TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page

Chapter one 1-22
Chapter two 23-39
Chapter three. 40-43
Chapter four 44-49
Chapter five 50-53
Chapter six. 54-62
Chapter seven 63-76
Chapter eight. 77-80
Chapter nine... 81-91
Chapter ten.. 92-101
Chapter eleven 102-119
1

CHAPTER 1: INTERNAL LAND FORMING
















INTERNAL LANDFORMING PROCESSES
Landforms are a result of various processes that operate inside the earth .
These are the internal land forming processes, also called endogenetic or
endogenic processes.

EARTH MOVEMENTS
These are adjustments of the crustal rocks caused by tectonic forces.
There are two types of earth movements;
1. Horizontal earth movements.
2. Vertical earth movements

HORIZONTAL EARTH MOVEMENTS
Also known as Lateral or orogenic movements.
Operate along a horizontal plane within the crustal rocks.
They cause the earth rocks to:
1.stretch(tensional forces)
2.shorten(compressional forces)
3.shear(opposite forces)

TECTONIC FORCES THAT CAUSE HORIZONTAL EARTH MOVEMENT










2

COMPRESSIONAL FORCE


SHEARING
Blocks moving past each other


VERTICAL EARTH MOVEMENTS
Also known as Epeirogenic movements
Operate along the radius of the earth .
They cause the crustal rocks to be :
1. Lifted upwards(up warping)
2. Pulled downwards (down warping)
3. Tilted.

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CAUSES OF EARTH MOVEMENTS
Movement of magma within the earth crust.
Gravitative pressure.
Convectional currents within the mantle.
Isocratic adjustment.

CONVECTIONAL CURRENTS IN THE MANTLE


EFFECTS OF EARTH MOVEMENTS ON THE LANDSCAPE
Horizontal Earth movements are responsible for:
a) Fold mountains
b) Rift valley
c) Fault blocks
d) Escarpments
e) Basins
Vertical earth movements are responsible for:
a) Rift valley
b) Tilt blocks
c) Escarpments
d) Basins
e) Raised cliff
f) Raised beaches
g) Sub-merged coasts

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Fold mountain



Escarpment



5

Raised beach


Sub-merged coasts




THE THEORY OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT.
Its by ALFRED WEGNER.
It states that the earth was one land mass called pangea.
It was surrounded by a water mass called panthalassa.
Pangea broke into two blocks:
a) Laurasia
b) Gondwanaland

The two blocks were separated by a narrow ocean called Tethys.
Laurasia broke into :
a) Laurentian shield.
b) Fennoscadia
Gondwanaland broke into:
a) Africa
b) Australia
c) The Americas
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d) Antarctica
e) The Indian Sub-continent
Africa and the Indian sub-continent drifted northwards while Australia drifted
eastwards. The Americas drifted westwards.

Continents







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PROOFS OF THE CONTINENTAL THEORY
Jigsaw fit of the countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean.
Evidence of paleoclimates is shown by ancient glaciations in some of the
continents.
Presence of major coalfields in both the northern and southern hemisphere.
Evidence of the mid-Atlantic ridge .
The cape folds of South Africa resemble those to the south of Argentina.
Evidence of the shores of the red sea having undergone lateral displacement

THE PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
The earths crust is a series of semi- rigid blocks called tectonic plates.
The plates are separated by distinct boundaries .
The plates move along their boundaries relative to each other.
There are three types of boundaries:
a) Extensional /constructive /divergent boundary
b) Compressional /destructive /convergent boundary.
c) Transform plate/conservative boundary

THE TYPES OF BOUNDARIES
Extensional boundary has the plates moving away from each other.
Compressional boundary has the plates moving towards each other.
When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate ,the edge of the
oceanic plate slides beneath the continental one in a movement called
subduction.
When oceanic plates collide , there is subduction to form a trench.

EXTENSIONAL AND COMPRESSIONALBOUNDARY




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Trench and oceanic ridge




Plate boundaries


Beautiful landform



9



Folding
Folding is the process of crustal rocks distortion whereby young sedimentary
rocks are bent upwards or downwards by compressional forces It occurs in
young rocks.
The magnitude of the fold depends on the amount of force involved.
The uplifted part is the anticline while the sunken part is the syncline. The
crest is the uppermost part of the anticline while the trough is the lowest part
of the syncline.
Types of folds.
Simple symmetrical folds.
They are caused by compressional forces of equal magnitude causing the
rocks to bend evenly.

Assymetrical folds
They result from compressional forces of unequal magnitude causing one
slope to be steeper.



Overfold.
They are asymmetrical folds caused by a very strong force pushing against a
resistant force causing the anticline to be pushed over the next fold.

Isoclinal folds.
This is a group of folds closely packed together wit all limbs almost in parallel
with each other or dipping in one direction.
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Nappe/overthrust fold.
Great pressure due to compressional forces may cause a fracture to occur
hence one limb is thrust by a stronger force over the other such that the
overlying fold slides forward along the surface of the fracture also called the
thrust plane.

Anticlinorium and synclinorium complex.
Initially land may be subjected to minor folding resulting in formation of minor
folds.
When much greater forces act on this land they form bigger folds.
The up fold being the anticlinorium and the down fold being the synclinorium.

Recumbent folds.
They are overfolds which are completely pushed over one side such that they almost
lie in a horizontal manner




Features from folding
Rolling plains
Low lying and relatively level land can be transformed into a rolling plain . If
compressional forces act on a landscape forming gently sloping anticlines and
wide synclines.

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Ridge and valley landscape.
Where compressional forces are stronger and uneven the landscape could be
transformed into a series of assymetrical folds forming a topography of ridges
and valleys.

Fold mountains.
They are formed via folding.




Theories to explain formation of fold mountains.
Contraction theory:
As the earth cooled the crust cooled faster hence when the interior began
cooling the crust started to wrinkle to fit in the cooling interior rocks, forming
the fold mountains.
Disadvantage of the theory
Wrinkling would have resulted in very high mountains that the world could
support.
Fold mountains are sedimentary rocks formed many years after the earth was
formed.

Convectional currents theory:
It states that when convectional currents in the mantle move horizontally they cause
a frictional pull on crustal rocks, the coasts in between the land are compressed
forming the folds.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY:
During the drift India drifted northwards against static Eurasia.
The crust and sediments were squeezed by the Indian subcontinent against
Eurasia causing folding and forming Himalayas mountains.
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY:
When an oceanic plate meets a continental one the edge of the oceanic plate sinks
in a process called subduction.
The sediments at the bottom are compressed causing them to fold.
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Formation of foldmountains by geosyncline



An extensive depression called a geosynclines formed on the surface and
was filled with water.
The surrounding land masses were eroded and the materials were deposited
in the geosynclines .
The weight caused the land to subside and as it subsided compressional
forces acted on the land and caused the sediments in the geosynclines fold
into mountains bordering a water body . Examples are the Alps and Atlas.

Inter-montane plateaus
This is a level land between mountains formed when edges of rocks are folded to
form mountains but the middle ground is unaffected
Example are the Bolivian plateau of S.America and Tibetan plateaus




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Inter-montane basins
They are formed when inter-montane plateaus are formed and the fill with
water.
Examples are the Utah in U.S.A , Great basin of Nevada etc,

Fold mountains formation periods.
Orogenesis : It is the process of fold mountain formation.
Orogeny : It is the fold mountain building period.
They are;
Charnian orogeny
Caledonian orogeny
Hercynian orogeny
Alpine orogeny

DISTRIBUTION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS
AFRICA
Atlas mountains-Morocco
Drankensberg mountains-South Africa
ASIA
Himalayas mountains
EUROPE
Alps mountains
NORTH AMERICA
Rockies mountains
Appalachians mountains
SOUTH AMERICA
Andes mountains

SIGNIFICANCE OF FOLDING
POSITIVE EFFECTS
Intense pressure and heat exerted on rocks may lead to metamorphism of
rocks.
Fossil fuels are exposed.
Fold mountain slopes receive rainfall hence supporting growth of vegetation
The folding process enhances the beauty of the scenery,.
It leads to formation of lakes.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS.
Intense compressional force leads to fractures in rocks that cause vulcanicity
to occur and earthquakes leading to loss of property and life.
Mountain climates are cold while their leeward side is dry hence hinder
settlements.
Fold mountains result to rugged slopes that hinder transport and
communication and make it expensive to construct their facilities.
High fold mountains cause poor visibility to aircrafts when it is foggy.
Leeward sides of the fold mountains do not support vegetation and could lead
to aridity.


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Faulting


What is faulting?
Its the process of crustal rocks breaking due to tectonic forces

Features resulting from faulting
Fault scarps
Fault steps
Fault blocks
Tilt blocks
Rift valleys

PROCESS OF FAULTING
Forces involved;
Tensional forces
Compresional forces



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Fault scarps/escarpments
They are the exposed parts of fault planes
Examples; Ethopian scarp(one of the highest in the world)
Nyandarua scarp- Kenya

Fault blocks
They are raised landblocks above the sorounding land,clearly demarcated by
faults.
Its caused by tectonic vertical forces where land on 1 side is raised/lowered
along fault planes
Mountains cformed this way are called BLOCK MOUNTAINS e.g danakil alps-
Ethiopia

Tilt blocks
Formed when vertical tectonic forces blocks of land upwards thus some parts
raised more than others due to uneven forces thus tilted block.
Examples include ;Aberdares range
Ruwenzori block

Fault Steps
When a series of fairly parallel faults develop,and land is displaced at diferent levels;
aseries of fault scarps of diferent levels is formed i.e. steps faulting

Tilt block






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Rift Valleys



Normal Faults




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RIFT VALLEY
This is valleys formed through faulting
Examples; the great rift valley-E.africa
- The rhine Rift valley-Europe
- The benue Rift Valley-W.Africa
- Baikal rift valley-.Siberia

FORMATION OF A RIFT VALLLEY
It is formed due to;
Tensional forces
Compressional forces
Anticlinal arching

Due to tensional forces
Rock layers experience tension .
Lines of weaknesses form leading to normal faults
As side blocks are pulled away,middle sinks forming floor of rift valley

Due to anticlinal arching
When vertical forces push earths crust up continuosly,a lot of stress is
created at anticline creating a huge crack that forms the rift valley
Furthermore,the upward arching leads to development of several cracks at
the crest thus pushing outer blocks more than the middle one.
This results into a rift valley

Due to compressional forces
Rocks are subjected to compression
Parallel reverse faults are formed on land
As outer blocks are pushed towards each other, middle block may sink
forming the rift valley.

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The Great Rift Valley















THE GREAT RIFT VALLEY
It is the most famous rift valley
It comprises of three parts;
Western rift valley
Malawi rift valley
Ethiopian rift valley

Negative significance of faulting
Disjointing of land thus disrupting transport lines e.g. roads
Subsidence of land thus loss of lives
Changing of river cause/ disappearing into ground
Burying of valuable minerals underground

Positive significance of faulting
Formation of depressions that may fill with water forming lakes
Creates weaklines becoming passage of hot water from undeground in forms
of springs and geysers
Formation of springs are a source of water thus encourage settlement
Features formed e.G riftvalleys and block mountans enrich the country with
foreign exchange from tourism
Block mountains receive heavy rainfall on wind ward side thus encouraging
agriculture
Exposure of valuable minerals on the surface e.g. diatomite

Normal fault
They are caused by tensional forces acting on a land surface
These forcess stetcg the earths crust thus creation of faults
Land on one side of the fault moves upward in relation to the other





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Reverse faults











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Shear faults



Reverse faults
They occur due to compressional forces
Acting on crustal rocks
As compression occurs undue stress is created on rocks causing faults
One part of the landslides downward in relation to the other

Shear faults
They are also called tear/transform faults
They occur when two adjacent land blocks move/slide past each other
The land is thus horizontally displaced with no vertical adjustments

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Thrust fault


Thrust faults
It occurs as a result of strong compresional forces
The fault develop nearly in almost a horizontal position
Therefore a block of land is pushed over the other along the fault

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Anticlinal faults



Anticlinal faults
A land may undergo compression forming anticlines
Continued compression causes stress at the crest





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CHAPTER 2: VULCANICITY AND EARTHQUAKES



















VULCANICITY AND VOLCANICITY
Vulcanicity is the process by which solid gaseous and liquid materials are forced out
of the earths surface or intrude into the sub-crustal layers.
Vulcanicity is the process where igneous materials reach the surface of the earth
through volcanic eruption.


TYPES OF VOLCANIC MATERIALS
forced onto the surface of the
earth.
s crust.


Magma and lava


Magma is a molten material in the earths crust.


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Lava is magma extruded on the surface of the earth.















CAUSES OF VULCANICITY
Presence of high pressure in the interior of the earth.
Faulting of earths crust causing cracks and fissures through which
volcanic materials escape.
High temperatures in the interior changes solid rock to molten material.
Water percolating through the rocks comes into contact with the hot
material's beneath the by turning into gaseous form under pressure


Types of lava

1. Acidic lava.
It is extremely viscous.
It doesnt flow very far but it is thrown by pressure of gases through heat.
It has more than 65% of silica in it.
It solidifies rapidly at high temperatures of about 850 degrees Celsius.
It has low viscosity i.e. very fluid and mobile.
It is able to flow for very long distances before solidifying.
It has a silica content of between 45-55% e.g. basalt

2. INTERMEDIATE LAVA
It is fairly viscous and unable to flow far before solidifying.
Silica content of between 55% to 65%.
Tranchyte and phonolite.

3. ULTRA-BASIC LAVA.
It flows very far.
Silica content of < 45%

INTRUSIVE FEATURES
Formed when magma gets trapped in the earths crust as it moves up from the
interior of the earth.
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The features formed are referred to as volcanic or igneous intrusions.
They include;
Sills
Dykes
Laccoliths or Laccolites
Batholiths or Bathyliths
Lopoliths.
Phacolithes or Phacolyths

It is a layer of igneous intrusion formed when a sheet of fluid magma forces its way
between the bedding planes of rock strata where it spreads, cools and solidifies.


















DYKES
It is a layer of igneous intrusion when a sheet of fluid magma forces its way through
layers of crustal rocks by cutting across the bedding planes.

















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Laccoliths or laccolite.
It is a mushroom or dome shaped igneous intrusion with a flat floor which lies
between the bedding planes of the country rock.




















BATHOLITH OR BATHYLITHS.
It consists of a plutonic mass of magma intrusion intruded the country rock. It is so
hot that it metamorphoses the country rock on its path and on its sides turning
sandstone into quartzite.



















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Lopolith
A lopolith is a very large saucer-shaped mass of igneous intrusion.
It occupies the bedding planes of the country rock
















PHACCOLITHS OR PHACOLITE
It is a strip of lens shaped igneous intrusion resembling a lopolith.















EXTRUSIVE FEATURES
They include;








Caleras
Fumaroles, solfatara and mofettes
Hot springs
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PHACCOLITHS OR PHACOLITE
It is a strip of lens shaped igneous intrusion resembling a lopolith.


















ACID LAVA DOMES
Formed when magma pushes its way to the surface through a vent. On
reaching the
earths surface the magma is no longer explosive since the pyroclasts are
absent. Since
he lava is intermediate it does not flow far before it solidifies. It accumulates
around
The vent and pushes the hardened outer layers of the dome outwards
Lava domes do not have craters and are known as tholoids.
Examples are;Itasy Massif and Managasha


















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PLUG DOMES
It forms when a mass of very viscous acidic magma is forced out of the
ground in
the shape of a rigid cylindrical column.
In the initial stages eruptions are very explosive. The magma comes out amid
clouds
of hot luminous ash and cinders. A column of stiff magma is forced out and as
soon as it
reaches he surface it rapidly starts to cool and harden as it rises vertically.
Also known as a plug volcano or a spine.
Examples are;
Hyrax tower at hells gate
Lassen peak




















COMPOSITE VOLCANOES
Also known as strato-volcano or complex cone.
Formed when successive vent eruptions occur. First eruptions throws out solid
materials that is ash ,dust and cinder. This materials settle around the vent. A mass
of lava follows and spreads over the pyroclasts cools and solidifies forming another
layer. This process is repeated over and over forming a volcanic cone which has
several compact and alternating layers of pyroclasts and lava.









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Examples are Tibesti mountains and Mt.Cameroon

ASH AND CINDER CONES
As gases rises through the weak lines they break off portions of the earth's rocks. On
reaching the surface pressure is released causing a vent eruption which emits
pyroclasts. They are violent and throw materials to great heights some of which go
back inside while some settle on the sides of the vent .Continuous processes lead to
the formation of ash and cinder cones.

Examples are tororo rock and Rangwa hill.











VOLCANIC PLUGS
Its a column of magma that cooled and solidified inside the vent. The solidified lava
forming volcano is eroded causing solidified magma column in the vent to be
exposed. Rocks making up the plug have cooled slowly making them harder than the
surrounding lava. With time a plug is exposed as a resistant6 column of rock.

Examples are peaks of Mount Kenya and Tororo hill.
















BASIC LAVA DOMES OR CONES
It is a large low lying volcanic dome which has a broad base and gentle slopes.
They are also referred to as shield volcanoes.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COMPOSITE VOLCANOS
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BASIC LAVA DOMES AND ASH AND CINDER CONES
1. Ash and cinder domes are smallest narrowest and shortest at the base
2. Composite volcanoes are far much higher and much wider at the base.
3. Basic lava domes are the widest at the base though they are much shorter than
the composite volcanoes.

Note: a seamount an eventually appear above the water and form a volcanic Island.


LAVA PLATEAUS
This is an extensive fairly upland area which is elevated to cover 500 m above sea
lava.


Lava plateaus and plains
A lava plateau is an extrusive fairly level upland area which is elevated o cover 500
m above sea level.
A lava plain is like a plateau but its surface is at an altitude of less than 500 m above
sea level and is also covered in lava flows.


















Crater
A crater is a round funnel shaped hollow mouth of a volcanic cent.
Ways in which craters are formed:
1. During the formation of a volcano.
Once the outpouring of lava stops the magma in the vent cools and contracts
forming a depression.

2. Due to a volcanic explosion at ground level.
Gases and water vapor that are I contact with the magma are heated and the
expand due to pressure build up. They escape through small lines of weakness
they approach the surface the pressure is released resulting in a volcanic
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explosion leaving a hole in the ground.
3. Through a non volcanic process.
It forms as the result of a meteorite falling on the earths surface.

































Calderas
A caldera is also called a basal wreck.
It is a large basin shaped depression surrounded by steep sides(cliffs ) and may
form in any of the following ways:
1. By violent eruption :
It occurs when a volcano explodes violently, blowing off its upper part.
2. By cauldron or block subsidence.
After an eruption a void is formed. Faulting causes weak lines to develop in
volcanos, leading to their eventual collapse. A large depression is left o the now
much lower depression. It is referred to as a collapse caldera.
3. Outward collapsing.
A volcano built of ash and pyroclasts can grow to be very high and eventually
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become unstable.
The materials at the base begin to spread as the top of the

















Fumaroles,solfatara and moffettes
A fumarole is a subsidiary vent on a volcano or a hole in the ground which mainly
emits gases or steam.











HOT SPRINGS
This is a place where hot water comes out of the ground.
Rain water enters the crustal rocks to THE REGION
WHERE THE HOT ROCKS ARE LOCATED. Once there it is heated by the hot rocks
and even magma itself. Some of this water collects in the sumps within the hot rocks.
The steam builds up pressure causing the water in the chambers getting them
superheated. The pressure forces the steam upwards. As steam escapes to the
surface it heats the ground water on the surrounding rocks. This ground water
already heated and under pressure may find its way to the surface where it
QUIETLY comes out as a hot spring.






34















GEYSERS
Rain water or surface water enters the crustal rocks through cracks and holes. The
water percolates through the rocks to the region where hot rocks are. It is heated by
hot rocks or even magma itself. Some of the water turns i9nto steam and expands.
Some of the water collects in chambers or sumps within the hot rocks. Continued
pressure by the steam causes water in the chambers to become super heated. The
accumulated pressure forces the steam upwards through the cracks and holes. As
more steam escapes the pressure of the superheated water in the chamber is
reduced. This causes the water to expand and rise to the surface. As I gets closer to
the surface the pressure is reduced suddenly causing the water to begin boiling and
shooting out of the ground as a geyser.

TYPES OF VOLCANOES
Active-A Volcano known to have erupted recently.
Dormant-a volcano which has not erupted in recent times but shows signs of
life.
Extinct-a volcano which does not show any signs of any future eruptions.

Significance of vulcanicity
POSITIVE.
Formation of fertile soil
Formation of valuable minerals
Geysers are sources of geo-thermal electricity.
Water from hot springs is pumped into houses for heating.
Tourist attraction.
It encourages settlement.
Many varieties of rocks are economically valuable
Fishing is carried out in some crater lakes


NEGATIVE
Loss of life
Destruction of property
Formation of infertile soils
Create barriers in infrastructure
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Rugged nature of land discourages economic activities

EARTHQUAKES
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Seismology: it is the scientific study and interpretation of earth quakes.
Seismic focus/ origin: the point of origin of an earthquake.
Epicenter: it is the point where the shock waves are first
Experienced on the earths surface.
Seismograph: it is a pendulum based instrument for recording seismic waves.
Seismogram: it is a graph like record on which impulses are recorded.
Earthquake: a sudden rapid movement of the earths crust.
Tsunami: earthquakes which occur in the oceans create waves called
tsunamis.
Seismeter: it is a delicate instrument for receiving impulses and is attached to
a seismograph.

WAYS OF PREDICTING EARTH QUAKES
Use of pre-quake instruments
The behavior of birds i.e. they stop to take water
Snakes coming out of their cages or holes

DIAGRAM OF AN EARTHQUAKE

















CAUSE OF EARTHQUAKES
NATURAL CAUSES
1. Tectonic movements.
2. vulcanicity.
3. Gravitative pressure.
4. Isostatic adjustment.
5. Energy release from the mantle

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HUMAN CAUSES
1. Underground nuclear tests.
2. Movement of trains.
3. Uses of explosives.
4. Construction of large reservoirs.

TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES
The shock waves originating from the focus are also called seismic waves.
There are two main types namely:
1. Body waves
2. Surface waves.
1. BODY WAVES.
These are waves that travel through the surface of the earth.
(a) Primary waves.
They cause each crustal rock to move back and forth along the direction of the Wave
movement. They are also the fastest waves.
(b) Secondary waves.
Referred to as shake or shear waves since they cause the crustal rock particles to
vibrate vertically to the direction of the waves movement.

2. Surface waves.
They travel on the surface of the earth and are responsible from a third set of
impulses.

(a) Rayleigh waves
They cause the surface of the earth to move in elliptical orbits therefore they cause
the surface to have vertical circular movement very similar to that of water in sea.

(b) Love waves.
These waves make the earths crust to move in a side to side manner and at right
angles to the direction of the wave movement.

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NOTE: waves move faster in denser materials therefore the velocity of waves
increases with increase in depth


More on waves:




















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Description of waves
Shallow focus earth quakes; they occur at a depth of 0-70 km below the
earths surface.
Deep focus earth quakes: occur at depths if between 300-700 km.
Between the two types of earthquakes are the intermediate earthquakes


MEASUREMENT OF EARTH QUAKES
The strength of an earth quake is measured by its intensity and magnitude
Intensity is the measure if how strong or hard the earthquake shakes the ground.
It is measured using the Mercalli scale by noting the earth quakes effects in people,
buildings etc
Magnitude is the measure of amount if energy given off by an earthquake.
It is measured on the Richter scale. An earthquake of magnitude four gives ten
times as much energy as one of magnitude three.
The Richter scale ranges from 0-8.9


EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

















On the earths crust
Rocks on the crust are displaced.
Earthquakes cause uplift and subsidence of the land.
They cause lowering or the raising of the sea floor.
They can trigger off landslides on the surface of the earths crust
They can also lead to volcanic eruptions.
They can expose minerals or bury them deeper in the ears crust.




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On human environment
Destruction of property and loss of lives
It can trigger off a tsunami resulting in flooding in coastal areas.
It may cause fires associated with vulcanicity.
The vertical and lateral displacement caused by earthquakes can cause
damage on transport and communication lines.
It can spark off landslides leading to loss of lives and property.

















On physical environment
They can trigger off faulting and vulcanicity.
They can cause tsunamis which can cause submergence of coastal regions.
It can lead to shearing of rocks resulting in horizontal displacement of rocks.
Landslides due to earthquakes can block rivers resulting in diversion of
drainage or formation of lakes.
It leads to lowering or rising of the sea floor.

NOTE: places that are prone to earthquakes are referred to as seismic zones places
that are not prone to earthquakes are known as a seismeic zones.














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CHAPTER 3: MAPS AND MAP WORK
Map-representation of an area on a piece of paper.

DIRECTION AND BEARING
Direction-a line or course upon which something is moving to pointing or facing
Bearing-an expression of direction using degrees of an angle

Traditional methods of showing direction
Landmarks
Use of heavenly bodies
Dead reckoning-involves recording the direction of movement, time and speed
of travel from a known position.
Modern methods of showing direction
Landmarks for example buildings, rivers etc
Compass direction

Bearing
The difference between direction and bearing is that, while direction is a line
or course upon which a body is pointing or moving, bearing is the expression
of this direction using degrees of an angle measured from north in a clockwise
direction.
These two, methods, compass direction and bearing can be used on
topographical maps when referring to or finding direction.

Types of bearing
The magnetic poles of the earth are not in exactly in the same position as its
geographical poles.
This is partly why we have three slightly different north directions

TRUE NORTH-also called geographical bearing. It is the direction of the North Pole.
It is the position on the globe where all longitudes meet. Bearings calculated from the
true north are also called true bearings

MAGNETIC NORTH-Based on the earths magnetic field which has a north pole and
a south pole. When a needle is left to swing freely it comes to rest in a north south
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position .its north point indicates the earths magnetic north. Bearings calculated
from the magnetic north are called magnetic bearing

GRID NORTH-the lines on topographical maps which form a network of squares are
called grid lines. They meet at a point in the North Pole called grid north. The grid
north is based on the determined national grid system of a country. Bearings
calculated from the grid north are called grid bearings.






True north and grid north are fixed points. Magnetic north changes according to the
position of the earths magnetic north Topographical map showing grid lines.

Topographical map showing grid lines









Location of placesvoiUse of place names e.g. Nairobi, Kisumu or Use of direction,
bearing and distance
Use of latitudes and longitudes
Use of grid references. Grid lines drawn from north to south are called eastings and
their value increases eastwards on the map while those drawn from east to west
across the map, are called grid northings.

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Grid referencing
Four figure grid reference
Used if a feature or point is at the intersection of grid lines
Six figure grid referencing
Used to give the precise location of a feature.
Methods of representing relief on topographical maps Spot heights-are points
on a map whose positions and heights have been determined by surveyors.
Shown by a dot and a figure.
Show the actual height of a point on a map Trigonometrical stations-they show
actual heights of a place on a map.
Contours and form lines-contour is a line on a map joining all points which are on the
same height above sea level. Also known as isohypes while form lines are lines
drawn on a map joining points of approximately the same height above sea level.
Contuor intervals is the difference in height between any two successive contours
also called vertical interval.

Other methods of representing relief on maps Pictorials. Pictures of landforms such
as hills and mountains are drawn on the map in the approximate positions where the
landforms are to be found.

Disadvantages of using pictorials
The symbols are viewed from an angle which is contrary to the idea that a
map is supposed to be viewed vertically from above.
The pictures may obscure the details behind them.
They do not give the heights of land above sea level
Only a limited variety of landforms may be shown
Hill shading. Used to illuminate some parts of the map while casting shadows
on others.
Difficulties associated with hill shading as a method of
Does not show accurate heights above sea level
Insertion of more details is difficult in the darkly shaded regions. Difficult to
representing relief
43

determine the direction of slope as well as the types of landforms on the map.
Layer tinting or layer colouring .Involves the use of colour or some form of
shade. Land within a particular range of altitude is given a particular colour or
shade. The faintest tint or colour usually represents the lowest land and it
becomes progressively darker with increasing altitude
Hypsometric .Also called line shading can be used to depict relief in the same
manner the tints are used.
Limitations of using layer tinting
Only suitable for a region of varied relief.
It can be misleading in that one colour or shade assumes uniformity of height
and yet the land is usually steadily rising.
Difficult to identify landforms on such maps.
Difficult to estimate heights of certain places.
In regions of high altitude the tints or shades may be so dark that insertion of
additional information becomes impossible.
44

CHAPTER 4: PHOTOGRAPHY

A photograph is an image or a picture of an object recorded by a camera on a light
sensitive film or paper.
Photographs may be still or motion pictures.













Types of photographs

1. Ground photographs
They are taken from the ground. The object is usually directly in front of the person
taking the photograph.

a. Ground horizontals
They are taken with the camera held at the same level as the object. Whatever is in
the foreground is shown clearly. The area that is hidden from view is known as dead
ground. There are two types of ground horizontal photographs:

i. Ground close-ups/ Ground particular photographs:
The camera is focused on one major item and obscures the other things behind it.


Ground close-up
Ground general view:
Objects become progressively smaller from the foreground to the background. The
cameraman is usually at the same level with the object.












45


Ground general view











b. Ground oblique :
The cameraman holds the camera at an angle on a raised ground















2. Aerial photographs
They are taken from the air.
a. Aerial obliques
They are taken with the camera tilted towards the ground and cover a large area e.g.
the horizon.














46

b. Vertical aerial photographs
They are taken with the camera directly above the object/scenery. However, they are
difficult to interpret.

Vertical ariel

















Parts of a photograph
a) Horizontally: It is divided into the foreground, the middle ground and the
background.
b) Vertically: It is divided into the left, right and centre parts.

Uses of photographs
1. In learning Geography as they show objects as they appear.
2. To study physical features.
3. To study the various types of vegetation and their distribution.
4. To study the drainage types of an area.
5. To identify human economic activities e.g. transport and communication.

Limitations of using photographs
1. They are expensive to produce.
2. Wrong interpretation
3. Vertical aerial photographs are difficult to interpret without the use of
stereoscopes.
4. Details in the photograph may be blurred if the camera is not properly focused.
Interpretation of photographs
It involves:
1. Determining the title.
2. Estimating the time, season and direction:
It is possible to determine the time of day if we know where it was taken. The
vegetation, clouds, skies and type of clothing can be used to determine the
season.
3. Estimating direction:
4. The direction of the shadow can be used to determine the direction the
47

cameraman was facing.
5. Estimating size of features.
6. Identifying human activities.
7. Suggesting the possible location of the area in the photograph.

Prominent hills and isolated hills on the flat land are called STUDYING PHYSICAL
FEATURES inselbergs ON PHOTOGRAPHS
1) Relief
a. Flat Landscape
Occurs in lowlands (plains) and uplands (plateaus) and is also associated with
meandering rivers. A relatively flat area with low-lying hills is referred to as
undulating ground.
Flat lands can be identified by the type of crops grown. E.g. rice

Prominent hills and isolated hills on the flat land are called inselbergs









b. Hilly and mountainous landscape
An area of more than 2000m above the sea level is referred to as mountainous. It is
characterized by steep slopes on an individual block of land. The crops growing in an
area can be used to deduce the altitude of an area. E.g. tea and wheat grows in high
altitude areas














c. Drainage
It is the process by which water is removed from the land to a lake or sea by a
system of streams or rivers. They may also include: swamps, waterholes, ponds and
rivers. The presence of waterfalls and rapids indicate that a river is flowing in steep
region. Meanders show that a river is in its middle stage or old stage. Some
meanders may be cut off from the main river to form an oxbow lake.
48

A river delta can be identified by the presence of many channels.

d. Vegetation
It is the plant cover that develops under natural conditions in a particular climate,
relief and soil. The vegetation on photos is commonly likely to be secondary or
derived.

Aspects to be taken into account when describing vegetation
1. Identify the type of vegetation
2. Describe the height and the shapes of vegetation. E.g. needle shaped leaves.
3. Identify some species of trees easily identifiable e.g. baobab
4. Relate vegetation types to climatic regions.
5. Try to distinguish natural vegetation from planted vegetation

e. Climate
One can tell the climate by gathering information from physical features and human
activities e.g. presence or absence of clouds, clothes people wear, types of houses
and the styles of building the houses, types of crops grown and the animals kept.

f. Soils
They can be determined by the types of crops grown in the area e.g.
Coffee trees grow in acidic and volcanic soils, rice grows in areas with clay soils and
coconut and cashew nuts grow in sandy soils, most horticultural crops grow in loamy
soils.

g. Human Activities
Farming
It is divided into subsistence and commercial. It can be interpreted by:
Main characteristics of each type of crop. Areas where such farming is carried out
Benefits and problems associated with each type of farming.
Effects of each type of farming on the environment
Government policy on each type of farming.

Settlements
It is a group of dwellings where people live and interact.
It is divided into rural or urban dwellings.
Rural dwellings can be indicated by:
1. Simple architectural design of houses
2. Evidence of farming and fishing activities
3. Uneven distribution of dwellings or presence of villages
4. Urban settlements can be indicated by:
5. Permanent buildings
6. Regular street patterns
7. Several storied buildings
8. Industrial parts of the town with warehouses and large buildings
9. High population densities
10. Heavy motor vehicle traffic
11. Port facilities like docks
12. Well developed communication network
49


Industrial and mining activities
Are indicated by the presence of:
1. Factory buildings with tall chimneys
2. Nucleated settlements of workers
3. Large open pits, large excavators, lorries carrying loads of rocks
4. Oil refineries with chimneys emitting flames of fire

Lumbering can be indicated by:
5. People cutting trees with power saws
6. People loading timber into lorries
7. Rafts of logs floating down a river
8. Logs piled near a sawmill
9. Large forest clearings with tree stumps and piles of logs

Transport and communication
1. Motor transport: roads, motor vehicles
2. Rail transport: railway lines with or without trains
3. Air transport: large flat tarmacked piece of ground with buildings on one side,
control tower
4. Water transport: boats, ship, large water vessels
5. Communication services: telephone lines, booths, satellite masts, television
and radio stations, post offices, newspapers etc.

Sketching diagrams from photographs
1. Draw a rectangle or square of the same size or proportional to the size of the
photo.
2. Subdivide the photo into three equal sections: foreground, middle ground and
background.
3. Draw faint vertical lines to obtain left, centre and right sections.
4. Starting with the background, draw the skyline as it is in the photo.
5. Fill in the main features in the background.
6. Complete details in the middle ground and finally put important features in the
foreground.
7. Complete the sketch by drawing and labeling important features e.g.
vegetation.
8. Give the sketch a suitable title.



50

CHAPTER 5: STATISTICAL METHODS

Types of statistical presentation

Comparative line graph
Comparative bar graph
Divided bar /rectangle

COMPARATIVE LINE GRAPHS
Also known as group line graphs /multiple line graphs
They are a series of line graph drawn on the same chart to show the relationship
Between sets of similar statistics for more items
It is an appropriate method of presenting data for purpose of comparing information
in two or more sets of data

COMPARATIVE LINE GRAPH














STEPS TO CONSTRUCTING A COMPARATIVE BAR GRAPH

CROP 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
TEA 24126 32971 33065 35150 34485
COFFEE 16856 12817 12029 11707 7460
HORTICULTURE 13752 14938 17641 21216 19846
TOBACCO &
PRODUCTS
1607 1554 2167 2887
PYRETHRUM
EXTRACT
716 656 704 993
SISAL 723 689 636 606 728
MAIZE 56 130 488 33 18
TOTAL 58609 63868 66069 71583 66417






51


Decide on a suitable scale for both horizontal and vertical axis.
Draw line graphs for each crop on the same frame but separate lines.
Write the crop name along its line other than creating a key for easier comparison.
Write an informative title above the diagram.

NOTE: the maximum number of items to be presented in a graph should not exceed
five.

INTERPRETATION OF STATISTICAL DIAGRAMS

Examine the trend of the graphs and their details
Identify various lines/bars and study the trends and their interrelationship
Make meaningful conclusions
Provide explanations where reasons are known

COMPARATIVE LINE GRAPHS
Advantages
a) Simple to construct
b) Comparison of items is easy
c) Easy to read the exact values from each graph

Disadvantages
a) Number of items that can be
b) Crossing of lines is inevitable in
c) some cases causing difficulties in interpretation


COMPARATIVE BAR GRAPHS




















52

Also called group or multiple bar graphs
Drawn for purpose of comparing quantities of different items over the same period
They are more suitable in representing quantities which are solid and tangible
because of their solid appearance.

CONSTRUCTION
a) Choose a suitable scale
b) Draw bars starting with the one representing the largest single component then
the next till the smallest is drawn.
NOTE: the order will remain the same in the other years even if the ranking in
values change.
Others will always come last even if it has the largest values.
A gap is left after each group of bars.
c) Choose different shading for each bar in the first group. adopt the same shading
in the other groups for respective bars
d) Add a key
e) Add a suitable title.


Advantages
Give a better impression of totality and of the individual contribution made by
each of the component part.
The bars emphasize quantities well
Easy to see difference in quantities. Emphasizes too much on quantities
Easy to construct and read
Easy to compare.

Disadvantages
Difficult to follow trends
Not easy to compare the totals in each year

DIVIDED BAR/RECTANGLES

A rectangle is divided to present statistical data.
The subdivisions represent an item, a commodity, a value, a region, or a
country.
This method is very versatile in representing statistics.

CONSTRUCTION
Length is determined by the values and size of the paper.
Choose a suitable scale for the length of the rectangle. Should have a definite
width.
Draw a horizontal rectangle proportional to the scale chosen.
Starting from the left mark off strips from the largest to the smallest single
component.
Write the name of each component on the face of each strip.
A short line scale should accompany the rectangle especially if the values are
not indicated on the drawing

53

Advantages
Easy to construct
Easy to compare
Takes less space than comparative bars
Each components proportional to the total can easily be seen at a glance

Disadvantages
Difficult to assess the value of the individual components because they do not
start from a common base
Not appealing
Only one unit of measurement can be used







54

CHAPTER 6: CLIMATE 1


Introduction and Kenyas climatic regions
Definition
Weather refers to the condition of the atmosphere of a place at a particular
time over a short period of time.
Climate refers to the typical average weather conditions of a place or a region
observed over a long period of time.

1. Factors influencing climate
2. Latitude
3. Altitude
4. Distance from the sea
5. Aspect
6. Ocean currents
7. Winds and air masses
8. Configuration of the coastline
9. Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone[ITCZ]
10. Forests
11. Human activities

1. Latitude
Latitude influences;
1. The planetary wind system
2. Rainfall
3. Temperature
4. sunshine














Areas nearer the equator experience higher temperatures than those far from the
equator.
Rainfall is influenced in that there is seasonal variation of rainfall for example, the
northern tropical experiences a rainy season in March and July.
The face of the mountain towards the sun experiences a lot of sunshine.

55

2. Altitude
This influence;
Temperature
Atmospheric pressure
Lower altitude areas are warmer because at higher altitudes the air is not
dense thus doesnt retain heat.
When air rises it expands and looses internal energy 1degree for 164m this is
the environmental lapse rate.
Moisture decreases with elevation because moisture condenses at a specific
altitude.








3. Distance from the sea/ continentality
This influence;
Temperature
Temperature of places near the sea tend to be modified due to onshore
prevailing winds and nearness to the sea
Summers are cooler in coasts because of cool onshore winds.
As winds advance inland they tend to adapt and become warmer.
Regions whose temperatures are influenced greatly by the sea are said to
have a maritime, oceanic or insular climate.
Regions whose temperatures are greatly influenced by remoteness of the sea
have a continental climate.

4. Aspect
This is the direction of a slope.
In the northern hemisphere the south facing slopes are warmer than the north facing
slope because it receives direct sunshine and vice versa in the southern
hemisphere.










4. Aspect
This is the direction of a slope.
In the northern hemisphere the south facing slopes are warmer than the
north facing slope because it receives direct sunshine and vice versa in
56

5. Ocean currents
This influence;
Temperature
Rainfall
Onshore winds are warmed or cooled from below as they blow over warm or
cold ocean currents causing temperature change on the adjacent land.
If these winds acquire moisture from the current they bring rainfall.

6. Winds and air masses
This influence;
Rainfall
Temperature
If winds blow from warm regions they warm the regions they are blowing over
and vice versa in cool regions.
Moisture laden winds cause rainfall in a region while dry winds cause desert
like conditions.
Katabatic winds are responsible for low temperatures at night in valleys and
lowland regions while anabatic are responsible for formation of cumulus
clouds and afternoon showers in highlands.
Fohn and Chinook cause dryness on the leeward side they blow across.














7. Configuration of the coastline\ alignment
This influence:
Rainfall
Temperature
If the coastline is parallel to onshore winds they bring no effect of rainfall to
the coastal regions while an irregular coastline allows the winds to penetrate
to the land thus bringing rainfall and changes in temperature.

8. Inter tropical convergence zone
This influence;
Temperature
Rainfall
Rain bearing winds converge in this low pressure region causing two rainy
seasons when the sun is overhead.
Areas further away experience one rainy season when the sun is overhead.
57

9. Forests
This influence; Temperature, Rainfall, Humidity Temperatures tend to be lower
because of shade reducing solar insolation. Trees act as windbreakers causing a
microclimate.
Trees undergo evapo-transpiration causing high humidity and rainfall













10. Human activities
Activities include; agriculture, development of settlement, construction has an effect
on local climate.
Emissions from factories like chlorofluorocarbons and other gases cause global
warming.










How to describe climate
Temperature and rainfall are the main elements used in description of climate.
N/B: Limuru cannot be described as cold but cool.
When describing climate of areas beyond the tropics the seasons i.e. summer,
autumn, winter, spring are used










58

Mean annual range of temperature
Temperature data
More than 30
19-30
8-18
3-7
Less than 3

Range description
Very large
Large
Moderate
Small
Negligible


Rainfall amount
More than 1500mm
1000-1500mm
500-999mm
250-499mm
Less than 250mm

Rainfall description
Very high
High
Moderate
Low
Very low

Climate description
Very wet
Wet
Fairly wet
Dry
Very dry

Mean monthly and annual temperature
Temperature description
Very high
High
Moderate
Low
Very low
Extremely low

Climate description
Very hot
Hot
59

Warm
Cool
Cold
Very cold

Temperature data
More than 30
20-30
10-19
0-9
-10-0
Less than -10

Temperature description
More than 125mm
100-125mm
50-99mm
Less than 50mm

Rainfall description
Very high
High
Moderate
low

Climate description
Very wet
Wet
Fairly wet
Dry


Characteristics of lake Victoria climate
1. Mean annual temperature ranges between 22 to 32
2. Annual range of temperature is small
3. Rainfall varies between 1000mm and 1600mm annually
4. The rainfall regime is a double maxima
5. Rain falls all year round
6. Rainfall is of convectional type. It falls mainly in the afternoon accompanied by
thunder storms
7. There is high humidity.

Modified equatorial of the coast
It is influenced by the local prevailing trade winds and the presence of the Indian
ocean.
Some of its characteristics include;
1. Experiences rain throughout the year.
2. Has double maxima of rainfall, long rains come between March and May while
short rains are experienced between September and October.
60

3. Receives convectional rainfall due to the presence of the Indian ocean.
4. Annual rainfall ranges between 1000 mm and 1250 mm which reduces inland.
5. Temperatures are generally high throughout the year, ranging between 22 to 30.
6. Experiences high relative humidity throughout the year
7. Low mean annual temperature range.














Modified tropical climate
Temperature ranges between 17 and 24.
Annual range of temperature is small, Between 3 and 5
Days are generally warm while nights are cool and sometimes chilly.
The coolest months are June to August while the rest of the year is generally warm.
The region receives rainfall of between 1000mm and 1500mm on average.
It rains throughout the year.
The rainfall regime is a double maxima in highlands east of the rift valley and a
single maxima in the highlands west of Rift Valley.
Long rains are received between March and May and short rains between
September and December in the east of the rift valley while in the west of Rift Valley
the peak is between May and August.
Rainfall is mainly the orographic rainfall caused
by the South East trade winds.
Rainfall is high on the windward slops than on the lee ward slope.
Tropical continental or semi desert climate
Also called the Savanna
Experienced in large areas in Kenya especially the plateau and the low lands of
Nyika and Rift valley

Some of its characteristics include;
1. Experiences two dry seasons and two rainy seasons.
2. Rain falls between March and May and between September and October after
the overhead sun.
3. Rainfall is moderate averaging between 750 mm and 1000mm
4. in a year.
5. Rainfall is mainly convectional.
6. Temperature throughout is high averaging at 27
7. During the dry month the temperatures are relatively low.

61











Tropical climate
1. Temperatures are high as those of tropical continental climate but in areas
with high relief its modified e.g. Loita hills
2. Influence of relief makes it more habitable than semi-desert
3. Rainfalls in one season and it is generally low
4. The amounts are higher than semi desert
5. Rainfall received is more than 250 mm












Tropical northern climate
Experienced in the North West part of Kenya and Uganda
1. Average temperature is high and slightly modified.
2. Mean annual rainfall is 850 mm and falls between June and September.
3. Long dry season lasting six month.















62

Kalori desert



















63

CHAPTER 7: CLIMATE 2
WORLD CLIMATIC REGIONS














1. Hot climates

a) Equatorial Climate
Along the west coast of Africa from Guinea. Through
Cote dIvoire
South-western and central Ghana
Southern Nigeria
Cameroon
Central African
Republic
Gabon
Congo
Democratic Republic of Congo




















64

Characteristics
High temperature all year (24-27 degrees centigrade) with a small annual
range of 3 degrees centigrade.
Diurnal mean temperature of about 26 degrees centigrade all year with a
diurnal range of below 8 degrees centigrade.
Mean annual rainfall exceeds 1500mm and is evenly distributed throughout
the year.
Rainfall regime is a double maxima after the equinox.
Very high relative humidity throughout the year.
Plenty of sunshine and low atmospheric pressure of about 1014 millibars.


b) Equatorial Monsoon
InSouth-East Asian, it is experienced in the
Malaysian and Indonesian islands of:
a) Sumatra
b) iJava
c) Borneo
d) Salawesi
e) Mindanao
f) New Guinea
g) The whole Malaya peninsula














Characteristics.
High temperature of between 24 and 27 degrees
Celsius throughout the year with a small annual range of between 3-5
degrees Celsius.
Diurnal mean of about 36 degrees Celsius with a diurnal range that is small
about 6 degrees Celsius.
Mean annual rainfall exceeds 1800 mm and is evenly distributed during the
year.
Relative humidity of over 80% throughout the year and plenty of sunshine.




65


C) Tropical monsoon
Southern China
Northern Australia
Southern Senegal
Guinea Bissau
Guinea
Sierra Leone
Liberia
South East Asia



















Characteristics
High mean annual temperature of about 28 degrees
Celsius with the annual range being about 7 degrees
Celsius although not uniform for all places.
Seasonal reversal rains with onshore winds causing heavy rainfall.
Rainfall amount varies between 600 and 1300 mm with a distinct dry season

The coast of Eastern
d) Africa from Kenya,
a) Tropical marine through Tanzania to Mozambique
b) The Eastern coast of Madagascar
c) The Philippines Islands
d) The East Coast of Queensland, Australia
e) South America along the east coast of Brazil.
f) Central America from Guatemala through Panama.
g) Along the northern coast of South America from Colombia to Surinam
h) The Caribbean Island of Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti and Puerto Rico



66



















Characteristics
High mean annual temperature of about 25 degrees
Celsius with the annual range being about 8 degrees Celsius.
Mean annual rainfall of between 1100 and 2000mm experienced all year
round.
Humidity is high throughout the year.
Prevailing winds are trade winds.
Tropical cyclones occur towards the end of the hot season.

e) South America onTropical the Braziliancontinental.
Plateau of Mato Grosso, The lower lands of Colombia and Venezuela, and some
parts of Guyana Highlands Australia where it forms a broad belt in the Australian
Desert and the tropical monsoon coast. Central and Southern Mexico

















67

Characteristics
Temperatures are high throughout the year varying between 26 and 32
degrees Celsius with an annual range of about 11 degrees Celsius.
Rainfall varies between 750 and 1000 mm and is convectional. It falls during
the hot season.
Rainfall increases towards the equatorial regions and decreases away from
the equator.
Prevailing winds are trade winds.


Sahara, Kalahari and Namib deserts of
f) Tropical desert Africa
a) Jordan, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan and Israel in the middle east.
b) The desert of India.
c) Mohave, Colorado and Mexican deserts of North and Central America
d) Atacama Desert of South America.
e) The Great Australian desert.





















Characteristics
High mean annual temperature of 27 degrees Celsius with an annual range of
about 26 to 28 degrees Celsius.
Large diurnal range of temperature
Very low annual rainfall less than 250mm which is erratic and unreliable.
Humidity is low and strong winds are frequent.
Atmospheric pressure is low during the hot season and high during the cold
season.

2. Warm Climate
I. The lands borderinga) Warm temperate the Mediterranean western margin
68

sea that is Southern Europe and Northern Africa South West tip of Africa
around Cape Town Central Coast of California in North America Central Chile
in South America. South West Australia around Perth and the southern part
around Adelaide.















Characteristics
Hot summers with temperatures of about 21 degrees Celsius and mild winters
with temperatures of about 10 degrees Celsius.
Annual range of temperature is moderate about 11 degrees Celsius.
Mean annual rainfall varies between 500 and 900 mm with most of it falling in
winter.
Cyclonic rainfall caused by depressions falls in showers.
Trade winds are offshore in summer while onshore westerlies dominate in
winter.
Hot and cold local winds are common.

b) Warm Temperate
Continental Climate
The high Veld of South Africa Western Oklahoma extending into some parts
of Texas in North America
Central parts of Argentina and Paraguay in South America
The Murray-Darling lowlands of Australia












69

Characteristics
Hot summers with temperatures of about 26 degrees Celsius and mild to cool
winters with temperatures of about 10 degrees or less.
Moderate annual range of temperature of about 16 degrees Celsius.
Low moderate rainfall of about 380-700 mm which mainly falls in summer.
Rainfall is mainly convectional because of the south east trade winds.

c) Warm Temperate
Desert Climate
Nevada and Utah states of North America
Patagonia in South America
In The interiors of Eurasia which extends from Turkey,
Northern Syria, Northern Iran, Across the Caspian and Aral seas into former
USSR and into Mongolia Gobi Desert
















Characteristics
Very large diurnal and annual ranges of temperature.
Hot to very hot summers with temperatures of about
25-37 degrees Celsius and cold winters of below 7 degrees Celsius.
Low and unreliable rainfall about 250 mm yearly.
Most rain falls in late winter or early spring.

Coastal belt of Natal on
d) Warm Temperate the South Eastern Part Eastern Margin of Africa
The South and the South Eastern states of the USA.
Southern Brazil, Uruguay, Eastern Paraguay and the coast of Argentina to the
east of the Pampas.
South East China around Hong Kong and Southern Japan.
South Eastern Australia including the northern island of New Zealand





70



















Characteristics
Hot summers with temperature of about 26 degrees
Celsius and mild to cool winters with temperature of about 13 degrees
Celsius.
Mean annual rainfall of about 1000mm with most rain falling in summer
(summer maximum).
Trade winds are onshore in summer while westerlies are offshore in winter.
Monsoon winds develop in some coastal regions and islands.
Tropical cyclones are common is south east USA and China.

3. Cool Climate.
The British Isles, Southern
a) Cool Temperate Scandinavia, Central Western Margin and Western Europe
The Coastal par of British Columbia in Canada, extending southwards through the
coastal parts of Washington and Oregon states of the USA
The coastal part of Chile
Tasmania and the south island of New Zealand













71

Characteristics
Warm summers with temperature of between 13 and 15 degrees Celsius and
cool winters of between 2 and 7 degrees Celsius.
A moderate mean annual range of temperature.
Onshore westerlies prevail throughout the year.
Rainfall is moderate to very high about 760-2000mm and is well distributed
throughout the year with the peak in winter.
Depressions and anticyclones are common.
Humidity is high especially in winter.

b) Cool Temperate
Continental Climate
Central and Eastern
Europe and the western part of former USSR around Moscow
In the Midwest and north-central USA
The provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba in Canada

















Characteristics
Warm summers with temperatures of about 18 degrees Celsius and very cold
winters where temperatures go below -19 degrees Celsius.
The annual range of temperature is very large upto 37 degrees Celsius and
the mean annual rainfall is low about 400-500 mm.
Rainfall is mainly convectional and falls throughout the year.
Depressions occur occasionally causing rainfall.

c) Cool Temperate Eastern Margin.
The maritime provinces of Canada and North Eastern
USA in New England
Northern China, Korea, Central and Northern Japan



72

















Characteristics.
Warm summers with temperatures of between 12-18 degrees
Celsius in America. In Asia they are hot about 16-24 degrees
Celsius. Winters are cool and cold about 4-15 degrees
Celsius.
Large annual range of temperature of between 28-39 degrees Celsius.
Precipitation is a mixture of rain and snow.
Precipitation of more than 1000mm in North America and northern Japan
occurs throughout the year. In Asia it is about
700mm.
Westerlies are dominant in North America and are also experienced in Asia
where rainfall is heavy in summer when the winds are onshore.

4. Cold Climate.
a) Cold Temperate Western Margin Climate
Interior of the state of Alaska in North America
Central and Northern Norway and Sweden up to the Arctic
Coast















73

Characteristics.
Westerlies are dominant and are onshore.
Depressions are common.
Mean annual rainfall is about 750mm.
Precipitation is in the form of rain which falls in most months but in winter it
falls as snow.
Cool short summers with a mean of 12 degrees Celsius and cool and cold
long winters with temperatures of between -2 degrees Celsius and 4 degrees
Celsius.

b) Cold Temperate Continental Climate
In the interior part of North America from the Alaskan border in the west to Labrador
in the East
In Europe it extends from Finland in the west through Siberia in Russia to
Verkhoyansk range in the east

















Characteristics
Warm short summers with temperature not exceeding 21 degrees Celsius and
very cold long winters with temperature going below -45 degrees Celsius.
Annual precipitation is about 380 mm and most of it falls in summer with snow
falling in winter.
Rainfall is convectional.

74

c) Cold Temperate
Eastern Margin.
North east Pacific coast of Russia















Characteristics
Short but hot summers with mean temperature of 21degrees Celsius and long
severe winters with average temperature of -20 degrees Celsius.
Very large annual range of temperature.
South easterly moist winds blow in summer and the strong dry north
westerlies blow in winter.
Mean annual rainfall is between 500 and 1000 mm with rainfall mainly in
summer.

5. Arctic climate.
a) Tundra Climate Coast of Northern America that borders the Arctic ocean,
including the Baffin Island and the south coast of Greenland In Eurasia, it occurs
along the Arctic coast from the Northern coast of Scandinavia to the north east of
Russia

















75


Characteristics
Cool summers with temperature of about 10 degrees Celsius and very cold
long winters with temperatures
ranging between -29 degrees
Celsius and -40 degrees Celsius.
Avery large annual range of temperature.
Low mean annual precipitation of about 250mm in the form of rain and snow.

b) Polar Climate
Interior of Iceland, Greenland and Antarctica














Characteristics
Temperature below 0 degrees Celsius throughout the year.
Blizzzards are frequent.

6. Mountain Climate.
Highlands
Ethiopian Highlands
The Drakensberg
Mountains
Mount Cameroon
Atlas Mountains
The Rockies of North
America
The Andes of South
America
The Alps and the
Balkans of Europe
The Himalayas in
Asia




I.East African
76















Characteristics
Temperature decreases with increase in altitude.
In temperate regions slopes facing the equator are warmer than those facing
the poles.
Rainfall increases with height upto 3000m then it starts to decrease.
Windward slopes are generally wetter than leeward slopes.
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
Local winds are common and they blow up the slope during the day and down
the slope at night.

WORLD CLIMATIC REGIONS




















77

CHAPTER 8: ARIDITY AND
DESERTIFICATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE















Definition;
Introduction
The state of land being deficient in moisture leading to scanty or lack of vegetation.
Desertification-slow but steady process of encroachment of desert like conditions
onto potentially or formerly productive agricultural land.

Causes of aridity and desertification
1. Natural physical causes
Rainfall
Temperature
Cold ocean currents
Relief barriers
Continentality or nearness to a large
Water body
Wind systems
Pressure systems

Effects of aridity and desertification has led to the development of infertile soils which
support little or no vegetation cover.
Excessive high temperature and little unreliable rainfall in arid areas do not
allow agricultural practices to be carried out.
Land is exposed to severe soil erosion.
People tend to move to more productive areas during drought.
Arid areas are open and experience strong dry wind.

78

A desert that has been caused by natural causes














Climate change













2. Human causes of vegetation
Reclamation of swamp land and irrigation schemes
Poor irrigation practices
Poor agricultural practices

Industrialization










Possible solutions to aridity and
Desertification and reafforestation
Controlling soil erosion and adopting
conservation measures
79

Controlling grazing.
Introduction of suitable farming methods.
Irrigation of the dry land.
Stabilizing sand dunes.
Introduction of other sources of energy. E.g biogas and energy saving stoves.
Controlling industrallization.

Climate change in atmospheric conditions of a given place after a long period of
time.
The sun has an effect on climate;
It emits energy in form of light and solar radiation.(not all of it reaches earth as it
is reflected, absorbed or scattered by clouds, gases , dust particles and water
vapour)


Causes of climate change
1. Natural causes in the earths orbital characteristics. Orbit gradually changes from
being elliptical to nearly circular then back to elliptical.
2. It causes perihelion and aphelion. The smaller the angle of tilt the less the
climatic variation between summer and winter.
3. Variation in atmospheric carbon(iv)oxide. High concentrations of carbon(iv)oxide
would result in higher temperatures.
4. Volcanic eruptions. Large quantities of volcanic ash and dust when thrown and
spread in the atmosphere they block and reflect solar insolation. Temperatures
below the cloud formed will be lower.
5. Variation in solar output. Change in solar output of 1% per century will lower
global average temperature by 0.5C-1C.

A diagram showing the aphelion and the perihelion



















80

2. Human causes of fossil fuels. For industries, transportation e.t.c
Forest and grassland fires. Burning vegetation adds carbon(iv)oxide to the
atmosphere.
Deforestation and land use changes. Clearing of large tracts of vegetation for
agriculture, industries and settlement leads to build up of excess carbon (iv)
oxide.
Chloroflouro carbons. When released into the atmosphere they destroy the
ozone layer thus increasing amount of solar radiation received.
Industrial and agricultural developments.

Greenhouse effect Involves solar radiation being absorbed and received by the earth
and transformed to terrestrial radiation. It is retained in the earth due to high levels of
carbon (iv) oxide and reflection from clouds.

Consequences of climate change or decreased rainfall received.
Effect on agriculture. Shifting of crop growing areas.
Disruption of natural ecosystems.
City environments become warmer.
Water use and long term planning. Drier areas will have to find new sources
of water. Wetter areas dont need dams or such.
Abnormal fast growth of plants.
Flooding from rising sea (water) levels.
Increased ultra-violet radiation.Effects include: snow blindness, increased sun
burn, skin cancer e.t.c

Save the earth, reduce climate change!!!















81

CHAPTER 9: VEGETATION 1
















Definition
This is the collective plant cover growing in a particular area. It consists of trees,
grasses, bushes, thickets, shrubs, herbs, mosses, among other

Types of vegetation
Natural vegetation
Secondary vegetation
Planted vegetation














The plants grow and spread through natural means of seed dispersal .it may be
found in the thick forests of the Amazon and Congo. In Kenya it is found in Malava,
kaimosi, sokoke-Arabuko forests







82

Secondary vegetation


It is also known as semi-natural vegetation or derived vegetation because the
conditions of its growth are not purely natural. It is common in areas where shifting
cultivation and bush-fallowing are practiced. It does not grow as luxuriously as the
natural vegetation

Planted vegetation






83

This is the vegetation that is deliberately grown by humans. It is either done through
afforestation or re-afforestation


Characteristics of planted vegetation
Similar species
Same height
Appear in rows

Places where planted vegetation are found:
Turbo
Timboroa
Maji
Mazuri
Limuru




Factors influencing distribution of vegetation:
Topographical factors
Climatic factors
Edaphic factors
Biological(biotic) factors

Topographical factors
Relief
Aspect
Drainage







84

a) Relief
Altitude has a major influence on temperature and rainfall.
Highlands have cooler temperatures. Plants thrive in warm areas while others
can only survive under cool temperatures.
The windward sides of mountains receive heavy rainfall which supports
luxuriant growth
Mountain tops receive very little rain and there temperatures are also low.
This inhibits plant growth




b) Aspect
In the northern mid latitudes the south facing slopes receive more sunlight
which leads to higher temperatures and support a dense vegetation. It is
mainly experienced in the lower latitudes on the windward sides that benefit
from moisture from prevailing winds. Forests are therefore abundant on the
southward facing slopes

c) Drainage
A large variety of plants grow on well drained slopes. Swamp plants can
survive in water logged conditions as there roots have special adaptations to
oxygen free soil conditions. Prolonged flooding leads to many plants dying

Climatic factors
Temperature
Precipitation
Sunlight
Wind

a) Temperature
Trees growing in tropical regions develop broad leaves to enable them to
transpire adequately when the rainfall is heavy. Where rainfall is moderate,
the trees have small needle like leaves to reduce the water lost through
transpiration.
85

In cold regions trees have a conical shape and needle like leaves to allow the
snow to slide off easily

b) Precipitation
Various forms of precipitations provide moisture for plants the amount of
rainfall received in an area determines the kind of plants that dominate the
area

c) Sunlight
Places which experience long hours of sunlight have large varieties of plants
unlike those which receive less amount of sunlight and for short periods.

d) Wind
Hot dry winds cause drought conditions to set in whereas moist winds are
responsible for increased precipitation where they blow. Warm dry winds are
responsible for increased rates of transpiration where strong are dominant tall
plant species are usually non existent and those present become stunted. It
facilitates the spread of seeds to aid in pollination

Edaphic factors
Pedology
This is the scientific study of soils with respect to their origin, characteristics
and how they are utilized.
It is mainly concerned with the soil forming processes such as leaching and is
influenced by processes such as; parent rock material, climate and living
organisms.
Soils with well balanced nutrients support a large variety of plants and gigantic
trees. Some plants like conifers do well in moderate to highly acidic soils while
others like grasses do well with lower acidity. That is why grasses are
dominant in dry regions where soils are more alkaline

Biotic factors
Human activities
Competition
Effect of insect animals

Human activities (anthropogenic)
Human activities such as mining, urbanization, industrialization, road
construction, deforestation upset the development of vegetation growing.
Large tracts of forests have been cleared to provide fuel and furniture. Bush
fires have caused some plant species to be destroyed completely while
overgrazing has turned some grassland into pure deserts

Competition
Plants compete with each other for light and water. The most dominant
species kill off the weaker species through natural selection. In the rainforests
where tall plants form a canopy, they prevent sunlight from reaching the
ground thereby resisting growth of small shrubs.

86

Effect of insect animals
Some insects attack plants resulting to their death and deformation. Aphids,
ants, and termites attack tree trunks and roots making the trees to wither.
Burrowing animals affect the growth of trees. Such trees become weak and
easily fall down.

VEGETATION DISTRIBUTION IN KENYA












Factors influencing vegetation distribution in Kenya
Variation in rainfall
Variation in temperature
Variation in soil types
Human activities

Factors influencing vegetation distribution in Kenya
Variation in rainfall
Variation in temperature
Variation in soil types
Human activities

Forests
Lowland and plateau forests
Montane forests

87


88

Lowland and plateau forests
Found between the sea level and 1800m
Influenced by high temperatures and high humidity at the coast, coupled with
deep porous sandy soils

Distribution
Tanzania; the northern part of the coast
Kenya; the south coast upwards to lamu
The plateau forest; Gwasi hills of Suba district, Kenya.

Montane forest





















Distribution
To the east of the rift valley;
Nairobi
Kijabe
Nyandarua (aberdare) range
Mount Kenya forest
To the west of the rift valley;
Nguruman escarpment

Distribution
To the west of the rift valley;
Nguruman escarpment
Loita hills
Mau escarpment
Kaptagat hills
Cherangani hills
Elgon hills
89

Savanna
Wooded grassland
Bush land and thicket
Highland grassland


Wooded grassland
It is composed of grass which varies in height.
The grass is mixed with trees especially the thorny acacias
As rainfall decreases and becomes more seasonal, the forest vegetation
gives way to the wooded grassland

Distribution
Along coastal strips
Plateaus bordering the highlands east of the rift valley
Lake Victoria basin

Bush land and thicket
It comprises a mixture of thorny acacias which are tall and umbrella shaped
Shrubs grow in between these trees forming thickets of thorn bush
The plants are adapted to long dry seasons thus have thin leaves, hard
cuticles, long tap roots. For example, the baobab tree

90





Distribution
Coastal strip in Machakos
Kitui
Mwingi
Wajir
Garissa
And Mandera districts

Highland grassland
The grasses in this area include; red oat grass, wire grass, manyatta grass,
kikuyu grass.
Clover grass grows alongside kikuyu grass
Found on the undulating slopes of the highlands

Semi-desert and desert vegetation
It is mainly the scrub type
In between the plants is bare ground
Acacias are the typical tree species
The vegetation is scattered and leafless most of the year
Desert grass is mostly found where there are red desert sands
Some plants reduce transpiration by having tiny needle-like leaves

Heath and moorland
Comprises of tussock grasses, flowering plants, and allchemilla shrubs
It is adapted to cold windy conditions where moisture at the lower altitude is
coupled with plenty of sunshine and heather thrive
Where theres poor drainage mountain swamp vegetation thrives
Found in; Mt. Elgon and aberdare range

91

Swamp vegetation
They are found in wet areas
The mangrove belt along the coast
The vegetation is adapted to waterlogged conditions
There is a wide variety of plants with the papyrus variety being the most
dominant
It includes the mashes, grasses with smooth surfaces and long blades
Trees are not common under water logged conditions








92

CHAPTER 10: VEGETATION 2:
MAJOR VEGETATION ZONES OF THE WORLD


The worlds vegetations can be classified according to Climatic regions:
Tropical
Temperate
Arctic
Montane

The worlds vegetation is thereby grouped into:
Forests
Grasslands
Mediterranean
Desert (hot desert and cold desert _tundra)
Mountain

1. forests
A forest is a continuous growth of trees covering a large tract of land.
Types of forests






forests (boreal/taiga)


TROPICAL RAINFORESTS
Characteristics of tropical rainforests
Have closely set canopy
Trees are smooth with no branches
Have broad leaves to protect them from collapsing during intense midday
insolation












Have a variety of species
93


Uses
1. The hardwoods are a source of timber
2. used for decorations
3. Cinchona trees have medicinal value
4. Habitats to animals
5. Fibres obtained from animals used to make panama huts mats
6. Balata juices are available for making machinery belting
7. Chicle used for making chewing gum


LOCATION
1. Mozambique
2. Madagascar
3. Guinea
4. Gambia
5. Sierra Leone
6. South American coast near Amazon River
7. South East Asia


Characteristics of tropical monsoon
Some trees have roots that grow horizontally to provide the plant with growing
mechanism
Have special roots which are partly aerial for

USES
tannin which is used in tanning
leather.
sed in building and construction.

LOCATION MONSOON
FOREST
Southern Europe
North Africa
Cape Town
California
Central Chile
South west Australia

Characteristics of Mediterranean forest
1. They have long taproots in order to reach for water down below the surface
2. Some are evergreen others are deciduous
3. Are thick and bushy
4. Many of the plants are sweet smelling e.g. lavender

Uses
1. The bark of the cork oak provides cork for bottling wine
2. Fruits of olive tree are used for cooking
94

3. Timber is obtained from trees like pine chestnut
4. The shrubs and grasses are used as pasture
TEMPERATE EVERGREEN FORESTS
















Characteristics of temperate evergreen vegetation
Forests are evergreen due to the high rainfall
Most trees have broad leaves
Common trees are the tulips camphor magnolia palm
Most of the trees are hardwoods

Uses of temperate evergreen forests
The hardwoods are very valuable in making furniture and as building
materials.
Wattle trunks are useful in coal mines of Natal.
Bamboo is used in making furniture and also building.
Softwoods like pines are used in manufacture of paper.
Some trees like walnut produce nuts used in making chocolate.
Ivory nuts are used in making buttons.
The young shoots of bamboo plants are eaten as vegetables.

Temperate evergreen forest
South Africa along coast of natal
Southern China
Southern Japan
Newzealand
Brazil

TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FORESTS
Have broad leaves
Trees are hardwoods
Trees shed leaves in autumn in preparation of winter
Species of trees may be mixed E.g. oak, beech, chestnut

95

Uses
The hardwoods are in making furniture
Edible nuts are extracted from forests
Pigs are fed on fruits from oak tree
Maple syrup is obtained from sap from maple tree
Temperate deciduous
Japan
Korea
China
Tasmania
South island of Newzealand

Coniferous forests














LOCATIONS
Canada
Europe
Scandinavia
Russia

Characteristics of coniferous forests
They are conical in shape.
Have needle-shaped leaves.
Tree species appear in uniform stands.
The leaves have tough waxy skin.
Tree trunks are flexible.
Most trees are evergreen.

Uses of coniferous forests
Used in making pulp this is used in manufacture of paper.

Mixed forests
Canada
U.S.A
Asia
96

Central Sweden
Southern Hokkaido islands of Japan














GRASSLANDS
This type of vegetation grows in areas experiencing one rainfall season with a long
dry
period.
Can be categorized into:
Tropical (Savanna)
Temperate grasslands(Prairies of Canada and
U.S.A/Steppes of Eurasia /Pampas of
Argentina/Veldt of south Africa /Downs of Australia new Zealand)
Mountain grasslands

USES
Grazing
Commercial ranching is practiced
They increase the humus in the soil
Reduce soil erosion
Home to wild animals
Habitats for bees which provide honey
Wild fruits and berries found are consumed as food
Trees provide fuel













97

Tropical and temperate savanna
Widely spread trees
Umbrella shaped crowns
Drought-resistant trees
Deciduous trees
Rainfall is between 1000-1800
Have deep roots and thick barks

1. Tropical grasslands
Location
1. Venezuela
2. Brazil
3. Mexico
4. Northern Australia
5. Deccan in India

2. Temperate grasslands
Location
1. . Canada
2. U.S.A
3. Eurasia
4. Argentina
5. Australia
6. New Zealand
7. South Africa

















Uses
Large scale grain cultivation
Livestock farming



98

3. DESERT VEGETATION
Grows in areas in areas where rainfall is extremely unreliable
Below 250mm
Can be classified into:
Tropical desert and cold deserts

A) Tropical Desert

Location
1. Sahara
2. Arabian
3. Kalahari
4. Atacama
5. Thar in India
6. Mohave and Colorado
7. California

Adaptation
Succulent perennials
Evergreen hard leaved plants
Drought resistant deciduous shrubs
Salt tolerant plants
Short leaved plants

B) Temperate and Arctic desert vegetation
Nevada and Utah in America
Patagonian desert in Argentina
Turkey
China
Northern Iran


















Location
99

Adaptations
Deciduous
Mainly succulents
Small waxy and thorny leaves
Rough tree trunks and twisted thick bark to
reduce water lose
Some are pyrophitic (resistant to local fires)
Flat topped crowns to withstand strong winds

Uses of desert vegetation
1. The small trees are a source of fuel for
2. Eskimos who leave in arctic regions
3. It is food for desert animals
4. Plants like bilberries bear edible fruits

4. MOUNTAIN VEGETATION/ALPINE
Found in mountain summits in the tropics where the temperatures have been
lowered by elevation hence the areas become too cold.
Vegetation is not uniform all over the mountain due to:
Altitude
Aspect
Slope
Moisture availability
Temperature



















Uses
Uses of mountain vegetation
Large scale grain cultivation
Livestock farming
Summer pastures for animals
Grazing carried out on the grasslands
100

Provide timber and building materials
Habitats for wild animals
Mountainous areas act as water catchment areas
Forests help in balancing ecosystem
Vegetation in the mountain is used in scientific research















Significance of vegetation
Add beauty to the landscape
Prevent soil erosion
Plants decay to become humus
Act as a habitat for wildlife
Purify air
Some plants have medicinal value
Some trees are used in pulp and paper
industry
Forests modify the climate
Some plants are consumed as food
Fibrous plants are used for making robes
Latex extracted from rubber trees is used in manufacture of rubber















101































102

CHAPTER 11: FORESTRY




















DEFINITION OF TERMS:

A FOREST is a continuous growth of trees and undergrowth covering a large tract of
land.
FORESTRY is the science of developing and managing forests including cultivating them.
















103


TYPES OF FORESTS
Natural and planted forests:
Natural forests are composed of trees that grow on their own due to natural
factors .
The natural forests also consist of different tree species.
These factors include: seed dispersal without the assistance of human beings.
Planted forests are composed of trees that have been planted by people. The
act of growing these trees is called tree farming.
Natural forests consist of different species of plants while planted forests
consist of similar tree species.












Indigenous and exotic forests:
Indigenous forests are composed of trees which are natural or native to a country or
a region.
Exotic forests are made up of trees that are alien to a country.
Trees in indigenous forests grow naturally while those in exotic forests are
introduce d to a country or a region from other parts of the world.















104

TYPES OF NATURAL FORESTS

A) Tropical hardwood forests.
Comprise of equatorial and monsoon forests that occur about 50 North
and 50 south of the equator.


Characteristics of tropical hardwood forests:
i. The forests are thick and luxuriant due to the high rainfall and temperatures
experienced in the region.
ii. The trees are tall with straight and smooth trunks.
iii. Some of the trees grow beyond 46 meters.
iv. The trees have large trunks supported by buttress roots making exploitation
difficult.
v. The trees take a long time to mature i.e 65- 100 years
vi. Different tree species are found in the forests.
vii. The trees are evergreen , shading a few of their leaves at a time but never
bare.
viii. Majority of the trees are broad leaved and produce valuable hardwood.

Examples of the tree species: mahogany, rosewood, ebony, iroko ,sapele
,teak, camphor, mvuli, mangrove, meru oak, elgon olive and ironwood.
The forests are found in: Africa; Guinea, Cameroon, Sierra Leone,
Madagascar and Gabon; America; Amazon Basin of Brazil, Pacific coast of
Columbia and Guiana Highlands; South East Asia: Malaysia, Indonesia and
Papua new Guinea.

B. Temperate Hardwood Forests:
Grow in the mid latitudes between 300 North and 500 North.
regions experience warm or cold temperate climates.

Characteristics of temperate hardwood forests
1. The trees have broad leaves
2. The trees are deciduous ;they shade their leaves in winter to withstand low
temperatures.
3. Individual species are scattered and their density per unit area is small.
4. The trees are smaller in size than those of the tropical hardwood forests.
5. The forests are fairly open making exploitation easier than in tropical
hardwood forests.
6. The trees produce hardwoods that are strong and durable but not bulky.

Examples of tree species: Eucalyptus, silver oak, sweet chestnut, beech, olive
o ironwood, blackwood, birch, elm, ash ,hickory and poplar.
These forests are found in: Japan, Eastern parts of USA, China, Western and
central Europe,Korea, Canada and New Zealand.




105















c. Coniferous forests or Temperate softwood forests
Found in the temperate continental climate of 50 N and 70 S.

Characteristics of coniferous forests:
1. Trees are evergreen.
2. Trees are softwood and light in weight.
3. Tree species occur in pure strands; one species is spread over a large area.
4. Little undergrowth present because the trees grow close to one another.
5. Trees have needle-shaped leaves that reduce transpiration during winter.
6. The trees have straight trunks which are tall; 30 meters in height.
7. The trees have thick barks with resin that protects them from frost damage.
8. The crowns of the trees are cone-shaped to prevent snow from accumulating on the
branches i.e the snow slides off to the ground
9. The trees have shallow roots that enables them to fully utilize moisture on the top
layer of the soil.
10. Trees take a long time to mature i.e. 50 years to 70 years due to low temperatures.

Examples of tree species are : white pine, Scots pine, Jackpine, lodge pine, the Parana, the
kauri pine, the Douglas fir, the balsom fir and the spruce.













106














D. Montane forests.
Exists on many mountains across the globe.
The type of forests and the altitude at which it is found depends on the latitude
at which the mountain is located.
Tree species found on mountain forests are generally natural or semi-natural.
In Kenya ,natural indigenous forests consists of both hard and soft woods.
Hardwoods includes; meru oak ,elgon olive mvule, elgon teak and camphor.
Softwoods include: Bamboo, podocarpus, African, pencil cedar














E. Planted Forests
Afforestation is the process by which countries that did not have forests have
established some by planting trees.
Reafforestation is the process of establishing forests where the originals have
been destroyed.

Factors influencing the distribution and types of natural forests
1. Altitude and slope:
Low altitude areas experience high temp and vice versa for high altitude
areas. The rate of tree growth slows with a decrease in temperature therefore
low altitudes areas have trees with a higher growth.
The mid-latitude parts of a mountain are wetter than the lower and higher
107

parts thus creating a forest zone here.
Very sloppy highlands do not influence growth of tree for the soil is too thin to
heavy erosion thus forest thrive on well-drained slopes.













2. Aspect:
The windward slope of a mountain is wetter than the leeward slope. Forests are
denser in the windward slope.
In the northern hemisphere, southward facing slopes are warmer thus forests grow
luxuriantly than in the northern slopes.













3. Precipitation:
Tree growth takes place where there is heavy precipitation throughout the year.
Equatorial rainforests thrive due to the heavy rainfall of over1200 mm annually.
Trees in the coniferous belt do well with less rainfall of 1000mm due to the low
evaporation rates that result in more moisture present in the soil.

4. Temperature:
Intense heat accelerates plant growth and development which is the case in tropical
regions.
Very low temperatures discourage tree growth for the trees are unable to take up
frozen water from the soil when underground temperatures are below freezing
point
108

5. Soils or edaphic factors:
Deep and fertile soils enable trees to extend their roots deep into the ground to
access the nutrients in the soil.
These plants are normally tall with huge trunks and grows firmly on the ground.
The distribution of different soil types influences the type of forest e.g. latosols:
support tropical rainforests in the humid tropical regions.
The brown forest soils: support the growth of deciduous woodlands.
Sandy soils: support the growth of sub-tropical woodlands.
Mediterranean soils: support the growth of Mediterranean evergreen forests.
Moderate highly acidic soils: support coniferous forests.
Mud-flat soils: support mangrove forests.




6. Human activities or anthropogenic factors:
Human activities either destroy or encourage the development of forests.
Some human factors that lead to the depletion of forests are;
i. Forest fires: these burns down the trees and cause the burnt species that will
regenerate later not to grow to the original climax stage changing the nature and the
type of plants that grow there.
ii. Poor forestry practices: deforestation by saw millers has led to clearing of forests
and no reforestation.
iii. Indiscriminate logging of natural forests; these depletes forests leading to extinction
of some tree species and also a nutritionally impoverished vegetative system.
iv. The increase in poverty and need for food; people encroach and cut down forests
thereby altering the nature of forests.

7. Biotic factors or other living organisms:
Organisms such as elephants break down large trees while aphids destroy
cypress forests and long horn beetles eat tree trunks thus retarding tree
growth.

Importance of forests to Kenya.

1. Forests provide utility products such as timber, wood fuel and honey.
2. Forests are a habitat for animals and micro-organisms hence they help in biodiversity
conservation and maintaining an ecological balance.
3. They absorb carbon (4) oxide from the atmosphere which helps in reducing global
warming.
4. Forests support agriculture and H.E.P generation for they are water catchment areas
thus regulating water flow, preventing soil erosion hence siltation of rivers and water
reservoirs also in controlling floods.
5. Gravel lea grown around homes and forests act as wind-breakers hence controlling soil
erosion.

109


















1. Forests provide utility products such as timber, wood fuel and honey.
2. Forests are a habitat for animals and micro-organisms hence they help in biodiversity
conservation and maintaining an ecological balance.
3. They absorb carbon(4) oxide from the atmosphere which helps in reducing global
warming.
4. Forests support agriculture and H.E.P generation for they are water catchment areas
thus regulating water flow, preventing soil erosion hence siltation of rivers and water
reservoirs also in controlling floods.
5. Gravel lea grown around homes and forests act as wind-breakers hence controlling
soil erosion.

1. Forests provide utility products such as timber, wood fuel and honey.
2. Forests are a habitat for animals and micro-organisms hence they help in biodiversity
conservation and maintaining an ecological balance.
3. They absorb carbon (4) oxide from the atmosphere which helps in reducing global
warming.
4. Forests support agriculture and H.E.P generation for they are water catchment areas
thus regulating water flow, preventing soil erosion hence siltation of rivers and water
reservoirs also in controlling floods.
5. Gravel lea grown around homes and forests act as wind-breakers hence controlling
soil erosion.
6. The flora and fauna present in forests creates aesthetic appeal which attracts a large
number of tourists thus leading to a growth in the economy.
7. Forest industries provide employment to people such as forest officers, carpenters
and forest guides.
8. Forests increase soil fertility by providing humus rotting leaf litter. The presence of
forests increases water intake of the soil making the ground they occupy a water
catchment area.
9. Forest activities lead to the development of infrastructure e.g. roads thus leading to
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an improvement in economic development.
10. Forest activities lead to the development of infrastructure e.g. roads thus
leading to an improvement in economic development.















Importance of forest products
1. They provide fuel in form of charcoal or wood fuel which are used in rural
population.
2. Timber is used in construction i.e. roofing, making flooring blocks and building
boats. The poles are used for supporting electric and telephone cables.
Timber and timber products are a major source of income.
3. Wood from Kenya's planted forests is used in making paper, ply-wood, soft
boards, veneer, furnitures, doors, windows and by craftsmen in making curios
and carvings,.
4. Some parts of trees have medicinal value. They make herbal medicine which
is increasingly being recognized in cure of ailments.
5. Animals in the forests are hunted for food while the foliage from forests is
used as animal feeds.
6. Tannin which is a chemical substance extracted from the barks of trees is
used in the treatment of raw hides and turning them into leather.
7. Gum resins are used as food stabilisers in the cosmetic industry to make
perfumes.
8. Non-wood products e.g. fruits, nuts, tubers and vegetables are a source of
food for some communities.

Problems facing forestry in Kenya
1. A rapid increase in population has led to forest encroachment by man for
settlements and agriculture.
2. Wild animals can cause damage to forests through over-grazing or physical
destruction of trees.
3. Forest fires which are intentionally caused by poachers, charcoal burners and
honey harvesters.
4. Pests such as aphids destroy exotic trees and softwood trees.
5. Over-exploitation leads to an increase in commercial tree harvesting due to rising
demand of forest products.
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6. During dry months, there is little water available for plants thus slowing their
growth.
7. Poor management.
8. Capital to buy machinery for exploitation of forests is limited.
















Management and conservation of forests in Kenya:
Management of forests refers to the effective planning and control of forests
and forest resources.
Measures taken to ensure effective management of forests are the following:
1. Research is being done on soil requirements for different tree species to
enable forests to plant trees in suitable areas.
2. Public campaigns on the importance of forests are being conducted through
mass media, radio, posters and billboards.
3. Alternative sources of energy are being encouraged to minimize over
dependency on wood fuel. Other sources are; sun, wind, water and kerosene.
4. Energy-saving stoves(jikos) have been introduced and promoted to reduce
the amount of wood fuel being used.
5. Timber merchants and those involved in logging are being enlightened on
how to improve their cutting practices through: selective felling and replanting
of cut trees.
6. Trees in forest plantations are being planted in blocks at different periods to
ensure they mature at different times.
7. Development of infrastructure in the forested areas.
8. Carrying out research to control pests and diseases.
9. Establishing training and research institutions to deal with forestry.
10. Farmers are encouraged to plant trees on their farms alongside their crops.
11. Endangered forests have been declared forest reserves to protect the
indigenous forest trees and other species.
12. Forests guards have been stationed within the forest so as to arrest
trespassers and protect forests.
13. Putting laws to govern forests.
Conservation refers to protection of natural forests as well as plantations
against interference and destruction by the people.
The following measures are being taken:
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1. Afforestation
This is the planting of trees in order to establish a forest where none existed
before.
2. Reafforestation
This is the planting of trees where deforestation has taken place.
3. Legislation.
This is achieved through the Forest Bill 2000 and the Environmental
Coordination and Management Act.
4. Community participation
This is a system started by European settlers where landless people would
provide labour in tree plantations and in turn they were allowed to plant food
crops with the exotic tree seedlings.
5. Presidential commission.
It is mandated to rehabilitate regions that have widespread depletion of
forests.
6. Creation of forest reserves.
The governm,ent has been able to gazette some forests and their
neighbourhood areas as forest reserves to prevent soil erosion and protect
water catchment areas.
7. Setting up of Nyayo tea zones.
Tea plantations are planted so as to create a kind of protective belt between
the settled area and the forest making it difficult for people to cross over.
8. Agroforestry.
This is the inter-cropping of various crops with trees.






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Softwood in Kenya and Canada
In Kenya softwood forests are found in highlands of above 2000metres above
sea level e.g. in Limuru, Tigoni, Lara e.t.c
Exotic softwood forests are pine, cypress and wattle.
Indigenous softwood forests are:podo and cedar.
The softwood forests are mainly found in planted forests.
In Canada, it is estimated that 60% of the land was originally covered in trees
however, presently more than 10%of the original forest has been cleared.
75% of Canadas forests is softwood trees the most valuable being: douglas
fir, red spruce, white pine, western hemlock, balsam fir e.t.c
These forests are coniferous due to the temperate conditions experienced
there.




















Factors favoring the development of softwood forest in Kenya and Canada. Kenya

a. The highlands experience a cool climate that enables coniferous trees to flourish.
b. The highlands receive heavy rainfall of over 1000mm and the evaporation rate is
low.
c. Part of Kenyan highlands is rugged and steep thus making such places
unattractive for settlements and enabling trees to flourish.
d. High demand for timber and wood products in the country as well as the
COMESA region encourages tree farming

Canada.
a. The cool to cold climate experienced favours the growth of coniferous forests
which are adapted to the low temperatures experienced.
b. In British Columbia, the landscape is rugged and steep thus discouraging
settlement but encouraging tree growth. Lowlands also have thin soils
encouraging forests to naturally establish themselves.
c. Canada has a very low population density meaning that a lot of land is available
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for the forests.
d. Heavy rainfall experienced on the windward slopes of the mountain ranges of
British Columbia encourages faster forest growth.















Mode of exploitation. Kenya
1. The logs are then transported by lorries or tractors.
2. The workers are transported daily to the working sites.
3. The harvesting in small-scale is done using axes and saws but in larger-scale
using power-saws.
4. The workers have an established settlement within the regions to be harvested.
5. The trees are harvested using power saws, then cut into small pieces for
transportation.
6. The logs are either transported to the factories by floating them on water or using
trunks.

Factors favoring the exploitation of softwood in Kenya.
Kenya
1. Logging can go on all year round for we do not experience winter.
2. Hydroelectric power is readily available to the few saw mills and paper factories
available.
3. Availability of cheap and ample labour for cutting and processing timber.
4. Availability of water from river Nzoia
5. Timber and wood products are in high demand within Kenya and the COMESA regions
thus guaranteeing a ready market for those products.

Canada
a. The many rivers in Canada provide cheap and adequate HEP for the factories.
b. The rivers provide plenty of water needed to convert timber into wood and pulp.
c. The mild winters with ice free waters in British Colombia make it possible to
transport logs all year round
d. The rivers provide transport systems that is cheap and efficient in ferrying logs.
e. The major producing areas e.g. Vancouver are located near the ports for easy
exportation.
f. High demand for forest products within Canada and in the neighboring countries.
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Kenya.
These products are: poles, sawn timber, pulp, paper.
The main consumer of softwood trees is the Webuye paper factory that
produces paper and pulp.
Some poles are sold to KPLC and Telkom Kenya to support overhead electric
and telephone cables.
The waste products: saw dust, wood chippings and shavings are used to
produce by-products e.g. blackboard, paperboard and particle board.

Canada.
The products are: sawn timber, poles, pulp and paper

Economic significance
Kenya.
1. It is a source of employment.
2. Foreign exchange.
3. Development of infrastructure.
4. Development of related industries e.g. turpentine and dry cell making.
Canada.
1. Employment opportunities.
2. Provision of energy needed in industries.
3. Development of infrastructure.
4. Foreign exchange.
5. The growth of forests on rugged terrain makes the land profitable since crop farming
cannot occur.

Problems facing forestry in Canada
a. Large tracts of land are destroyed by fires, diseases e.t.c. because softwood
trees catch fire easily.
b. Pests e.g. aphids
c. Inaccessibility due to winter and rugged terrain.
d. Over-exploitation leads to soil erosion.

Comparison of softwood forests in Kenya and Canada
Similarities.
1. In both countries large tracts of land are destroyed by pests e.t.c
2. Inaccessibility leading to limited exploitation.
3. Over- exploitation leading to soil erosion.
4. Competition from synthetic products.

Differences
Kenya
Thick undergrowth
Less mechanization
Logs transported by tractors.
Earn little foreign exchange.
Cover small percentage
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Takes few years to mature.
Scattered forests.
Main tree species are
cypress, cedar and pine.

Canada
Little undergrowth
Highly mechanized
Transported by rivers.
Major foreign exchange.
Cover high percentage.
Takes many years to mature.
Occur in pure stands.
Main tree species are: spruce, douglas fir and hemlock.





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Factors favoring the exploitation of softwoods in Kenya and Canada:
Kenya;
a) Logging can go on all year round for Kenya does not experience winter.
b) Hydroelectric power is readily available to the few saw mills and paper factories
available.
c) Availability of cheap and ample labor for cutting and processing timber.
d) Availability of water from nearby rivers e.g. R.Nzoia.
e) Timber and wood products are in high demand within
f) Kenya and within the COMESA region thus guaranteeing a ready market for these
products.


Canada;
a) The many rivers in Canada provide cheap and adequate hydroelectric power to the
factories.
b) The rivers provide the plenty of water needed to convert timber into wood pulp.
c) The mild winters with ice-free waters in British Colombia make it possible to transport
logs all year round.
d) The rivers provide a transport system that is cheap and efficient in transporting logs.
e) The major producing areas e.g. Vancouver, Halifax and Quebec are located near the
ports this enabling easy exportation to the U.S.A, Europe and Japan.
f) High demand of forest products within Canada and in the neighboring countries.


Economic significance;
a. It is a source of employment for those working in planting ,harvesting and milling of
timber in factories
b. Products acquired e.g. pulp, paper and furniture are exported to earn the country
foreign exchange.
c. Development of softwood forests has led to the development of infrastructure in the
forest areas.
d. Softwood forests have led to the development of related industries e.g.paint, turpentine
and dry cell making.

Similarities
a. In both countries large tracts of land are destroyed by pests e.t.c
b. Inaccessibility leading to limited exploitation.
c. Over- exploitation leading to soil erosion.
d. Competition from synthetic products.

Canada;
a. Several wood related industries have been set-up to create more employment
opportunities.
b. Hydroelectric power has been generated in the rivers to provide the energy required in
the saw-mills and other related industries.
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c. Infrastructure has been developed in the lumbering areas e.g. roads that enable ease of
transportation of logs.
d. The country earns a lot of foreign exchange from the pulp produced which accounts for
15% of the worlds pulp.
e. Forestry creates a lot of job opportunities in saw-milling and lumber- jacking thus raising
the standards of living.
f. The growth of forests on a rugged mountain terrain makes the area profitable for the
thin soils prevent people from engaging in crop farming.



















Problems;
a. In Canada large tracts of forests are destroyed by fires, pests, diseases and lightning .This
is because the softwood trees catch fire easily due to the coating of wax.
b. Aphids attack the leaves and shoots of cypress trees causing the trees to dry up.
c. In Canada, the forests in the northern parts are inaccessible in winter while other parts
have a rugged terrain.
d. Over-exploitation leads to the exposure of soil to erosion.