interac-
tive purpose, for example the bobbing and swaying in bars 1418 show the interactions
between the instrumentalists and the musical lines, the bodies clearly contributing to the
achievement of the coordination;
3. With the first performers the professional ensemble 1 it is the clarinettist who leads
the movements/music, whereas in the second ensemble, it is the flautist who seems to
lead evidenced by the nature of the glances between players, and the more dominant
role in leading a bar or bringing off notes.
Table 2. Types of movement across performers
Instrument Movement type
Flute Bending and
straightening of
knees whole
body moving up
and down, bob
Upward
torso
movement
Inclining
sway,
typically
to right
Circling end
of flute in
rotational
action
Nodding of
head, up
and down
action
Clarinet Bending and
straightening of
knees whole
body up and
down, bob
Upward
torso
movement
Side-
to-side,
sway
Circling end
of clarinet
in rotational
action
Elbows
circling
Nodding of
head, up
and down
action
Additional movement
idiosyncrasies displayed
by single flute and
single clarinet
Raising
eyebrows (Fl
1); Toe tapping
(Cl 1)
at University of New South Wales on August 27, 2012 pom.sagepub.com Downloaded from
610 Psychology of Music 40(5)
T
a
b
l
e
3
.
S
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(
b
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(
b
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1
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)
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2
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3
,
4
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5
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6
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7
&
8
)
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(
b
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b
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b
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(
b
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l
1
d
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A
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a
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d
d
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g
(
b
a
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s
1
&
2
)
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l
b
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c
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l
e
(
b
a
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s
3
,
4
&
5
)
K
n
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b
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d
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g
(
b
a
r
s
6
&
7
)
G
l
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c
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t
a
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(
b
a
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)
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(
b
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)
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f
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t
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b
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,
1
0
&
1
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)
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w
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(
b
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)
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(
b
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d
(
b
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1
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g
(
b
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s
1
4
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1
5
,
1
6
,
1
7
&
1
8
)
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e
(
b
a
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1
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)
N
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s
s
i
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m
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m
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t
(
b
a
r
2
0
)
F
l
1
d
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o
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c
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s
t
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s
o
t
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t
(
b
a
r
1
)
D
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b
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r
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D
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a
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b
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4
,
5
&
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(
b
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7
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8
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a
v
e
r
r
h
y
t
h
m
(
b
a
r
9
,
1
0
,
&
1
1
)
L
e
a
n
i
n
g
t
o
w
a
r
d
s
c
l
a
r
i
n
e
t
t
i
s
t
(
b
a
r
1
2
)
R
e
c
e
i
v
e
s
c
l
a
r
i
n
e
t
t
i
s
t
s
g
l
a
n
c
e
(
b
a
r
1
3
)
A
l
l
b
a
r
s
c
o
n
t
a
i
n
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
B
o
b
b
i
n
g
,
p
l
a
y
i
n
g
o
f
f
c
l
a
r
i
n
e
t
l
i
n
e
(
b
a
r
s
1
4
,
1
5
,
1
6
,
&
1
7
)
B
o
d
y
s
w
a
y
(
b
a
r
1
8
)
L
o
o
k
i
n
g
t
o
c
l
a
r
i
n
e
t
t
o
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
i
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
t
o
c
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
e
(
b
a
r
1
9
)
T
w
o
b
a
r
s
o
f
n
o
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
(
b
a
r
s
2
&
8
)
(
C
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
at University of New South Wales on August 27, 2012 pom.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Davidson 611
S
o
l
o
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
A
(
b
a
r
s
1
8
)
B
o
d
y
F
a
c
e
A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
e
n
t
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
B
(
b
a
r
s
9
1
3
)
B
o
d
y
F
a
c
e
A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
e
n
t
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
C
(
b
a
r
s
1
4
2
0
)
B
o
d
y
F
a
c
e
A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
e
n
t
C
l
1
d
u
o
B
I
n
c
l
i
n
e
s
b
o
d
y
t
o
f
l
a
u
t
i
s
t
(
b
a
r
1
)
E
l
b
o
w
s
c
i
r
c
l
e
(
b
a
r
s
2
,
3
,
4
&
5
)
w
i
t
h
i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e
d
e
n
e
r
g
y
a
n
d
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
a
c
r
o
s
s
e
a
c
h
b
a
r
N
o
d
d
i
n
g
(
b
a
r
6
)
H
e
a
d
n
o
d
d
i
n
g
i
n
t
i
m
e
w
i
t
h
f
l
a
u
t
i
s
t
(
b
a
r
s
7
&
8
)
B
r
i
n
g
s
s
e
l
f
a
n
d
f
l
a
u
t
i
s
t
o
f
f
w
i
t
h
a
c
i
r
c
l
i
n
g
o
f
t
h
e
i
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t
b
e
l
l
(
b
a
r
8
)
G
l
a
n
c
e
t
o
f
l
a
u
t
i
s
t
(
b
a
r
1
)
W
a
t
c
h
i
n
g
f
l
a
u
t
i
s
t
a
n
d
d
i
r
e
c
t
i
n
g
t
i
m
i
n
g
w
i
t
h
e
y
e
c
o
n
t
a
c
t
(
b
a
r
s
7
&
8
)
A
l
l
b
a
r
s
c
o
n
t
a
i
n
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
s
V
i
g
o
r
o
u
s
b
o
b
b
i
n
g
a
n
d
c
i
r
c
l
i
n
g
o
f
i
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t
(
b
a
r
s
9
,
1
0
&
1
1
)
H
e
a
d
n
o
d
s
o
n
a
c
c
e
n
t
s
(
b
a
r
1
2
)
G
l
a
n
c
e
s
t
o
F
l
a
u
t
i
s
t
(
b
a
r
1
3
)
A
l
l
b
a
r
s
c
o
n
t
a
i
n
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
s
B
e
n
d
s
a
n
d
s
t
r
a
i
g
h
t
e
n
i
n
g
w
h
o
l
e
b
o
d
y
v
e
r
y
l
a
r
g
e
s
c
a
l
e
b
o
b
(
b
a
r
s
1
4
,
1
5
,
1
6
,
1
7
&
1
8
)
C
i
r
c
l
i
n
g
e
l
b
o
w
s
(
b
a
r
s
1
4
,
1
8
)
N
o
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
A
l
l
b
a
r
s
c
o
n
t
a
i
n
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
s
b
u
t
b
a
r
2
0
s
t
i
l
l
a
n
d
u
p
r
i
g
h
t
.
F
l
2
d
u
o
A
B
o
d
y
r
i
s
e
s
u
p
(
b
a
r
s
1
,
2
&
7
)
B
o
b
b
i
n
g
u
p
a
n
d
d
o
w
n
(
b
a
r
3
)
S
w
a
y
i
n
g
(
b
a
r
s
4
,
5
,
&
6
)
G
l
a
n
c
e
s
t
o
c
l
a
r
i
n
e
t
t
i
s
t
(
b
a
r
s
1
,
6
)
B
a
r
8
n
o
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
N
o
d
d
i
n
g
(
b
a
r
s
9
&
1
0
)
C
i
r
c
l
e
s
e
n
d
o
f
f
l
u
t
e
,
r
i
s
e
s
t
o
f
u
l
l
h
e
i
g
h
t
(
b
a
r
1
1
)
C
i
r
c
l
e
s
f
l
u
t
e
i
n
s
i
l
e
n
c
e
(
b
a
r
1
3
)
N
o
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
N
o
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
(
b
a
r
1
2
)
V
e
r
y
l
a
r
g
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
a
s
b
o
d
y
r
i
s
e
s
u
p
e
x
t
e
n
d
e
d
b
o
b
l
e
a
d
i
n
g
t
h
e
c
l
a
r
i
n
e
t
(
b
a
r
1
4
)
B
o
b
b
i
n
g
(
b
a
r
1
5
)
S
w
a
y
i
n
g
(
b
a
r
s
1
6
,
1
7
,
&
1
8
)
C
i
r
c
l
i
n
g
f
l
u
t
e
(
b
a
r
1
9
)
N
o
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
N
o
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
i
n
b
a
r
2
0
(
C
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
T
a
b
l
e
3
.
(
C
o
n
t
i
n
u
e
d
)
at University of New South Wales on August 27, 2012 pom.sagepub.com Downloaded from
612 Psychology of Music 40(5)
S
o
l
o
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
A
(
b
a
r
s
1
8
)
B
o
d
y
F
a
c
e
A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
e
n
t
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
B
(
b
a
r
s
9
1
3
)
B
o
d
y
F
a
c
e
A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
e
n
t
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
C
(
b
a
r
s
1
4
2
0
)
B
o
d
y
F
a
c
e
A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
c
o
m
m
e
n
t
C
l
2
d
u
o
A
B
o
b
b
i
n
g
u
p
a
n
d
d
o
w
n
i
n
s
y
n
c
h
r
o
n
y
w
i
t
h
f
l
a
u
t
i
s
t
(
b
a
r
1
)
B
o
b
b
i
n
g
u
p
a
n
d
d
o
w
n
w
i
t
h
e
l
b
o
w
c
i
r
c
l
e
s
o
u
t
(
b
a
r
s
2
,
3
&
4
)
S
i
d
e
-
t
o
-
s
i
d
e
s
w
a
y
,
a
c
c
e
n
t
i
n
g
n
o
t
e
s
(
b
a
r
s
5
&
7
)
L
i
f
t
o
f
t
h
e
b
e
l
l
o
f
t
h
e
i
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t
a
n
d
c
i
r
c
l
e
s
i
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t
(
b
a
r
s
6
&
8
)
N
o
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
A
l
l
b
a
r
s
c
o
n
t
a
i
n
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
s
H
e
a
d
n
o
d
c
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
i
n
g
w
i
t
h
f
l
a
u
t
i
s
t
(
b
a
r
s
9
&
1
0
)
S
i
d
e
-
t
o
-
s
i
d
e
s
w
a
y
(
b
a
r
1
1
)
B
e
l
l
o
f
t
h
e
i
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t
m
a
r
k
i
n
g
b
e
a
t
o
r
u
s
e
d
f
o
r
t
i
m
i
n
g
e
f
f
e
c
t
(
b
a
r
s
1
2
&
1
3
)
C
i
r
c
l
e
s
e
n
d
o
f
c
l
a
r
i
n
e
t
(
b
a
r
1
3
)
N
o
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
A
l
l
b
a
r
s
c
o
n
t
a
i
n
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
s
M
i
r
r
o
r
i
n
g
t
h
e
f
l
u
t
e
w
i
t
h
r
i
s
i
n
g
b
o
b
(
b
a
r
1
4
)
B
o
b
b
i
n
g
(
b
a
r
s
1
5
,
1
7
&
1
8
)
S
i
d
e
-
t
o
-
s
i
d
e
s
w
a
y
,
m
i
r
r
o
r
i
n
g
f
l
a
u
t
i
s
t
(
b
a
r
1
6
)
E
l
b
o
w
s
c
i
r
c
l
e
(
b
a
r
1
9
)
N
o
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
S
t
i
l
l
n
e
s
s
b
a
r
2
0
F
l
2
d
u
o
B
T
o
r
s
o
r
i
s
i
n
g
u
p
(
b
a
r
s
2
&
5
)
T
o
r
s
o
i
m
p
u
l
s
e
m
o
v
i
n
g
t
o
r
s
o
h
i
g
h
e
r
,
t
h
e
n
b
e
n
d
s
(
b
a
r
s
3
&
4
)
A
c
c
e
n
t
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
s
i
n
t
o
r
s
o
(
b
a
r
s
7
&
8
)
N
o
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
B
a
r
s
1
&
6
n
o
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
B
o
b
b
i
n
g
k
n
e
e
b
e
n
d
i
n
g
(
b
a
r
s
9
,
1
0
&
1
1
)
C
i
r
c
l
e
s
e
n
d
o
f
f
l
u
t
e
(
b
a
r
1
3
)
R
e
c
e
i
v
e
s
c
l
a
r
i
n
e
t
t
i
s
t
s
g
l
a
n
c
e
t
o
t
i
m
e
n
o
t
e
e
n
d
i
n
g
(
b
a
r
1
3
)
N
o
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
(
b
a
r
1
2
)
S
w
a
y
f
r
o
m
h
i
g
h
t
o
l
o
w
a
n
d
b
a
c
k
s
l
o
w
b
o
b
(
b
a
r
1
4
)
S
w
a
y
f
r
o
m
h
i
g
h
t
o
l
o
w
,
l
e
a
n
i
n
g
t
o
r
i
g
h
t
(
b
a
r
s
1
5
,
1
6
,
1
7
&
1
8
)
N
o
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
m
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
S
t
i
l
l
n
e
s
s
b
a
r
s
1
9
&
2
0
C
l
2
d
u
o
B
S
i
d
e
-
t
o
-
s
i
d
e
s
w
a
y
(
b
a
r
s
1
,
2
,
3
&
4
)
N
o
d
(
b
a
r
3
)
L
i
f
t
i
n
g
b
e
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Davidson 613
The ensemble work shows its interactive nature and the usefulness of the glances as well as
bobs, nods and sways to coordinate musical effects. In fact, in both ensembles there was little
discussion, but an entwining of bodies that settled the interpretation almost immediately. In
ensemble 2, the B duo was very similar in its musical ideas to A duo, and the video data demon-
strates a tuning in to the task through the movement style.
The long-established ensemble 1 reveals a contrast in personal playing styles. The clarinet-
tist is highly dynamic in musical ideas and the use of her body. She leads the flautist, who
becomes far more active with her body in the ensemble condition than the solo performances.
Discussion
This study provides rich data going some way to understand the type of bodily movements and
facial actions used in the production of an expressive musical performance. In summary, it
seems that the biomechanical features of playing the specific woodwind instruments used leads
to some rather specific uses of the body; for example, the leaning movements of the flautists.
The range of expressive bodily movements used are limited (see Table 2), but seem to serve a
function closely allied to articulating expressive effects depicted in the musical score. For exam-
ple, the subito tempo primo in the clarinet part at bar 12 leads to both clarinettists beating the
crotchet pulse, one using the upper torso, the other using elbow beating movements, thus mov-
ing the end of the instrument. This specific example raises a point that draws this studys find-
ings back to the results of previous research: there is a movement vocabulary, but it can be used
in a variable manner for similar expressive ends. Indeed, in the duo conditions the two clarinet-
tists still make the emphatic beat movements on the crotchets, but in the case of clarinettist 1,
she uses head nods instead of upper torso beats, whereas clarinettist 2 continues to make elbow
beats and circles with the end of the clarinet. This finding was also apparent in analyses of
detailed repeat performances by a pianist (see Davidson, 2007).
The duo performances are highly interactive, showing how these performers coordinate
using movement in order to achieve a consistent musically expressive goal, for example in bars
9, 10 and 11, the on- and off-beats of the clarinet to flute bounce between one another with
bodily movements of sways, bobs and nods, that bring the players into a tight coordination.
We also observe that glances assist with musical coordination, but that these are not as fre-
quent as one might have imagined. They do not happen regularly, but rather at major boundar-
ies: at the start of the work, the transitions between sections at the end of the work. This is
consistent with the observation of piano duettists (Williamon & Davidson, 2002).
It is somewhat surprising to note that, with the exception of isolated moments when eye-
brows are raised or the lip moved, generally, the performers do not display any of the expressive
effects on their face.
The movements described in this study are a phenomena I have observed in every single
study I have undertaken, and has led me to refer to Cutting and his colleagues work on the idea
of a centre of moment for physical expression (Cutting & Proffitt, 1981; Cutting, Proffitt, &
Kozlowski, 1978). The theory argues that there is a central point about which all other move-
ments operate swinging, swaying, and rotating which is crucial in the disclosure of infor-
mation about intention. Working with a pianist/composer (see Davidson, 1995), I attempted to
control a music-learning situation by introducing a learning condition that constrained pia-
nists from moving in this circular, swaying movement during learning and performance. The
results revealed the final performances to be far less musically expressive than those where the
performers were allowed to sway and rotate freely. The upper torso swaying or rotation observed
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614 Psychology of Music 40(5)
in the flute and clarinet work may indeed be a core element for generating coordinated and
pleasurably natural musical expression (see Davidson, 2005, for a fuller discussion of this idea),
since Cutting and colleagues argue it is the natural means through which the body manifests
its internal intention. Or, as Runeson and Frykholm (1983) note, movements specify their
causes. In Davidson and Malloch (2009), I noted that the core of a good musical interaction
seems to depend on the musicality inherent to the performer and naturally expressed through
the body.
Intuitively, we all know that we rely on facial expressions for the communication of emo-
tional intention in social meeting: the face revealing vital cues about the emotional state of the
person encountered. Yet the woodwind players in the study barely showed any expressions on
their faces. One possible explanation for this is that, since they hold their instrument in or close
to their mouths, the face is too occupied with the activity of instrument control. Another allied
possibility is that the gestures they do make, such as sways and bobs, are in fact expressions of
internal states that can be expressed at a number of levels from face to finger tip, and that, in
the context of woodwind playing, the body is a better means of articulating this inner inten-
tional state. This idea would be consistent with the work by Cutting and colleagues, which
showed that any part of the moving body could provide sufficient expressive information for
identity to be revealed. Also, in Davidson (1997), I revealed that head-only and hands-only
information from pianists revealed virtually identical expressive information to observers, sug-
gesting that the movements had an expressive equivalence.
Facial expression has been reported in studies on co-performer coordination (see, for exam-
ple, Davidson & King, 2004; Williamon & Davidson, 2002), revealing that glances and eyebrow
expressions as well as smiles have been used to coordinate entrances and exits in string and
keyboard ensembles. But empirical work on instrumentalists has been very limited, certainly in
terms of facial expressions generated as the player performs. Facial expression has received
some experimental coverage in the music, movement, and expression research, but focused
centrally on singing. For example, in observing singers, Ohgushi and Hattori (1996) showed
that musically trained observers found facial expression better at communicating emotion than
the auditory alone. Scotto di Carlo and Guatella (2004) demonstrated that emotion was identi-
fied better in speech than song; however, voice alone did not communicate emotions as well as
when combined with a visual image. The singers facial expression was found to influence
observers judgements of musical dissonance, interval size, and affective valence (Thompson,
Graham, & Russo, 2005). Thompson and Russo (2007) revealed that observers were able to
detect the size of the interval sung based on visual information from facial expressions and
head movements alone.
Given the result that no expression was found on the faces of both flautist and clarinettist it
was decided to develop a study of another instrument. Even though we know the face to be a
rich source of expressive information in many contexts and in some musical contexts, the sec-
ond stage of the current paper was to investigate whether instrumentalists who do have the
freedom to make facial expressions in their playing that is players who do not blow a musical
instrument do so in a manner consistent with the overall body gestures used. For this reason,
a single exploratory case study of a pianist was undertaken.
As the expressive bodily movement in the first study seemed very clearly related to musical
structure of the work, it seemed that a second useful step would be to perform a work where
there was an explicit emotional narrative, hence one of the major Romantic works for piano
was chosen, to see whether this affected expression. Finally, the first study had not involved live
performance, so there was no sense of whether or not some communicative audience-directed
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Davidson 615
expressions could have been used and added to the palette of expressive movements. Rather
than working in the confines of the laboratory, it seemed necessary to explore real live concert
performances to explore audience effects. These approaches had been adopted before in my
observations of popular performance (e.g., Robbie Williams in Davidson, 2006). In this con-
text, the approach was to look for a world-leading performer working in major live concert
situations.
Study 2: A pianists use of bodily and facial expression in
performance
A second step in understanding the physical expressions of musicians was to look again at pia-
nists, as previous studies had revealed identifiable expressive body movements (see Davidson,
1994, 2007). These included head nodding, head shaking, body swaying, and a range of wrist
rotation, hand lifts and hand and arm lifts. In the studies from 1994 and 2007, the face was not
examined. For the current study, given the recent results of research by Thompson and col-
leagues, and also adopting Cuttings ideas of expressive intentions being represented at a num-
ber of levels in the body (e.g., upper torso movement as well as hands), it was hypothesized that
compound body movements/facial actions would be generated by the pianist for expressive pur-
pose. For example, a raising of the eyebrows and lifting of the left hand as a creation/reaction
expression to the pianist anticipating a resolving chord in a cadence. Taken together it was
posited that these combined movement/facial expressions would be part of a movement vocab-
ulary for the communication of the performers expressive intention.
Stimuli
A filmed recording of a live performance was used in this study. It was necessary to use filmed
data, so that repeated viewings of the data could be used to create an analysis. The artist, Lang
Lang, was chosen since he is renowned for his highly communicative and expressive perfor-
mances. The film was accessed through YouTube (Sissco, 2006).
Musical stimulus material
Rather than using a work composed specifically for the task (as in the first study in this paper),
it was deemed valid to draw upon the standard concert repertoire. Liszt is popular core reper-
toire for pianists. The Liebestraum (Dream of love), Nocturne no. 3 is based on a poem by
Freiligrath, O lieb, so lang du lieben Kannst (O love, as long as you can love). The poem expresses the
all-conquering power of love and kindness that urges lovers to love with the essence of their
beings and never to express a harsh word, for death soon brings separation and regret. Whether
or not Liszt follows the narrative literally, it is obvious that the work is created with this poem in
mind. Also, the pianist performing this work will certainly be familiar with the narrative and so
it could be considered as a known element for expression in performance.
Procedure
The filmed recording of the performance was observed through multiple viewings by the author
and a graduate student, Sharon Chung. Initially this was done independently, and then the
observations were brought together, compared and discussed. Since there was more than 95%
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616 Psychology of Music 40(5)
agreement in both the location and type of movement identified independently, and the conver-
sation between observers brought 100% agreement, no statistical test of agreement level was
undertaken.
Results and discussion
This live performance had been edited for broadcast using cameras set at five different camera
angles, with the final version for broadcast being shown in each camera angle as follows:
Front-view close up (1 minute, 10 seconds);
Rear-view close up (44 seconds);
Side profile shot medium distance (14 seconds);
Side profile shot long distance from back of auditorium (5 seconds);
Keyboard close-up (2 minutes, 1 second)
As the body including face was only in camera shot for a quarter of the whole performance, the
total description of note-by-note expressive movements/facial actions that had been possible in
the first study (Appendices 1 and 2) was not possible in this context. However, after multiple
observations of the film, it became evident that the pianist did produce compound bodily ges-
ture/facial actions on every observable moment of expressive action seen on film. That is, all the
expressive moments identified included the compound body/face actions. These compound
expressions could be implied in some other camera shots; for example, the rear view shot often
showed the head turned to the side so a facial expression could be in part observed and so seen to
coincide with a forward and crouched torso movement; and the medium distance shots showed
the face in side profile. Thus careful viewing by the two analysts permitted a gestural repertoire
to be recorded for Lang Lang performing this work, and this is listed in Table 4.
From this table, the initial hypothesis for this study is supported. That is, there would be facial
expressions and a relationship between the facial expressions and the body movements gener-
ated by this performer. Furthermore, it became evident that the body movements were rather
Table 4. Showing bodily and facial expressions used by Lang Lang in his performance
Bodily expression identified Concurrent facial expression identified
Forward sway/backward sway Generally eyebrows slightly raised, sometimes with
mouth slightly open
Head nodding (up and down) Generally eyebrows slightly raised, sometimes with
mouth slightly open
Head shaking (side to side) Eyes closed, eyebrows raised and mouth slightly open
Leaning back with head tilted upward Eyes closed, eyebrows raised and mouth open
Leaning or crouching forward moving towards
the keys
With furrowed brow, whole face intense and closed,
sometimes in crying or sobbing gesture
Explosive burst of body, Fast backward surge Mouth wide open, eyes wide open
Left or right hand raised, Tracing or
conducting the other hand as it plays
Eyes often following the direction of the hand
Hand making a single gesture, lifted high, such
as touching heart, or opening the fingers and
thus emphasizing a note or chord being played
Eyes often following the direction and intensity of the
hand gesture
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Davidson 617
similar in type to those discovered in a study of another pianist in Davidson (2007). For example,
body swaying, head nods and shakes and hand lifts. Given the commonality in these major areas
of the body used for expressive purpose, it could be that these indicate types of expressive body
movement most typical for generating expressive gestures in piano performance. These expres-
sive movements were found to have links to musical structure. For example, the swaying seemed
to have some correspondence with the overall rhythmic pulse; the nods were related to the place-
ment of chords or key notes and the hand lifts traced a melody line or chordal effect occurring in
the other hand. But these body gestures each have a corresponding facial expression: the
crouched, hunched position having a frowning intense facial expression to accompany it; the
backward stretching body posture having a raised eyebrow and closed eyes.
To illustrate Lang Langs movement repertoire, examples of these compound bodily and
facial expressions are captured in a sequence of photographic stills, kindly created from the
video by Sharon Chung.
1
Though these images freeze the dynamic and unfurling perfor-
mance, they nonetheless indicate the different types of expressions found. Note that these stills
come from the opening six bars (bars 16), and the musical climax of the work (bars 5560).
These two points were selected as they were both available for observation from the film edit in
front/side view and because they represented key moments in the works structure.
From the initial upbeat note in the left-hand, Lang Lang began to move with a swaying
movement towards the keys. As he played the third repeated middle C, he shook his head from
side to side and changed the direction of the sway backwards, away from the keyboard.
During these first six bars, Lang Lang swayed forwards and backwards, and as he approached
the cadence over bars 56, his body moved backwards in the swaying action, raising from a
crouched to upright sitting position, and shaking the head over the three ascending notes at bar 5.
The eyebrows were also raised during this action (see Figure 2 and Figure 3).
The movements seem to indicate the musical relaxation and a lessening of physical tension.
Then, as Lang Lang struck the C minim in the middle of bar 5, he relaxed and nodded his head
backwards, releasing his jaw and letting his mouth fall open (see Figure 4).
At the works climax, bars 5556, the body is swayed in quite an exaggerated manner, and
before reaching the climax of the high-G octave, Lang Langs facial expression anticipated the
building tension with frowning eyebrows, closed eyes, and tensed facial muscles, with the
mouth slightly opened. The image shown in Figure 5 is one of anticipation of the musical/
emotional climax. At this point, the musical interpretation is highly involved, with a strong
dynamic and building musical tension. The climax and release, and subsequent movements are
shown in Figures 6 and 7. The body surged forward (in the swaying action), the left hand and
arm burst off the chords and Lang Lang surged backward, his face showing the open-mouthed
release of tension.
After the climax, the downward octave melody in bar 56 was played with emphasis on every
note, now in a slower tempo, and the physical expressions displayed a reflective and contempla-
tive rather than tense quality. Lang Langs body swayed backwards, away from the piano with
a tilt to the back of his head. He frowned, closing his eyes and slightly opening his mouth, rais-
ing the left arm and hand towards his chest, in a gesture which strokes the location of his heart
(Figure 8).
After this short period of musical and physical relaxation, the music builds again (bars 57
59) and the forward and backward swaying once more began to build in momentum. Lang
Lang revealed a more fragile expression with frowning eyebrows, tensely closed eyes, and
upward moving cheek muscles causing the edge of the lips to raise into a crying/sobbing ges-
ture (see Figure 9).
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618 Psychology of Music 40(5)
Figure 2. Showing the first expressive gesture, captured in bar 2, as Lang Lang plays the third C of the
phrase (the corresponding musical moment is also shown in the score excerpt)
After this passage, the music moves into a chromatic ornamented cadenza at bar 60, during
which Lang Lang bent forward, hunched over the keys, but with the face in a smiling position,
the corners of the lips and eyebrows being raised (see Figure 10).
After this passage, Lang Lang smiled more broadly, lifting his head and raising his eyebrows
across a rising arpeggio figure (see Figure 11). As he struck the first note of the re-commence-
ment of chromatic notes, he raised his left hand and moved it forwards, as if marking the new
section and then tracing the shape of the melodic line being played in his right hand.
At this turning point from major chord arpeggio to the leggiero chromatic descending pas-
sage, Lang Lang looked up to his left hand, keeping a smile on the edge of the mouth as this
chromatic passage continued in the lighter sonority. The hand gesture makes the musical turn-
ing point very prominent together with the use of Lang Langs facial gesture.
In summary, Lang Lang generates an intense expressive intention whose message is distrib-
uted across both body and face. Evidently, there is a strong relationship between musical struc-
ture, its execution and gestures that suitably accompany it, either to generate, coincide with, or
respond to the structure and its effects. Although an audience per se has not been asked for
feedback here, I spent many hours analyzing this performance, and it is apparent to me as a
perceiver that an expressive narrative can be read into the performance which maps consis-
tently with what we know about the compositional intention of the work by Liszt. In this con-
text, it is an intimate love encounter. Lang Langs own use of physical tension and abandon
leads to a decoding of the meaning associated with the tension and release of physical intimacy,
as shown specifically in bars 55 and 56. Whether consciously employed or not, the physical
expressions of the body and face offer a means by which the performer can generate expression
which is both integrated into the musical effects created timing and dynamic effects and
which exists independently of them. That is, I can observe these expressions of physical release
in the still images, or better still, experience them as I observe the dynamics of the performer as
observed on film, or indeed in the live performance context.
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Davidson 619
Figure 3. Measure bar where Lang Lang is playing three ascending crotchets, the musical score excerpt
indicates the precise location
Figure 4. Lang Lang playing the minim C in the melody of bar 5
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620 Psychology of Music 40(5)
Figure 5. Lang Langs expression at the first chord of the main climax of the work at bar 55
Figure 6. Execution of the octave Gs, the notes of the phrase climax at bar 55
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Davidson 621
Figure 7. Lang Lang plays the descending quaver passage as the musical climax subsides, bar 56
Figure 8. Lang Lang as he plays the last two crotchet octaves of bar 56
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622 Psychology of Music 40(5)
Figure 9. Lang Lang playing bars 5759, and the music excerpt from the score
Figure 10. Bar 60 and the chromatic descending melody line
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Davidson 623
Figure 11. Bar 60 on the turning point of the chromatic descending passage, after the extended arpeggio
passage
Conclusions
This paper has comprised a literature review and two rather different case studies. Taken
together, the contents demonstrate that playing a piece of music requires high-level interaction
of developed cognitive and action processes. Musical performance skills involve the biomechan-
ical aspects of playing the music fluently, but coexist with expressive intentions manifested
through bodily movements and facial expressions that permit the communication of musical
intention (clarifying musical structural features), or meaning (narrative designated such as the
Liszt piano work).
In the first study there was a strong and common base for the expressive gestural vocabulary
for the two clarinettists and the two flautists. Across the two different types of woodwind instru-
ment used, there were identifiable gesture types employed, though there were individual stylis-
tic differences. Surprisingly, facial expressions were lacking in the performances of these
woodwind players, but this was explained at least in part as a consequence of playing the
instrument by mouth. The study demonstrated both individual differences and how performers
influence one another when playing in a duo. The results showed that in an ensemble a more
dominant player shapes the less-dominant individuals interpretation and movement patterns.
In the case of an experienced professional duo, this interaction encouraged a physically and
musically restrained interpreter to engage in a dance-like interaction with her more fluent part-
ner affecting a positive, rather than negative, outcome.
The second study revealed that, for the case-study pianist, facial expressions were present
and were clearly consonant with the larger-scale expressive bodily gestures that were being
generated. In other words, the facial expressions provided information of a similar type to the
overall bodily movements, offering an additional layer of information about expressive
intention.
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624 Psychology of Music 40(5)
Revisiting the research questions asked at the start of this paper, we have been able to explore
bodily movements and facial actions used in the production of an expressive musical perfor-
mance and noted that, despite differences according to instrument, swaying is an overarching
expressive device used by three different types of instrumentalist. We also found that, owing to
the interactive movement activity in the duo study, bodily movements can be of a communica-
tive nature for co-performers. In the case study by Lang Lang, we see that the compound move-
ments of body and facial expressions offer audience members an insight into the articulation of
musical structures as well as the narrative of an underlying meaning of the work in this case
the power of physical love.
Whilst the work offers only preliminary observations, it does much to reinforce previous
studies and supports again this notion of a physical centre for expressive information which
might operate in a hierarchical manner (cf. Cutting & Proffitt, 1981; Cutting et al., 1978). That
is, at a global level as captured in swaying or swinging gestures or in a local manner in a move-
ment such as a raised eyebrow or a hand lift. Indeed, the movements categorized in Table 2 and
Table 4 all stem from the core swaying movement as a fundamental element of movement
expression in the woodwind and the pianists performance. At an initial level, then, the expres-
sive bodily movement operates to generate in the music an immediate and communicative pur-
pose for the performer as he/she creates the performance (generating and responding to the
musical sounds in an interactive manner between self and music, rather like what Watt and
Ash suggested in 1998). But the data in the first study also reveal a second level of function: to
provide co-performer cues for regulation of musical content and expression of immediate and
perhaps idiosyncratic expressive content. The movements used to generate these stimuli draw
from individual movement repertoires that are based on a shared biological/culturally bound
way of moving, as shown in the commonality of the areas of the body which revealed expres-
sive information.
Returning to the overarching research questions that underpin all my research into expres-
sive body movement, it is evident that the two investigations undertaken in this paper have
contributed new knowledge in the area by showing which movements are regarded as posi-
tively musically expressive. It has been demonstrated that bodily movement is a key area for
further enquiry for both performers and audiences alike.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-
profit sectors.
Note
1. I am grateful to Sharon Chung who assisted with the current analysis and offered up her own
interpretation of these and other data as part of her study requirements at the University of Western
Australia.
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Biography
Jane Davidson is Deputy Director of the Australian Research Councils Centre of Excellence for the
History of Emotions and the Callaway/Tunley Chair of Music at The University of Western
Australia. Her research is broadly in the area of performance studies, with expressive body move-
ment being her core interest. She has published extensively and secured a range of research
grants in both Australia and overseas. She was Editor of Psychology of Music, 19972001.
at University of New South Wales on August 27, 2012 pom.sagepub.com Downloaded from
628 Psychology of Music 40(5)
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632 Psychology of Music 40(5)
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