Geodynamics of rapid voluminous felsic magmatism through time

M.J. Pankhurst
a,b,
, B.F. Schaefer
a,b
, P.G. Betts
b
a
GEMOC, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney 2109, Australia
b
School of Geosciences, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia
a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 31 May 2010
Accepted 26 November 2010
Available online 3 December 2010
Keywords:
Geodynamics
Evolution of earth
Low viscosity rhyolite
Magma genesis
Lithospheric forcing
Felsic large igneous province
Two end member geodynamic settings produce the observed examples of rapid voluminous felsic (rhyolitic)
magmatism through time. The rst is driven by mantle plume head arrival underneath a continent and has
operated in an identiable and regular manner since at least 2.45 Ga. This style produces high temperature
(1100 C), lowaspect ratio rheoignimbrites and lavas that exhibit high SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
ratios, high K
2
O/Na
2
Oratios,
and where available data exists, high Ga/Al
2
O
3
ratios (N1.5) with high F (in thousands of parts per million) and
low water content. F concentration is signicant as it depolymerizes the silicate melt, inuencing the magmas'
physical behavior during development andemplacement. These rhyolites are eruptedas part of rapidly emplaced
(1015 Myr) mac LIPs and are formed primarily by efcient assimilation-fractional crystallization processes
froma mac mantle parent. The second is driven by lithospheric extension during continental rifting or back arc
evolution and is exclusive to the Phanerozoic. SLIPs (silicic large igneous provinces) develop over periods
b40 Myr and manifest inelongate zones of magmatismthat extendupto2500 km, contrasting withthe mac LIP
style. Some of the voluminous felsic magmas within SLIPs appear to have a very similar geochemistry and
petrogenesis to that of the rhyolites within mac LIPs. Other voluminous felsic magmas within SLIPs are sourced
from hydrous lower crust, and contrast with those sourced from the mantle. They exhibit lower temperatures
(b900 C), explosive ignimbrites with lower SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
ratios, and lower K
2
O/Na
2
O ratios. Rapid voluminous
felsic magmatismrepresents both extreme examples of continental growth since the Archean, and also dramatic
periods of crustal recycling and maturation during the Phanerozoic.
Crown Copyright 2010 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The enrichment of lithophile elements in the earth's continental
crust is the result of a combination of processes that lead to silica
enrichment, driven primarily by the generation of silicate melts (e.g.
Rudnick, 1995).The generation of silicate melts provides a signicant
control on secular change in the Earth because they provide a rst
order control on the relatively low density of continental crust.
Therefore magmatism, and principally the generation of silicic
magmas, is a major contributor to the continental crust's resistance
to re-homogenization and recycling through subduction. Additionally,
highly siliceous mineral phases are more stable than ferromagnesian
phases under surface conditions, and therefore exhibit higher attrition
rates which contribute to the maturation of the continental crust. The
source, scale and timeframes of silicic melt production can therefore
be used as a proxy to understand the nature, scale and timeframes of
recycling and production of silicic continental crust. Generating highly
silicic (or felsic) melts represents the natural end member of this
process. The term felsic is used here in preference to highly silicic or
silicic to avoid confusion when discussing the generation of silicate
magmas; all large volume melts on earth are silicic, but not all are felsic.
A number of examples of rapid, large volume felsic melt production
punctuateearthhistoryandstandout as remarkablegeologic phenomena
in the rock record. Some are described and dened as the silicic large
igneous provinces (SLIP) (Bryan and Ernst, 2008; Bryan et al., 2002),
others are present as felsic portions of mac LIPs (e.g. Bryan and Ernst,
2008; Sheth, 2007). For consistency the term SLIP will be maintained
throughout. The geological record of large volume felsic magmatism
extends fromas far back as the Archean and is represented by the classic
TTGs suites (e.g. Condie, 2005; Rollinson, 2006; Smith, 2003). In terms of
rate of emplacement and volcanic style however, useful comparisons
betweenTTGs andtheir eruptiveequivalents andmoremodernexamples
of voluminous felsic magmatismare inhibited by preservation issues and
unclear contextual relationships; resulting in a consequent lack of
veriable data regarding their petrogenesis and geodynamic setting.
A number of distinct processes can produce felsic melts; assim-
ilation, fractionation, and degree of partial melting with respect to
source composition are by far the most signicant factors for the
resultant liquid composition. Deciphering which of these processes is
the most important for a given felsic-dominated igneous event is often
contentious, giventhat nooneof thethree ever occurredinisolation. Such
debate is important, since the relative contribution of these factors in a
given scenario record the operation of very different thermal and
Lithos 123 (2011) 92101
Corresponding author. GEMOC, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
Macquarie University, Sydney 2109, Australia.
E-mail address: matt.pankhurst@gmail.com (M.J. Pankhurst).
0024-4937/$ see front matter. Crown Copyright 2010 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2010.11.014
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
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j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ l i t hos
chemical regimes within source, transport and emplacement/eruption
settings. Consequently this interplay accords different signicance to
subsequent geodynamic interpretations for these magmatic events. Such
debate is ultimately of central importance to how we understand the
production and evolution of continental crust.
This contribution reviews key examples of voluminous felsic
magmatism in terms of their melting processes, source characteristics
and geodynamic settings. It seeks to illuminate any patterns of volu-
metrically and high-production rate end-member examples of felsic melt
generation through time to inform our view of the evolving continents.
1.1. Nature of the rapid voluminous felsic magmatism record
Total magmatic volume and emplacement rates of these phenom-
ena are clearly central to their inclusion or exclusion from discussion.
These characteristics however, are not straightforward to constrain.
Intrusive volumes are difcult to estimate, and remote sensing cannot
prove their chemical nature and unambiguous genetic relation to
surface observations. As we consider older examples back through
geologic time, preservation of key data becomes increasingly
problematic, and initial volume descriptions necessarily become less
constrained.
Recently efforts have been made to reclassify large igneous
provinces, including an important sub-class termed SLIPs (Bryan
and Ernst, 2008; Sheth, 2007). Both these recent reviews focus on
preserved areal extent and volume of LIPs as a rst order criteria for
classication, while at the same time describe heavily denuded
remnants of LIPs (e.g., dyke swarms, batholiths) also as potential LIPs.
These accommodations honor the data and make reasonable
assumptions based on comparison with other, better constrained
examples. They must still however, be considered as LIPs with
caution, as would any extrapolated data set. Using the intrusive
footprint of a system is a useful proxy for areal extent, especially in
those provinces which exhibit high level plutonism. These footprints
linked with provenance studies of adjacent basins could be the way
forward in constraining total initial volumes. Attempting to imply
ancient magmatic volumes based on modern examples and at the
same time comparing the two in search for patterns is (unfortunately)
begging the question. Due to this uncertainty, ascribing tectonic
setting to a LIP using inferred volume as a line of evidence is also
problematic. As a consequence in this contribution we instead focus
on magmatic style, source region and geodynamic setting of the better
constrained examples, and when extending the discussion back
through time we have selected what we feel are the most
representative and illustrative examples that can be rigorously
constrained by both magmatic footprint and sedimentary provenance.
To this end we have collated volume, temperature, dominant volcanic
eruption style, isotopic and geochemical data from both SLIPs and
silicic portions of mac LIPs as well as typical early Archean TTG suite
rocks, S-I- and A-type granites and topaz rhyolites (Table 1).
1.2. Key features of the rapid voluminous felsic magmatism record
within mac LIPs and SLIPS
The most striking observation when comparing the geochemistry,
eruptive temperature and emplacement style of these high volume
rhyolites is how similar they are, regardless of age. They exhibit high
SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
ratios (~57), high K
2
O/Na
2
O ratios (N1.5), and where
available data exists, high Ga/Al
2
O
3
ratios (N1.5) with high F (in
thousands of parts per million), low water content, and record high
temperatures (9001100 C) (Table 1 and references therein). This
suite of characteristics is shared with A-type granites (Turner et al.,
1992), and contrasts with I- and S-types (Chappell and White, 1992).
The large volume rhyolites are most often described as low aspect ratio
rheoignimbrites or lavas, and occur as laterally homogenous sheets that
extend over wide areas; up to 8800 km
2
(Milner et al., 1992). Large
volume rhyolites occur as part of mac LIPs and also as part of SLIPs.
Within the latter mac magmatic rocks are either absent, not reported,
or represent a negligible fraction of the total magmatic volume. Some of
these magmas are very similar to those frommac LIPs, although others
contrast with each of the characteristics discussed above (Table 1 and
Figs. 13). The mac LIP rhyolites occur throughout the rock record,
from at least as early as 2.45 Ga (Woongarra Rhyolite; Barley et al.,
1997) through the Proterozoic (1.1 Ga Keweenawan; Green and Fritz,
1993) to the Phanerozoic (e.g. ParanEtendeka; Ewart et al., 2004b)
and recent times (e.g. Yellowstone magmatic system; Leeman, 2005;
McCurry et al., 2008). This wide spread of ages of magmatic systems
with numerous shared characteristics (Fig. 4) implies the existence of a
prevailing geodynamic mechanism since at least 2.45 Ga. Some
examples of voluminous felsic volcanism within mac LIPs and SLIPs
can be linked with major geologic events such as supercontinent
breakup, global climate change and mass extinctions (Courtillot et al.,
2003; Deckart et al., 1998; Milner et al., 1995; Wignall, 2001).
The inuence of halogens is a key factor inunderstanding the physical
behavior and emplacement style of felsic magmas (Kirstein et al., 2001).
Halogens, particularlyF, act as depolymerizingagents effectivelyreducing
themelt viscosity (Giordanoet al., 2004). Therefore, consideringhalogens
as important geochemical indicators of physical processes is critical to
the discussion of rapid voluminous felsic magmatism through time.
2. Rapid voluminous felsic volcanism as a proportion of mac LIPs
While recent reviews illustrate that a range of characteristics are
present within large igneous provinces (LIPs) (Bryan and Ernst, 2008;
Bryan et al., 2002; Ernst et al., 2005; Sheth, 2007), they are traditionally
and best recognized as voluminous outpourings of basalt onto the
earth's surface, which occur on both continental and oceanic crust
(e.g. Jerram and Widdowson, 2005). They are widely interpreted as the
surface manifestation of the arrival of a mantle plume head beneath
continental and oceanic lithosphere.
Mantle plume head arrivals are phenomena linked to ore formation
(Pirajino, 2001), triple junction formation (Burke and Dewey, 1973;
Ernst and Buchan, 2001), rifting (Bryan et al., 1997) and continental
break-up (Deckart et al., 1998; Milner et al., 1995) as well as climate
change and mass extinction events (Wignall, 2001).
During the past decade, felsic portions of dominantly mac LIPs have
attracted increasing attention (Bryan et al., 2002; Miller and Harris,
2007). Among these eruptive units are the largest known in the world
(Ewart et al., 1998b), and as such represent the most violent and
catastrophic terrestrial phenomena (Bryan et al., 2002), contrasting
with the relatively slow, effusive, self-ination style of basalt emplace-
ment in these LIPs (e.g. Self et al., 1996; Thordarson and Self, 1998;
Waichel et al., 2006). As such, their impact upon the geosphere,
atmosphere and biosphere is suggested to be among the most dramatic
single-events on earth (e.g. Cather et al., 2009; Wignall, 2001).
2.1. Source and production of rhyolites within mac LIPs
Descriptions of the best constrained LIPs with an emphasis on their
felsic units can be found in Bryan et al. (2002) and references therein.
Classic LIP magmas showa distinct silica gap, with chemical groupings
around 4556 and 6575 wt.% (Bryan and Ernst, 2008), and as such
LIPs are often referred to as bimodal. This rst order observation
intuitively suggests that the mac magmas and felsic magmas do not
correspond to an unbroken liquid line of descent, and thus fractional
crystallization from a mantle parent may not the most important
process in generating felsic liquids (Annen et al., 2006; Huppert and
Sparks, 1988), although a number of examples to the contrary are
described (Ayalew and Gibson, 2009; Ewart et al., 2004b). Rather,
partial melting of anhydrous lower crust as a response to underplating
of high temperature mac magmas is offered by many to be the
principle trigger for rhyolite production (Bryan et al., 2002; Harris et
93 M.J. Pankhurst et al. / Lithos 123 (2011) 92101
al., 1990; Huppert and Sparks, 1988). On the basis of geochemical and
isotopic evidence however, which often demonstrate strong links
between spatially and temporally associated basalts and rhyolites of
many LIPs (Ayalew and Gibson, 2009; Ewart et al., 2004a; Garland et
al., 1995; Peate et al., 1992), a shared liquid line of descent seems most
appropriate. Recent work demonstrates that the silica gap problem
can be overcome since intermediate compositions are predicted to be
produced, although their volumes are likely to be minimal (e.g. Turner
and Rushmer, 2009). In such models the silica gap corresponds to a
small temperature interval and relatively small difference in the
degree of fractional crystallization, and could thus be easily under-
sampled in the record or by the magmatic systems' own plumbing
(Turner and Rushmer, 2009). This observation is based upon
comparison of experimentally derived liquid compositions from
mac mantle and crustal sources that reveal key discriminants
between sources (chiey Al
2
O
3
, total FeO and water content), and
favors a mac mantle source for low-Ti rhyolites which bear striking
chemical resemblance to A-type granites (Turner and Rushmer,
2009). The presence of small volume intermediates is a crucial test
for this explanation, as they provide the evidence to genetically link
the basalt units to the rhyolites within a given voluminous magmatic
event. A key example is the Rooiberg FelsiteBushveld Complex LIP,
which is a several kilometer thick pile of low Ti (TiO
2
b1 wt.%) mac
material overlain by thin intermediate composition material and
capped by ~3-km-thick felsic sequence (Twist, 1985; Twist and
French, 1983). While the RooibergBushveld potentially demon-
strates Turner and Rushmer's (2009) explanation on an impressive
scale, the precise age relationship of these successions is difcult to
ascertain due to prolonged open system behavior of isotope systems
(Harmer and Farrow, 1995). Vantongeren et al. (2010) have recently
demonstrated a genetic link between the Bushveld and Rooiberg units
that better reect the observed paragenetic sequences. The ~1100-Ma
Table 1
Typical examples of rapid voluminous felsic magmatism through time. Note the linked occurrence of high eruptive temperatures, high SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
, high K
2
O/Na
2
O, high F, high Ga/
Al
2
O
3
and relatively low-viscosity eruption styles. Also note the different magma types within SLIPs, one type similar in the above and another displaying lower SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
, lower
K
2
O/Na
2
O, lower Ga/Al
2
O
3
and more explosive eruption styles.
Province Woongarra Roiiberg felsite
Bushveld
Gawler Keweenawan Karoo EtendekaParana
(Low-Ti)
Region North West
Australia
Southern Africa South Australia Central North America SE Africa Sth America-Africa
Age (Ma) 2450 2100 1592 1100 183180 ~132
Volume of rhyolites 104 km
3 b
1.5 30 0.5 3.5 2
Volume of basalts 104 km
3 b
1.5 100 negligible 8.5 10 89
Rhyolite volcanic style Lava Lava Lava Rheoignimbrite, lavas Rheoignimbrite Rheoignimbrite
Felsic temperature (C) ~1000 not reported 9501100 10001100 not reported 10001100
Felsic composition
SiO
2
74.4 66.52 67.7 72.23 70.26 70.85
TiO
2
0.3 0.55 0.76 0.45 0.53 0.65
Al
2
O
3
9.92 11.41 13.73 11.38 12.07 11.85
FeO (tot) 4.97 7.05 5.06 3.91 6.14 4.81
MnO 0.05 0.16 0.11 0.04 0.1 0.07
MgO 1.76 0.52 0.81 0.44 0.21 0.60
CaO bd 2.82 1.52 1.07 0.61 1.45
Na
2
O 0.1 1.9 3.27 2.62 2.96 2.69
K
2
O 5.98 3.93 5.33 5.5 4.68 5.16
P
2
O
5
bd 0.17 0.19 0.03 0.13 0.20
L.O.I. 1.78 3.65 1.5 2.39 0.86 1.49
Water content
F 1840 Fluorite observed
Cl 360
Ga 20 19
Cr bd 70 10.8 14.86
Sr 9 86 153 70 81 83.90
Y 98 54 67 158 50.77
Nb 20 14 28 99 71 25.12
Zr 420 317 428 500 844 314.63
Ba 555 1172 1115.35 1400 1572 645.77
La 39 75.9 143 47.92
Ce 75 131 138.1 116 252 101.51
Pr 15.4 34.6 12.99
Nd 63.3 149 46.28
Sm 14.6 10.67 28.5 9.34
Eu 2.3 2.77 6.09 1.69
Gd 9.25 30.3 8.24
Tb 2 4.41 1.38
Dy 5.4 9.44 27.8 8.49
Ho 2.25 5.32 1.70
Er 5.7 15.5 4.89
Yb 2.8 6.38 8 14.1 4.51
K
2
O/Na
2
O 59.800 2.068 1.630 2.099 1.581 1.920
SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
7.500 5.830 4.931 6.347 5.821 5.978
Ga x10000/Al
2
O
3
2.016 0.000 1.384 0.000 0.000 0.000
References Trendall, 1995;
Barley et al., 1997
Fourie, 1969;
Twist and French,
1983; Cawthorn
and Walraven,
1998; Twist, 1985
Fanning et al.
1988; Blissett et
al., 1993; Allen
et al., 2008
Green and Fritz, 1993 Harris and Erlank, 1992;
Allsopp et al., 1984;
Encarnacion et al., 1996,
Miller and Harris, 2007;
Turner and Rushmer, 2009
Milner et al., 1992;
Ewart et al., 2004a,b;
pers. comm. Mike
Morby
a
Data from British Tertiary.
b
Reported estimated values.
94 M.J. Pankhurst et al. / Lithos 123 (2011) 92101
Keweenawan LIP also demonstrates this relationship of thick basaltic
units that are overlain by minor intermediate units followed by
signicant rhyolite units, although in this case the basalts are high Ti
(TiO
2
N2 wt.%), and the sequence is sandwiched between voluminous
lowTi basalts (Nicholson and Shirey, 1990). While many authors have
demonstrated on geochemical and petrographic grounds a direct
genetic link between some basalts and rhyolites within these mac
LIPs (Ewart et al., 2004b; Nicholson and Shirey, 1990), relative
volumes of intermediate units, as well as their composition, provide
important constraints on liquid lines of descent. The timing and
degree of crustal contamination, often argued for in such provinces
(Ayalew and Gibson, 2009; Ewart et al., 2004b) should be further
constrained by the intermediate units, as the presence or absence of
contamination within them places constraints on the evolution of
each parent magma batch.
In well constrained mac LIPs rhyolites occur predominantly
towards the upper section of the volcanic stratigraphy, often capping
the sequence (Bryan et al., 2002). It follows that they are exposed to
erosional processes early in their denudation history, increasing the
likelihood of under-representation in our descriptions and under-
appreciation of their importance (Bryan et al., 2002). The observation
that on balance the rhyolites appear late in the magmatic history also
lends weight to fractional crystallization as the principle process of
felsic liquid production; if the rhyolites were derived from the crust
we would expect a secular evolution of the province from felsic to
more mac compositions (Annen et al., 2006). We can test this model
as it predicts that we should observe a shift to felsic compositions with
time. This shift should manifest either in the production of felsic
successions on top of basalts or, in the case of hotspot movement, a
spatial trend towards felsic compositions at the youngest section of a
trail. We observe this agecomposition relationship in the Yemen
Ethiopia (Ukstins Peate et al., 2005), Deccan LIPs (Lightfoot et al.,
1987), the Cretaceous ParanEtendeka LIP (Peate et al., 1992), the
Jurassic Karoo-Ferrar LIP (Miller and Harris, 2007), the Neoproterozoic
Table 1
Typical examples of rapid voluminous felsic magmatism through time. Note the linked occurrence of high eruptive temperatures, high SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
, high K
2
O/Na
2
O, high F, high Ga/
Al
2
O
3
and relatively low-viscosity eruption styles. Also note the different magma types within SLIPs, one type similar in the above and another displaying lower SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
, lower
K
2
O/Na
2
O, lower Ga/Al
2
O
3
and more explosive eruption styles.
Deccan North Atlantic
Igneous Province
a
YemenEthiopian Columbia RiverSnake
River PlainYellowstone
Chon Aike Chon Aike Whitsunday Whitsunday
India Far Western
Europe
East Africa North Western USA Southern South
America, Antarctica
Southern South
America, Antarctica
North Eastern
Australia
North Eastern
Australia
~61.5 ~60 ~30 160 188140 188140 ~120105 ~120105
0.5 1.5 0.5 10 23.5 10^4 23.5 10^4 N3 10^4 N3 10^4
50 25 N35 Subordinate^ not reported not reported subordinate subordinate
Lava Ignimbrite Welded ignimbrite Rheoignimbrite, lava Ignimbrite, lava Ignimbrite, lava Pyroclastic Pyroclastic
~900 not reported not reported ~9001050 not reported not reported not reported not reported
77.8 69.81 76.03 73.2 67.47 73.64 69.12 74.1
0.35 0.76 0.23 0.26 0.4 0.4 0.59 0.21
11.77 12.97 11.57 12.9 16.81 13.89 15.76 13.55
2.58 4.07 2.29 3.52 4.48 2.14 3.43 2.16
nd nd 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.13 0.11 0.08
nd 0.43 0.09 0.09 0.2 0.5 0.87 0.3
nd 0.9 0.36 0.86 1.46 1.04 2.32 1
2.27 2.97 3.4 4.1 4.8 1.25 4.11 4.12
5.23 4.43 5.38 4.94 3.56 6.56 3.46 4.38
nd 0.26 0.03 0.05 0.27 0.22 0.16 0.07
0.1 0.32 3.15 2.42
38 26.4
42 2.5 13 7
8 12.1 13 445 280 336 121
174 99 204 22 36 44
319 114 13 10 11
1801 569 859 268 278 319
34 171 702 566 710
290 111 141 39.59 66.8 27 33
325 233 280 86 141.2 65 79
25.72 15.18
201 103.6 122 39.53 50.3 35.5 42
36 21.27 29 8.08 8.8 7.2 8.5
1 1.13 1.8 1.8 1.22 1.78 1.44
30 17.46 7.02 6.3 7.6
5.3 3.04 7 0.99 1.1 1.3
18.37 6.52
6.9 3.65 1.38 1.45 1.7
10.28 4
15.3 9.39 29 2.63 4.09 2.95 4.45
2.304 1.492 1.582 1.205 0.742 5.248 0.842 1.063
6.610 5.382 6.571 5.674 4.014 5.302 4.386 5.469
3.229 0.000 2.282 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Lightfoot et
al., 1987
Meyer et al., 2009;
Walsh et al., 1979
Ukstins Peate et al., 2005;
Ayalew and Gibson, 2009
McCurry et al., 2008 Pankhurst and
Rapela, 1995
Pankhurst and
Rapela, 1995
Ewart et al., 1992;
Bryan et al., 1997
Ewart et al., 1992;
Bryan et al., 1997
(continued on next page)
95 M.J. Pankhurst et al. / Lithos 123 (2011) 92101
Keweenawan LIP (Nicholson and Shirey, 1990) and potentially the
Paleoproterozoic (N 2.0 Ga) Rooiberg FelsiteBushveld Complex
(Vantongeren et al., 2010) and Woongarra LIPs (Barley et al., 1997).
If crustal melting was the primary source of felsic magmas it would be
predicted they occur dominantly towards the bottomof the sequence,
suchas in the NorthAtlantic Igneous Province (NAIP) (e.g. Meyer et al.,
2009) where the source of reported felsic units at the base of the basalt
sequence is crustal derived (Bryanet al., 2002; Sinton et al., 1998). This
is similar to the Yellowstone system, where early crystal-derived
rhyolites are overlain by younger basalts (e.g. Cathey and Nash, 2004).
Early (Miocene) rhyolites of the Yellowstone system are reported as
crustal derived (Hildreth et al., 1991), yet bear the thermal and
geochemical hallmarks (e.g. Cathey and Nash, 2004) of rapid
voluminous felsic magmatism associated with mac LIPs. It should
be noted that within the British Tertiary sequence of the NAIP and
Yellowstone (e.g. Girard and Stix, 2010; McCurry et al., 2008) rhyolite
compositions of the high temperature type do occur late in the
eruptive sequence.
This geological explanation, independent of composition, provides
an opportunity to link late felsic portions of bimodal LIPs displaying
similar chemistries and eruptive styles into one model favoring
fractional crystallization as the dominant process.
As suchmany rhyolites in mac LIPs may represent the largest single
events of primary additionof newfelsic material to the continents, since
appeals to crustal input to bridge the silica gap are less vital (Turner and
Rushmer, 2009).
3. Rapid voluminous felsic magmatism as SLIPs
Bryan et al. (2002) describe two types of SLIPs; an intraplate style
and a back-arc environment style. Both types are characterized by
overwhelmingly felsic compositions, and both are driven by thermal
and mass transfer into the crust by hot mantle upwelling, and are
often accompanied by lithospheric extension (Bryan et al., 2002). The
extension related to the intraplate style is related to continent break
up, typied by the southern South AmericaAntarctic Peninsula Chon
Aike (~188 Ma) and eastern Australia Whitsunday (~132 Ma)
provinces (Bryan et al., 2002). They are associated with coeval mac
LIP emplacement at these times and manifest in long arcuate belts
(~2500 km) of dominantly rhyolitic magmatism (Bryan et al., 2000;
Table 1 (continued)
Province Sierra Madre
Occidental
(Western)
Sierra Madre
Occidental
(Mesa Central)
Taupo Volcanic
zone
Topaz
Rhyolite
Typical S-type
granite
Typical I-type
granite
Typical A-type
granite
Early Archean
TTG
Region Mexico Mexico New Zealand NW USA Lachlan fold belt,
Eastern Australia
Lachlan fold belt,
Eastern Australia
South
Australia
Age (Ma) ~3820 ~3820 ~0.5 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Volume of rhyolites 104 km
3 b
29.6 x 10^4 29.6 x 10^4 1.6 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Volume of basalts 104 km
3 b
not reported not reported negligible n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Rhyolite volcanic style ignimbrite lava Ignimbrite lava n/a n/a n/a n/a
Felsic temperature (C) not reported not reported 735890 650700 630850 7501000 9001000 700800
Felsic composition
SiO
2
71.48 76.7 73.73 77.49 70.91 69.5 74.61 70.4
TiO
2
0.53 0.08 0.29 0.08 0.44 0.41 0.2 0.31
Al
2
O
3
14.87 12.6 13.30 12.36 14 14.21 12.67 15.2
FeO (tot) 2.34 1.33 1.64 1.07 3.06 3.12 2.13 2.51
MnO 0.11 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.06
MgO 0.96 0.13 0.36 0.13 1.24 1.38 0.11 0.96
CaO 2.33 0.29 1.67 0.25 1.8 3.07 0.95 2.74
Na
2
O 4.4 3.3 4.28 3.75 2.51 3.16 3.89 4.71
K
2
O 2.68 4.8 3.17 4.76 4.09 3.48 4.79 2.22
P
2
O
5
0.11 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.15 0.11 0.03 0.1
L.O.I. 5 0.57 0.54 2.01 1.31 0.42
Water content
F 2840 2000 1130.00
Cl 60
Ga 23 18 16 22.00
Cr 2.0 1 30 20 5 45
Sr 160 7 123.0 4 112 235 58 362
Y 39 79 32 31 74 8.5
Nb 14.6 30 90 13 11 25.9 6.1
Zr 237 143 147 157 150 251.00 152
Ba 89 802.0 440 519 352 500
La 24.3 23.6 40 27 31 72.50 22
Ce 46.4 95 61 66 152.91 40
Pr ` 6.19 6.5
Nd 23.8 23.6 39 60.60 16
Sm 6.07 5.6 9 11.69 2.9
Eu 0.08 1.2 0.76 0.82
Gd 6.74 5.8 12.23 2.2
Tb 1.27 0.9 0.31
Dy 7.76 5.5 11.13
Ho 1.62 1.2
Er 4.71 3.3 6.38
Yb 5 3.1 6.36 0.82
K
2
O/Na
2
O 0.609 1.455 0.741 1.269 1.629 1.101 1.231 0.471
SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
4.807 6.087 5.544 6.269 5.065 4.891 5.889 4.632
Ga x10000/Al
2
O
3
0.000 0.000 1.861 1.286 1.126 1.736
References Cameron et
al., 1980
Orozco-Esquivel
et al., 2002
Ewart et al.,
1971; Reid,
1983
Christiansen
et al., 2007
Chappell and White,
1992; Chappell et
al., 2004
Chappell and White,
1992; Chappell et
al., 2004
Turner et al.,
1992
Condie, 2005
96 M.J. Pankhurst et al. / Lithos 123 (2011) 92101
Pankhurst et al., 1998) (Fig. 1). The Whitsunday SLIP is reported as the
largest constrained example (Bryan et al., 2000; Bryan et al., 2002) of
this LIPstyle. The bulkof theestimated15010
4
km
3
of felsic material is
volumes of on and off shore basin ll, whichextends down the length of
eastern Australia (Bryan et al., 2000, 2002). Back arc related extension
SLIPs are associated with active continental convergent margins (Bryan
et al., 2002). Sierra Madre Occidental (~38 Ma) is the largest known
example, extending ~1200 km by 200 km wide in northern Mexico
(Ward, 1991). These provinces are termed LIP as they, like mac LIPs,
develop over relatively short time frames (b40 Myr; Bryan et al., 2002)
and thus represent rapid emplacement rates.
A thorough petrochemical description of the earth's SLIPs does not
exist, although conventional wisdom suggests crustal anatexis of
hydrous basalticandesitic material represents at least a major
portion of the source (Bryan et al., 2002, 2008; Pankhurst and Rapela,
1995; Ruiz et al., 1988), but mantle derived magmas are argued to also
represent a source (Cameron et al., 1980, 1996; McCurry et al., 2008).
Where the magmatism within a LIP is overwhelmingly felsic, it is
intuitively less likely that they originate from a mac mantle source
(Pankhurst and Rapela, 1995). However, the major, trace and REE
chemistry of many voluminous rhyolites within these felsic large
igneous provinces bear striking similarity to the rhyolites within mac
LIPs, which implies a similar petrogenesis (Ayalew and Gibson, 2009;
Cameron et al., 1980). A number of workers have described fractional
crystallization from a mac mantle source to explain the geochemical
nature of some rhyolites within the OligoceneMiocene Sierra Madre
Occidental SLIP (Cameron et al., 1980; Orozco-Esquivel et al., 2002),
while other rhyolites appear to be sourced from greater contributions
of crustal material (Bryan et al., 2008). These rhyolites may be
identied from the mantle-derived group by their higher Al
2
O
3
/SiO
2
ratios and lower K
2
O/Na
2
O ratios (Fig. 2), and although their REE
patterns are almost indistinguishable (Fig. 3), overall concentrations
of REE are lower. The mid Jurassic Chon Aike SLIP, similar in overall
size and geometry to the Sierra Madre Occidental, also is character-
ized by crustal sourced rhyolites (Pankhurst and Rapela, 1995;
Pankhurst et al., 1998). Some rhyolites with the Chon Aike bear the
geochemical hallmarks of rhyolites from mac LIPs (Table 1),
although a signicant mantle source for some rhyolites has not been
suggested until this contribution. The ca. 1592 Ma Gawler large
igneous province may represent the earliest SLIP (Allen et al., 2008;
Foden and Stewart, 2006; Pankhurst et al., 2010; Stewart and Foden,
1990), although the felsic magma type appears to reect that of the
rhyolites in mac LIPs on whole rock geochemical grounds (Table 1
and references therein). It is characterized by a lower sequence of
ignimbrite and lavas from a number of distinct volcanic centers (Allen
90
o
90
o
60
o
30
o
0
o
-30
o
-60
o
0
o
Keweenawan
Woongarra
Chon Aike
Bushveld
Karoo
Columbia
River-
Yellowstone
Sierra
Madre
Occidental
Parana
Etendeka
Deccan
Yemen
Ethiopia
Whitsunday
Gawler
North
Atlantic
Igneous
Province
mafic LIPs with VFM
SLIPs (backarc related)
SLIPs (intraplate)
Taupo
Volcanic
Zone
2100 Ma
2450 Ma
1592 Ma
132 Ma
1.6 Ma
61.5 Ma
30 Ma
183 Ma
188 Ma
132 Ma
38 Ma
16 Ma
1100 Ma
60 Ma
Fig. 1. World map displaying the locations and ages of rhyolites within mac LIPs and SLIPs discussed in this paper. Adapted from Bryan et al. (2002). Radiometric ages references;
Woongarra; Barley et al. (1997), RooibergBushveld; Walraven et al. (1990), Gawler; Fanning et al. (1988), Keweenawan; Palmer and Davis (1987), Chon-Aike; Pankhurst et al.
(1998) Karoo; Allsopp et al. (1984), ParanEtendeka Milner et al. (1992), Whitsunday; Bryan et al. (1997), Deccan; Lightfoot et al. (1987), North Atlantic Igneous Province; Sinton et
al. (1998), Yemen-Ethiopia; Ukstins Peate et al. (2005), Sierra Madre Occidental; see Orozco-Esquivel et al. (2002), Taupo Volcanic Zone; Wilson et al. (1995), Yellowstone; Jordan et
al. (2004).
S
i
O
2

/

A
l
2
O
3
K
2
O / Na
2
O
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Rhyolites in
mafic LIPs
(5.3, 5.4)
S- type granite
I- type granite
A- type granite
Chon Aike
Whitsunday
SMO
TVZ
Topaz rhyolite
TTG
Felsic magma types SLIPs
Fig. 2. Major element discrimination diagram for typical rhyolites within mac LIPs and
SLIPs compared with well constrained felsic magma types. Note that within SLIPs some
compositions are similar to I-type granites while others plot closer to A-type granites.
Rhyolites within mac LIPs consistently plot closer to A-types granites than I-type
granites. See Table 1 for explanation of data treatment and references.
97 M.J. Pankhurst et al. / Lithos 123 (2011) 92101
et al., 2008), and an upper sequence of enormous felsic lava sheets
that assume an elliptical province shape, reminiscent to those sheets
within mac LIPs. Additionally, the volcanic units were erupted
within a ~2-Ma timeframe (Fanning et al., 1988). Although plutonism
within the province occurred for another ~20 Ma (Fanning et al.,
1988), this rapid, centralized felsic volcanism is unlike the relatively
slower developing, broad corridor geometries of Phanerozoic SLIPs
and is more akin to the geometries of mac LIPs. Furthermore, the
Gawler felsic large igneous province forms the oldest section of a
hotspot track across Proterozoic Australia, revealed by detailed
geochronology and plate reconstructions (Betts et al., 2009). For the
purposes of classication we regard the Gawler LIP as more akin to
mac systems, even though paradoxically there are negligible
volumes of basalt reported (Blissett et al., 1993). An anomalous,
long wavelength gravity high is detected underneath the volcanics on
the central Gawler Craton, which may be indicative of large volumes
of trapped mac material (Huynh et al., 2001). The Gawler LIP may
then represent an end member of the mac LIP style, from the
opposite end member represented by mac LIPs with negligible
volumes of felsic magmas expressed.
4. Fluorine inuenced physicochemistry; effects on the style of
rapid voluminous felsic magmatism
High F concentration is regarded as an A-type afnity (e.g. Whalen
et al., 1987), and while analysis is not routine, where F is measured
(Orozco-Esquivel et al., 2002; Pankhurst et al., 2010) it occurs in high
concentrations within many high temperature rhyolites from mac
LIPs. F is relatively soluble at high concentrations and low pressures,
and is in fact the most soluble volatile by far at atmospheric pressure
(Lange, 1994), whereas H
2
O and Cl readily degas under these
conditions (Fuge, 1977; Giordano et al., 2004). By possessing an
afnity for the melt phase over lattice sites uorine not only decreases
viscosity (Dingwell, 1987; Giordano et al., 2004), but also promotes
magma mobility and activity by decreasing density (Dingwell et al.,
1993), reduces liquidus temperatures (Manning, 1981), and increases
water solubility within the melt (Holtz et al., 1993). Mysen et al.
(2004) demonstrate that the effects of F has on silicate melt viscosity
is greater with increasing polymerization (of which silica concentra-
tion is a proxy) of the melt. The inuence of F is thus an important
consideration for these low water content rhyolites, since high levels
0.1
1
10
100
1000
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Yb
S
a
m
p
l
e
/
P
r
i
m
i
t
i
v
e

M
a
n
t
l
e
Rhyolites in mafic LIPs
Rhyolites in SLIPs
Fig. 3. Rare Earth Element (REE) plot of typical rhyolites within mac LIPs and SLIPs normalized to primitive mantle (Sun, 1982; McDonough, 1991). Very similar overall patterns are
observed, implying similar source regions and petrologic evolution of the melts. Marked negative Eu anomalies are common to both. Rhyolites within mac LIPs consistently show
higher concentrations, suggesting they originate from an enriched source with respect to the rhyolites within SLIPs. See Table 1 for explanation of data treatment and references.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time before present (Ga)
RVFM within mafic LIPs
SLIP (intraplate)
SLIP (back-arc)
R
-
B
W
o
T
V
Z
S
M
O
K
a
G
D
C
-
A
P
-
E
W
h
E
-
Y
K
e
Y
N
A
I
P
Fig. 4. Examples of rapid voluminous felsic magmatism through time. Rapid voluminous felsic magmatism within mac LIPs occur with a remarkable regular frequency (once every
~500 Myr) from~2.4 Ga to ~200 Ma (conspicuously missing ~700), although this could simply be a function of recognition and preservation. In the last 200 Ma several examples are
recognized, which suggests preservation is important. Intraplate- and back-arc SLIPs occur exclusively to the Phanerozoic. Wo; Woongarra, RB; RooibergBushveld, G; Gawler, Ke;
Keweewanan, C-A; Chon-Aike, Ka; Karoo, PE; ParanEtendeka, Wh; Whitsunday, D; Deccan, NAIP; North Atlantic Igneous Province, YE; YemenEthiopia, SMO; Sierra Madre
Occidental, TVZ; Taupo Volcanic Zone, Y; Yellowstone (see Fig. 1 for age references).
98 M.J. Pankhurst et al. / Lithos 123 (2011) 92101
of F is likely to have a direct inuence on their physicochemical
properties which in turn could help explain their low viscosity
eruption style (e.g. Kirstein et al., 2001) and shallow levels of
intrusion, compared with other granitic magmas that crystallize at
deeper levels due to water loss, or erupt violently due to bubble
formation and viscous quench (Gardner et al., 2000; Sparks, 1978).
(Ewart et al., 2004b) express the difculty of generating such large
volumes of rhyolite by fractional crystallization alone, which in turn
drives an impetus for favoring models that include signicant crustal
input. With the consideration of high uorine concentrations along
with the high magmatic temperatures and presumably large volume
magma chambers/conduits we may conceive higher fractionation
efciencies than compared with other systems, which to a degree
decreases this perceived difculty.
A magmatic system that produces large volumes of low density,
felsic magma may be predicted to inhibit the ascent of higher density,
mac magma, and as such the surface expression of such a system
would be biased towards felsic compositions (e.g. Christiansen et al.,
2007; Pankhurst et al., 1998). If these felsic magmas were of suitably
low viscosity, this trapping of mac magma and eruption of felsic
compositions would be exaggerated. A large volume uorine rich
magmatic system then is an ideal scenario for efcient fractional
crystallization, production of low density, low viscosity felsic magmas
and their ascent and eruption at the earth's surface, at the expense of
residual mac magmas whose ascent is strongly inhibited.
5. Discussion
Rapid voluminous felsic magmatism stands out in the rock record
as transient events that have dramatic effects on the geosphere,
atmosphere and biosphere over relatively short time periods, but also
inform our view of the evolving continents by way of contributing
new felsic material and also maturing existing material.
Melting processes of rapid voluminous felsic magmatism in mac
LIPs appear to be dominated by fractional crystallization from a mac
mantle melt, with varying degrees of assimilation. The dominance of
this process has not varied considerably with time, since the geologic,
geochemical and volcanic style of the felsic melts produced are similar
throughout (Table 1 and references therein). This implies that the
geodynamic mechanism that produces them is a regular occurrence
and part of an enduring earth system. The association of rapid
voluminous felsic magmatism within mac LIPs that are driven by
mantle plume dynamics is a common thread, and if we momentarily
regard this driving mechanism as being constant, the variation we
observe should be attributed to the nature of the overlying
lithospheric regime at the time. The mantle parents to the felsic
magmas could either be derived from the convecting mantle or
lithosphere, or both (Ewart et al., 1998a). Discussion of possible
mantle sources is outside the scope of this contribution, although the
debate is important to understand the nature of convecting mantle
lithosphere coupling, mass and energy transfer during plume head
arrival and provide constraints on the process of plume driven
continent breakup.
Rapid voluminous felsic magmatism driven by plume forcing is
one consistent pattern we observe since at least 2.45 Ga (Fig. 4), and
as such informs our view of continental evolution since this time,
regardless of the exact nature of the parental melts. Further work will
better elucidate the roles of the convecting mantle and lithosphere
within this process.
Melting processes of rapid voluminous felsic magmatism in SLIPs
are more complicated, as there are two potential end member
sources; mantle and crust (e.g. Bryan et al., 2002). Mantle sourced
rhyolites within SLIPs are similar in many aspects to those in mac
LIPs (major and trace geochemistry, REE patterns, temperature,
volcanic style) which implies a similar petrologic evolution (Table 1
and references therein). However, these similarities cannot be used to
imply a similar geodynamic setting as the lower REE budget, spatial
distribution in corridors of magmatism, temporal association with
hydrous, crustal derived rhyolites and lack of surface express basalts
within the SLIPs internally implies a different geodynamic setting. The
external association with lithospheric extension within either back
arcs or during continental rifting (Bryan et al., 2002) is perhaps the
best evidence that these examples of rapid voluminous felsic
magmatism are driven by lithospheric forcing. The further distinction
of SLIPs in a back arc style and an intraplate style (Bryan et al., 2002)
has important geodynamic implications, as the former requires an
active convergent margin setting and the latter does not, but rather a
continent break up. Caution must be used in their interpretation since
the two produce very similar rock records (Bryan et al., 2002), but
imply very different tectonic regimes. SLIPs are recorded only in the
Phanerozoic, if this crucial observation is not an artifact of preserva-
tion or recognition it suggests that we are detecting a secular
evolution of rapid voluminous felsic magmatismthat has been revised
at around the end of the Precambrian to include a greater proportion of
crustal recycling. Since the process of recycling is manifest in the
production of increasingly siliceous melts the occurrence of these SLIPs
reects a maturation of the continental crust. The alternative is that the
observation that SLIPs are conned to the Phanerozoic is purely a
recognition and preservation issue. Since these SLIPs are located upon
(and dene) passive margins (e.g. Chon Aike, Whitsunday) and
spreading centers (e.g. Sierra Madre Occidental; Taupo Volcanic Zone),
they are vulnerable to tectonic-margin reworking during subsequent
ocean closures, orogenies etc. To invoke one explanation at the total cost
of the other would be presumptuous, although the much higher
preservation potential of crust upon stable lithospheric domains
contrasted with that upon dynamic margin lithosphere presents a strong
argument. Anargument couldbe made that tocorrect for SLIP loss initial
volumes should be considered many times greater than those preserved.
Provenance studies of basin ll is one useful approach (e.g. Bryan et al.,
2000). Rapid voluminous felsic magmatism may represent important
temporal and volumetric pinning points to studies of wholescale rock
cycling, as they often (particularly those associated with mac LIPs) are
high temperature and zirconium saturated (resulting in large zircon
populations with single ages), and occupy discrete time periods.
Considering the two geodynamic drivers (asthenospheric vs.
lithospheric) together we observe a pattern comprised of progressive
growth through geologic time and maturation processes relatively
recently. Since neither driver results in the destruction or de-
silicication of continental crust we therefore view the pattern as a
one-way inuence upon continental growth, which may be of use in
larger scale studies of continental evolution in which other processes
(e.g. subduction) may have two-way inuences.
6. Conclusions
Rapid voluminous felsic magmatism is demonstrated to occur
throughout the geologic record in association with either mac LIPs or
SLIPs. The rhyolites observed within mac LIPs are likely to be
primarily the product of efcient fractional crystallization from mac
mantle sources. They bear a suite of diagnostic characteristics; high
temperature (9001100 C), low water content, high F (in thousands
of parts per million), high SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
ratios (~57), high K
2
O/Na
2
O
ratios (N1.5), high Ga/Al
2
O
3
ratios (N1.5) and are erupted as
rheoignimbrites or lavas with low aspect ratios and large lateral
extents. They are erupted rapidly along with the (usually) volumet-
rically dominant mac LIP material (b1015 Myr), and represent
some of the largest single events to produce felsic crustal material.
This style of rapid voluminous felsic magmatism has changed little in
the past 2.4 Ga, it remains to be seen whether this record will extend
further back with continued understanding and recognition.
Some voluminous rhyolites in SLIPs share the same characteristics
as those within mac LIPs outlined above, however SLIPs also include
99 M.J. Pankhurst et al. / Lithos 123 (2011) 92101
rhyolites with lower SiO
2
/Al
2
O
3
ratios (~4), lower K
2
O/Na
2
O ratios
(b1.5), have higher water contents, lower temperatures (b900 C)
and exhibit more explosive eruption styles producing voluminous and
laterally extensive ignimbrites. SLIPS appear to be restricted to the
Phanerozoic, and occur in response to lithospheric extension, during
rifting or back arc evolution. SLIPs represent periods of crustal growth
via the input of material from the mantle, but also periods of crustal
maturation through remelting of hydrous lower crust and enrichment
of lithophile elements. The pre-hydration of the lithospheric column
by subduction appears to be important in developing felsic magmas at
the hydrous granite minimum. SLIPs develop over periods of ~40 Myr
in elongate zones of magmatism up to ~2500 km long. A number of
independent lines of evidence suggest that rapid voluminous felsic
magmatism occurs from two end member geodynamic triggers; a
mantle plume forcing that produces the mac LIP style, and a
lithospheric forcing that produces the SLIP style.
Acknowledgements
Mike Mawby is thanked for providing data from Etendeka; this
work has been funded in part by ARC LP0882000 to Schaefer and
Betts. Guillaume Girard and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for
their helpful comments which improved the manuscript. This is
contribution 691 from the Australian Research Council National Key
Centre for the Geochemical Evolution and Metallogeny of Continents.
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