Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely ignored throughout much of

history. Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little attention was paid to
the many advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and physical growth that occurs during
childhood and adolescence.
Interest in the field of child development finally began to emerge early in the 20th-century, but it
tended to focus on abnormal behavior. Eventually, researchers became increasingly interested in other
topics including typical child development as well as the influences on development.
An understanding of child development is essential, allowing us to fully appreciate the cognitive,
emotional, physical, social and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early
adulthood. Some of the major theories of child development are known as grand theories; they
attempt to describe every aspect of development, often using a stage approach. Others are known as
mini-theories; they instead focus only on a fairly limited aspect of development, such as cognitive or
social growth.
The following are just a few of the many child development theories that have been proposed by
theorists and researchers. More recent theories outline the developmental stages of children and
identify the typical ages at which these growth milestones occur.
Psychoanalytic Child Development Theories
Sigmund Freud
The theories proposed by Sigmund Freud stressed the importance of childhood events and
experiences, but almost exclusively focused on mental disorders rather that normal functioning.
According to Freud, child development is described as a series of 'psychosexual stages.' In "Three
Essays on Sexuality" (1915), Freud outlined these stages as oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital.
Each stage involves the satisfaction of a libidinal desire and can later play a role in adult personality. If
a child does not successfully complete a stage, Freud suggested that he or she would develop a
fixation that would later influence adult personality and behavior. Learn more in this article on Freuds
stages of psychosexual development.
Erik Erikson
Theorist Erik Erikson also proposed a stage theory of development, but his theory encompassed
human growth throughout the entire human lifespan. Erikson believed that each stage of development
was focused on overcoming a conflict. For example, the primary conflict during the adolescent period
involves establishing a sense of personal identity. Success or failure in dealing with the conflicts at
each stage can impact overall functioning. During the adolescent stage, for example, failure to develop
an identity results in role confusion. Learn more about this theory in this article on Eriksons stages of
psychosocial development.
Cognitive Child Development Theories
Theorist Jean Piaget suggested that children think differently than adults and proposed a stage theory
of cognitive development. He was the first to note that children play an active role in gaining
knowledge of the world. According to his theory, children can be thought of as "little scientists" who
actively construct their knowledge and understanding of the world. Learn more in this article on Piagets
stages of cognitive development.
Behavioral Child Development Theories
Behavioral theories of child development focus on how environmental interaction influences behavior
and are based upon the theories of theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner.
These theories deal only with observable behaviors. Development is considered a reaction to rewards,
punishments, stimuli and reinforcement. This theory differs considerably from other child development
theories because it gives no consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it focuses purely
on how experience shapes who we are. Learn more about these behavioral theories in these articles
on classical conditioning andoperant conditioning.
Social Child Development Theories
John Bowlby
There is a great deal of research on the social development of children. John Bowbly proposed one of
the earliest theories of social development. Bowlby believed that early relationships with caregivers
play a major role in child development and continue to influence social relationships throughout life.
Learn more in this overview of attachment theory.
Albert Bandura
Psychologist Albert Bandura proposed what is known as social learning theory. According to this theory of
child development, children learn new behaviors from observing other people. Unlike behavioral
theories, Bandura believed that external reinforcement was not the only way that people learned new
things. Instead, intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment
could also lead to learning. By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children
develop new skills and acquire new information.
Lev Vygotsky
Another psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on to
become very influential, especially in the field of education. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that
children learn actively and through hands-on experiences. His sociocultural theory also suggested that
parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large were responsible for the development of higher
order functions.

Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely ignored throughout much of
history. Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little attention was paid to
the many advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and physical growth that occurs during
childhood and adolescence.
Interest in the field of child development finally began to emerge early in the 20th-century, but it
tended to focus on abnormal behavior. Eventually, researchers became increasingly interested in other
topics including typical child development as well as the influences on development.
An understanding of child development is essential, allowing us to fully appreciate the cognitive,
emotional, physical, social and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early
adulthood. Some of the major theories of child development are known as grand theories; they
attempt to describe every aspect of development, often using a stage approach. Others are known as
mini-theories; they instead focus only on a fairly limited aspect of development, such as cognitive or
social growth.
The following are just a few of the many child development theories that have been proposed by
theorists and researchers. More recent theories outline the developmental stages of children and
identify the typical ages at which these growthmilestones occur.
http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/childdevtheory.htm

Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months). During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures (sucking).
Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is evidenced by
a preoccupation with oral activities. This type of personality may have a stronger tendency to smoke,
drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails. Personality wise, these individuals may become overly
dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers. On the other hand, they may also fight these
urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others.
Anal Stage (18 months to three years). The childs focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and
retaining feces. Through societys pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn to control anal
stimulation. In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation during this stage can result in an
obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive). On the opposite end of the spectrum,
they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive).
Phallic Stage (ages three to six). The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed that during
this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because of this, he becomes rivals
with his father and sees him as competition for the mothers affection. During this time, boys also develop
a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, such as by castrating them. This group of
feelings is known as Oedipus Complex ( after the Greek Mythology figure who accidentally killed his
father and married his mother).
Later it was added that girls go through a similar situation, developing unconscious sexual attraction to
their father. Although Freud Strongly disagreed with this, it has been termed the Electra Complex by more
recent psychoanalysts.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of his father, boys
eventually decide to identify with him rather than fight him. By identifying with his father, the boy develops
masculine characteristics and identifies himself as a male, and represses his sexual feelings toward his
mother. A fixation at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance) and
weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.

Latency Stage (age six to puberty). Its during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed and children
interact and play mostly with same sex peers.

Genital Stage (puberty on). The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty
when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during the previous stages,
adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with the primary focus of pleasure is the
genitals.


1. Trust Versus Mistrust (birth - 1 year)
Is the world a safe place or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to
happen?
Erikson claimed that in this stage the child will develop a sense of basic trust in the
world and in his ability to affect events around him. The development of this depends
on the consistency of the childs major caregiver. If the care the child receives is
consistent, predictable and reliable then the child will develop a sense of trust which
he will carry with him to other relationships, and is able to feel secure even when
threatened. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue ofhope.
However, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable then
the child will develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world
around them or in their abilities to influence events. This child will carry the basic
sense of mistrust with him to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened
insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2 - 3 years)
The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of
one and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their
mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to
wear, to eat, etc.
Erikson says that this is the point at which the child can develop a certain amount of
independence/autonomy. It is at this stage that the child needs support from parents
so that repeated failures and ridicule are not the only experiences encountered. So, the
parents need to encourage the child to becoming more independent whilst at the same
time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided. A delicate balance is
required from the parent .... they must try not to do everything for the child but if the
child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and
accidents (particularly when toilet training). The aim has to be self control without a
loss of self-esteem (Gross, 1993). Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.
If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence,
they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. If
children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert
themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then
become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or
doubt in their own abilities.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 - 5 years)
These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a childs life. According to
Bee (1992) it is a time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as
aggressive. The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in
order to protect the child. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness
and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his
initiatives too much.
Around age three and continuing to age six, children assert themselves more
frequently. They begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with
others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure
in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is
squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. They
may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain followers, lacking in self-
initiative.
It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for
knowledge grows. If the parents treat the childs questions as trivial, a nuisance or
embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have
feelings of guilt for being a nuisance. Too much guilt can make the child slow to
interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course,
necessary otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self control or have a
conscience. A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose.
4. Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority (6 - 12 years)
Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to
make things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the childs life
as they teach the child specific skills. It is at this stage that the childs peer group will
gain greater significance and will become a major source of the childs self esteem.
The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competences
that are valued by society, and begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments.
If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel
industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not
encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel
inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his potential.
If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding then they
may develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that the child
can develop some modesty. Yet again, a balance between competence and modesty is
necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue ofcompetence.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (13 - 18 years)
During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important.
Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of
career, relationships, families, housing, etc.
This is a major stage in development where the child has to learn the roles he will
occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his
identity and try to find out exactly who he is. Erikson suggests that two identities are
involved: the sexual and the occupational. According to Bee (1992), what should
happen at the end of this stage is a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do
or be, and of ones appropriate sex role. During this stage the body image of the
adolescent changes.
Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a
while until they can adapt and grow into the changes. Success in this stage will lead
to the virtue of fidelity.
During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity
based upon the outcome of their explorations. This sense of who they are can be
hindered, which results in a sense of confusion ("I dont know what I want to be when
I grow up") about themselves and their role in the world.
. Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood)
Occurring in Young adulthood, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with
others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with
someone other than a family member. Successful completion can lead to comfortable
relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.
Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation,
loneliness, and sometimes depression.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood)
During middle adulthood, we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship,
begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. We
give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and
becoming involved in community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve
these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive.
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (old age)
As we grow older and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity,
and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our
accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a
successful life.
Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our pasts, or
feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and
develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

ttachment is an emotional bond to another person. PsychologistJohn Bowlby was the first attachment
theorist, describing attachment as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings"
(Bowlby, 1969, p. 194). Bowlby believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with their
caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life. According to Bowlby, attachment
also serves to keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving the child's chances of survival.
The central theme of attachment theory is that mothers who are available and responsive to their
infant's needs establish a sense of security in their children. The infant knows that the caregiver is
dependable, which creates a secure base for the child to then explore the world.
The Components of Attachment
There are four key components of attachment:
Safe Haven: When the child feel threatened or afraid, he or she can return to the caregiver for comfort and soothing.


Secure Base: The caregiver provides a secure and dependable base for the child to explore the world.


Proximity Maintenance: The child strives to stay near the caregiver, thus keeping the child safe.


Separation Distress: When separated from the caregiver, the child will become upset and distressed.
Characteristics of Attachment
Characteristics of Secure Attachment

Securely attached children exhibit distress when separated from caregivers and are happy when their caregiver returns.
Remember, these children feel secure and able to depend on their adult caregivers. When the adult leaves, the child may be
upset but he or she feels assured that the parent or caregiver will return.


When frightened, securely attached children will seek comfort from caregivers. These children know their parent or caregiver
will provide comfort and reassurance, so they are comfortable seeking them out in times of need.

Characteristics of Ambivalent Attachment

Ambivalently attached children usually become very distressed when a parent leaves. This attachment style is considered
relatively uncommon, affecting an estimated 7-15% of U.S. children. Research suggests that ambivalent attachment is a result
of poor maternal availability. These children cannot depend on their mother (or caregiver) to be there when the child is in
need.

Characteristics of Avoidant Attachment

Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid parents or caregivers. When offered a choice, these children will show no
preference between a caregiver and a complete stranger. Research has suggested that this attachment style might be a result of
abusive or neglectful caregivers. Children who are punished for relying on a caregiver will learn to avoid seeking help in the
future.








Basic Social Learning Concepts
There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can
learn through observation. Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this
process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not
mean that it will result in a change in behavior.
Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.
1. People can learn through observation.
Observational Learning
In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they
have observed in other people. The children in Banduras studies observed an adult acting violently
toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they
began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or
online media.
2. Mental states are important to learning.
Intrinsic Reinforcement
Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence
learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as
pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions
helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place
social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social
cognitive theory.'
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.
While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational
learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.
The Modeling Process
Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the learner
can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be
followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:
Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on
observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate
your full attention to learning.


Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of
factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.


Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you
observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.


Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been
modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be
highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see
another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each
day.