Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Introduction to particle physics

Lecture 4: Cross sections
Frank Krauss
IPPP Durham

U Durham, Epiphany term 2009

F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Outline

Cross sections in classical physics

Connection to observables

F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Cross sections in classical physics

Denition

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Consider a beam of particles, approaching a target at rest with

velocity v . Describe the target by a potential centered at the origo.
Due to dierent impact parameters B, dierent particles of the
beam are scattered at dierent angles .
Dene cross section d() = dN()/n with
dN() = number of particles scattered per unit time into the
interval [, + d] - physical units: s 1 .
n = number of particles passing per unit time through a unit area
perpendiculr to the beam - physical units: m2 s 1
F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Rewriting the dierential cross section d

Assume unique relation = (B). (Fullled if decreases with B increasing - a typical setup!)
Assume homogenous beams: n = constant.
Assume symmetry around beam axis.
Then: dN() = 2nBdB = d = 2BdB.
Can rewrite to expose dependence on scattering angle:
dB
d.
d = 2B()
d
Use solid angle d = sin dd:
B() dB
d.
d =
sin d

F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Example: Scattering of a hard sphere with radius a

Read o from sketch:
B

= a sin 0

= a sin
= a cos
2
2

0
a

Therefore:
d

=
=

1
dB
sin
d = 2a2 cos
d
d
2 2
2
a2
a2
sin d = d = = a2 .
2
4

2B

Particle must hit the target.

F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Example: Scattering in a central potential V = /r n

(Recap the corresponding lecture in classical mechanics! Details of derivation not examinable.)

Consider now scattering in a central potential V (r ) = /r n .

Obviously: Need to determine trajectories in dependence on B.
Use energy and angular momentum conservation:
E=

mr 2

J2
m 2

r + r 2 2 + V (r ) =

+
+ V (r ),
2
2
2mr 2

(Scattering particles have mass m.)

where two-dimensional spherical coordinates r and and the angular

momentum

J = mr 2
have been used.
Therefore:
2
J2
dr
=
[E V (r )] 2 2
r=

dt
m
m r

F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Rewrite (with dt = dr / from above):

r
d

J
r 2 dr

Jdt
=
mr 2

2m [E V (r )]

J2
r2

Use that energy in innite distance is purely kinetic: E =

angular momentum is given by J = mv B.
Assume specic form of potential:
V (r ) = /r (typical for gravity/electromagnetism)
0

B
r 2 dr

d =
1

B2
r2

2V (r )
2
mv

= cos

2
mv
2

and

2
mv B

1+

2
mv B

(Finite terms absorbed in denition of angle/orientation of coordinate system)

F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Solve for B and use that 0 =

B2 =

2 :

2
2

tan2 0 = 2 4 cot2 .
2v 4
m
m v
2

dB
d
d

1
use that
dB/d =
.
2
2mv sin2
2
Rediscover Rutherford formula

2
2 cos 2
d
d = 2 4
3 d = 4m2 v 4
m v sin 2
sin4

2
Observation: for small angles 0 dierential cross section innite
total cross section diverges for Rutherford scattering
This is a consequence of the innite range of the potential!
To express cross section d = 2B

(Will need to cut for minimal scattering angle . . . )

F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Event rates, luminosity and cross sections

Introduce (instantaneous) luminosity L,
the number of incident particles per unit area per unit time times
the opacity of the target; units [L] = m2 s 1
Then the instantaneous number of events dNev /dt reads
dNev
= L
dt
Therefore the total number of events during a time T given by the
integral over time of L, the integrated luminosity cross section
depends on the particles and the reaction type only.
Typically a year of beam in an accelerator experiment: 1 yr = 107 s.

F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Determining luminosity
Consider a simple case: scattering
o a xed target.
Beam consisting of particles A,
travelling with velocity v , uniformly
distributed in area S with constant
density nA along beam axis.

nB
v
nA

Therefore: number of particles in the beam per unit length is given

by dNA = nA Sdx, and the incident ux (number of particles per unit
time) on target is
dNA
dx
A =
= nA S
= nA Sv
dt
dt
Assume thin (only one scatter per particle) target with size l :
Area density of particles in target able to participate in reaction
B = nB l
Dene luminosity
L = A B = nA nB Svl.
F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Luminosity in collider experiments

Consider now two quadratic beams
each with area h2 , colliding under
an angle , with densities nA and
nB along their beam axes, and
velocities vA vB .

vB
vA

nA

Look at beam B as target, and

beam A remaining the beam.

nB

Need only to evaluate NB can use ux B :

B
nB = 2
h vB
Therefore density per area
h
B
B = nB
=
sin
hvB sin
and
A B
L = A B =
.
sin hvB
F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Practicalities
Hard to determine luminosity - geometry dependent and uctuations
with quality/homogeinity of the beams
Therefore: Measure them with standard candles, i.e. well
understood processes with good theoretical accuracy in calculation
of cross section .

Units
Recap event rate for events of type AB X :
dNABX

NABX =
= LAB ABX
dt

Units: [NABX ] = Hz = 1/s, = [L] = 1/([ABX ] s).

=

1 barn = (10 fm)2 = 1024 cm2

[]

(2 GeV)2 = (2000 MeV)2

F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP

Classical Xsecs

Luminosity

Summary
Recapitulated cross sections in classical physics.
Calculated example cross sections for two specic cases:
hard shell and Coulomb-potential
Connection to event rates and luminosity.

F. Krauss
Introduction to particle physics Lecture 4: Cross sections

IPPP