2 mark and 16 marks question and answer mechatronics

ME1402
UNIT-3
1!hat are the characteristics o" ne#ati$e "eed %ack&'n(d-
200)*200+,
1 -educe the noise and distortion*etc
2 1.0de#ree /hase shi" t to %e /ro$ided
2write the ana0o#ous e0ectrica0 e0ements in "orce $o0ta#e
ana0o#1 "or the e0ements o" mechanica0 trans0ationa0
s1stem& 'n(d-200)*200+,
It re/resents the t1/es o" "orces e2/erienced when
o%3ect is mo$ed a#ainst "rictiona0 "orces or when the
o%3ect is /ushed throu#h a "0uid
34eri$e the equation "or a trans0ationa0 mechanica0
s1stem mode0 with s/rin# and mass'N(4-200.,
It re/resents the sti""ness o" a s1stemThe sti""ness is
#i$en %1 the re0eationshi/ %etween the "orce '5,used to
e2tend or com/ress a s/rin# and the resu0tin# e2tension or
com/ression'6,
572* 5892
4:i$e an e2am/0e "or two ste/ mode contro0 unit 'N(4-
200.,
-oom ;eatin# s1stem is an e2am/0e "or two ste/ mode
contro0 unit
<!hat are the $arious contro0 modes used in
mechatronics contro0 s1stem&'=(M-2010,
>ro/otiona0 contro0 mode
Inte#ra0 contro0 mode
4eri$ati$e contro0 mode
?N-?55 Mode
>ro/otiona0 Inte#ra0 deri$ati$e contro0 mode'>I4,
6!hat are the %ui0din# %0ocks in e0ectrica0 s1stem&'N(4-
2010,
-esistor
Inductor
@a/acitor
):i$e some e2am/0es "or e0ectro mechanica0 s1stems&
' N(4-2010,
>otentiometers*motors*#enerators
. !hat are the %ui0din# %0ocks in mechanica0 or
trans0ationa0 s1stem&'N(4-2011,
A/rin#s
4ash/ots and
Masses
+4e"ine ada/ti$e contro0'N(4-2011,
The contro0 s1stem which can ada/t chan#es and it can
chan#e its /arameters de/endin# on the situation is known
as ada/ti$e conto0 s1stem and the method is ca00ed
ada/ti$e contro0
10!hat is stack /oint re#ister&'M(B-2012,
It is a reser$ed area o" the memor1 in the -=M whose
tem/orar1 in"ormation ma1 %e stored= 16 CIT Atack
/ointer is used to ho0d the addresso" the most recent stack
entr1

Unit 4
1what are the criteria that need to %e considered "or
se0ectin# a >D@&
=nsE The criteria that need to %e considered "or se0ectin# a
>D@ is
is1stem de"inition*
iichoosin# the in/ut and out/ut hardware*
iiiana0o# in/ut(out/ut modu0e*
i$ in/ut and out/ut timin# consideration
2draw the 0adder run#s to re/resent E two switches are
norma001 o/en and %oth ha$e to %e c0osed "or a motor to
o/erate
------F G--------------F G----------------' ,
9e1 Awitch 1 9e1 Awitch 2 4oor Motor
The a%o$e rea0iHes the "unctionE 4oor Motor 8 9e1
Awitch 1 =N4 9e1 Awitch 2
This circuit shows two ke1 switches that securit1 #uards
mi#ht use to acti$ate an e0ectric motor on a %ank $au0t
door !hen the norma001 o/en contacts o" %oth switches
c0ose* e0ectricit1 is a%0e to "0ow to the motor which o/ens
the door
3desi#n a >D@ timin# circuit that wi00 switch a out/ut on
"or 10 seconds and then switch it o""
IN4UAT-I=D AT?>(AT=-TFE4IT G
In common industria0 0atchin# start(sto/ 0o#ic we ha$e a
IstartI %utton to turn on a motor contactor* and a Isto/I
%utton to turn o"" the contactor
!hen the IstartI %utton is /ushed the in/ut #oes true* $ia
the Isto/I %utton N@ contact !hen the IrunI in/ut
%ecomes true the sea0-in IrunI N? contact in /ara00e0 with
the IstartI N? contact wi00 c0ose maintainin# the in/ut
0o#ic true '0atched or sea0ed-in, ="ter the circuit is
0atched the Isto/I %utton ma1 %e /ushed causin# its N@
contact to o/en and consequent01 the in/ut to #o "a0se
The IrunI N? contact then o/ens and the circuit 0o#ic
returns to its quiescent state
--J----F G--J----FKG----' ,
L start L sto/ run
L L
J----F G--J
run

-------F G--------------' ,
run motor
The a%o$e rea0iHes the "unctionE run 8 ' start ?- run ,
=N4 ' N?T sto/ ,
Note the use o" /arenthesis to #rou/ the 0o#ica0 ?-
"unction %e"ore e$a0uatin# the 0o#ica0 =N4 "unction
'which has a hi#her order o" o/eration /riorit1, =0so
note the use o" NOT to re/resent the Isto/I N@
contact 0o#ic
This 0atch con"i#uration is a common idiom in 0adder
0o#ic In 0adder 0o#ic it is re"erred to as sea0-in 0o#ic The
ke1 to understandin# the 0atch is in reco#niHin# that
IstartI switch is a momentar1 switch 'once the user
re0eases the %utton* the switch is o/en a#ain, =s soon as
the IrunI so0enoid en#a#es* it c0oses the IrunI N?
contact* which 0atches the so0enoid on The IstartI switch
o/enin# u/ then has no e""ect
4what are the 0o#ic "unctions that can %e o%tained %1
usin# switches in series&
=nsE The 0o#ic "unctions that can %e o%tained %1 usin#
switches in series =N4 *N?T* N=N4
<what do 1ou mean %1 e0ectronic counter&
=ns E E$er since e0ectronics ha$e %een used in %att0e in an
attem/t to #ain su/eriorit1 o$er the enem1* e""ort has
%een s/ent on techniques to reduce the e""ecti$eness o"
those e0ectronics More recent01* sensors and wea/ons are
%ein# modi"ied to dea0 with this threat ?ne o" the most
common t1/es o" E@M is radar 3ammin# or s/oo"in#
6wh1 are >D@Ms considered suita%0e "or sho/ "0oor&
= Programmable Logic Controller* PLC or
Programmable Controller is a di#ita0 com/uter used "or
automation o" e0ectromechanica0 /rocesses* such as
contro0 o" machiner1 on "actor1 assem%01 0ines*
amusement rides* or 0i#ht "i2tures The a%%re$iation
I>D@I and the term I>ro#ramma%0e Do#ic @ontro00erI are
re#istered trademarks o" the =00en-Crad0e1 @om/an1
'-ockwe00 =utomation, >D@s are used in man1
industries and machines Un0ike #enera0-/ur/ose
com/uters* the >D@ is desi#ned "or mu0ti/0e in/uts and
out/ut arran#ements* e2tended tem/erature ran#es*
immunit1 to e0ectrica0 noise* and resistance to $i%ration
and im/act >ro#rams to contro0 machine o/eration are
t1/ica001 stored in %atter1-%acked-u/ or non-$o0ati0e
memor1 = >D@ is an e2am/0e o" a hard rea0 time s1stem
since out/ut resu0ts must %e /roduced in res/onse to in/ut
conditions within a 0imited time* otherwise unintended
o/eration wi00 resu0t
11 what is shi"t re#ister& ;ow man1 data is required "or
a shi"t re#ister&
Ahi"t re#ister can %e used where sequence o" o/erations is
required or mo$ement or track the "0ow o" /arts and
in"ormation
It requires 3 in/utsE 'i, "i0e address o" the %it arra1
'ii, @ontro0 =ddress o" contro0
structure
'iii, Cid address - =ddress o" source
%it
'i$, Den#th Num%er o" %its in %it
arra1
Ahi"t re#ister c
124raw the 0adder run#s to re/resent the "o00owin#E a
motor is switched on %1 /ressin# s/rin# return /ush
%utton switch*and the mortor remains on unti0 another
s/rin# return /ush %utton switch is /ressed
I N
---- ---- M
M
M
M
M
INNN NNNNNNNNNNNI INNNNNNNNN MNNNNNNNI
INNNI(I-----------------I N-
I
13o%tain a N?- 0o#ic "unction usin# 0adder /ro#ram&
=ns EI" we ha$e an ?- #ate %1 a N?T #ate wi00 in$ert the
out/uts o" the ?- #ate as i00ustrated in the truth ta%0e
there"ore the com%ination o" ?- and not #ates is termed
a N?- #ate
14 what is meant %1 0adder dia#ram&
=ns E0adder dia#rams is the most common01 used
/ro#rammin# method e$o0$ed "rom e0ectrica0 re0a1
circuits and is in the "orm o" #ra/hica0 0an#ua#e
?r
Dadder dia#ram is a network o" contacts and coi0s are
arran#ed on run#s %etween two $ertica0 0ines ca00ed rai0s
used
1<what are the ad$anta#e o" /ro#ramma%0e 0o#ic
contro00er o$er their re0a1 s1stem&
'i, -ewirin# shou0d %e easi01 done in >D@
'ii, No $ertica0 connections are a00owed
'iii, In >D@ *there must a0wa1s %e one out/ut on each
0ine
1)#i$e t1/ica0 s/eci"ication o" /ro#ramma%0e 0o#ic
contro00er
'i, @entra0 /rocessin# unit
'ii, In/ut ( out/ut modu0es
'iii, >ro#rammer ( Monitor
1.draw the 0adder dia#ram "or de0a1 o"" timer
!hen the contact IN1 is c0osed* the contact wi00
ener#ise the timer T1 and ho0ds the out/ut 0am/ ?N "or
s/eci"ied set $a0ue o" 10 sec The action o" an ?55 de0a1
timer is to de0a1 settin# the 0am/ ?55
1+%rie" on EE>-?M
20write short notes on %asic arran#ement o" >D@ s1stem
'i, @entra0 /rocessin# unit
'ii, In/ut ( out/ut modu0es
'iii, >ro#rammer ( Monitor
Unit <E
1di""erntiate %etween traditiona0 and mechatronics
desi#ns with e2am/0e
A0 no Traditiona0
desi#n
Mechatronics desi#n
1 It is %ased on
the traditiona0
mechanica0
e0ements such
as #ears
*s/rin#
*0e$ers*etcO
It is %ased on the
mechanica0*e0ectronics*com/uter
techno0o#1 contro0 en#ineerin#
2 It in$o0$es
more
com/0icated
mechanisms
and mo$in#
com/onents
It in$o0$es 0ess com/0icated
mechanisms and mo$in#
com/onents
2how a o/erated switch is re/0aced with >D@& Ahow the
0adder dia#ram
In >D@ s1stem*the time duration can %e easi01
ad3usted %1 chan#in# the timer /reset $a0ues in the
/ro#ram whereas the trationa0 s1stem requires $arious
siHe o" cams
3 0ist down the $arious mechatronics e0ements in an
automatic camera
i, auto "oucssin# mechanism contro0
ii, =/erture dri$e
iii, Ahutter dri$e
i$, mirror dri$e
< mention an1 "our statements in /ro%0em de"inition o"
mechatronics s1stem desi#n
i, Need "or desi#n
ii, =na01sis o" /ro%0em
iii, >re/aration o" s/eci"ication
i$, :erneration o" /ossi/0e so0ution
6what are the $arious mo$ements o" ro%ots&
i, cw and acw rotation o" the ro%ot on its %ase
ii, 0inear mo$ement o" the arm horiHonta001
iii, u/ and down mo$ement o" the arm
i$, o/en and c0ose mo$ement o" the #ri//er
)identi"1 the sensor * si#na0 conditioner and dis/0a1
e0ements in the %ourden /reasure #au#e
Aensor Curdon tu%e actin# as sensor
Ai#na0 conditioner ratchet P /inion mechanism is
actin# as si#na0 conditioner
4is/0a1 e0ements >ointer is the dis/0a1 e0ement
.0ist the ad$anta#es o" mecharonics desi#n o$er
traditiona0 desi#n
i, Mechatronics s1stem ser$es the /ur/ose e""ecti$e01
with hi#h dimensiona0 accurac1 requirements
ii, It /ro$ides increased /roducti$it1 in the industr1
iii, it "aci0itation automation in the /roduction
*assem%01 and qua0it1 contro0
+ what are the %asic /rinci/0e in$o0$ed in mechatronics
desi#n&
Need o" desi#n*ana01sis o" /ro%0ems*/re/aration o"
s/eci"ication*#eneration o" /ossi%0e so0ution*se0ection o"
suita%0e so0ution*/roduction o" detai0ed
so0ution*/roduction o" workin# drawin#*im/0ementation
o" desi#n
10what are em%edded s1stems&
The hardware which is desi#ned "or /articu0ar
a//0ications is known as em%edded s1stem
11what is timed switch&
It is a de$ice which is used to switch on a motor "or
some /rescri%ed time
120ist the se$en modu0es o" mechatronics desi#n
a//roach
Need o" desi#n*ana01sis o" /ro%0ems*/re/aration o"
s/eci"ication*#eneration o" /ossi%0e so0ution*se0ection o"
suita%0e so0ution*/roduction o" detai0ed
so0ution*/roduction o" workin# drawin#*im/0ementation
o" desi#n
16what are the "actors to %e considered in the desi#n o"
mechatronics s1stem&
?%3ects to %e hand0ed*actuators*/ower source*ran#e
o" #ri//in#
"orce*/ositionin#*maintenance*en$ironment*tem/
/rotection*materia0s
1.name an1 "our im/artant sensor used in the /ick and
/0ace ro%ot
T-I=@*DE4*Ao0enoid*M6.;@11
1+mention the %asic com/onents o" an1 industria0 ro%ot
Docomotion*sensors*/erce/tion*know0ed#e*/0annin#*auto
nom1*co00a%oration
20denote on inte00i#ent mechatronics s1stem
Mechanica0 0inka#es*dri$es
;1drau0ic and /neumatic actuators
E0ectrica0 motors*switches
16 marks
Unit 3
1aihow does a microcontro00er di""er "rom a
micro/rosser&
Difference between microprocessor and
microcontroller
Micro/rocessor is an I@ which has on01 the @>U inside
them ie on01 the /rocessin# /owers such as Inte0Ms
>entium 1*2*3*4* core 2 duo* i3* i< etc These
micro/rocessors donMt ha$e -=M* -?M* and other
/eri/hera0 on the chi/ = s1stem desi#ner has to add them
e2terna001 to make them "unctiona0 =//0ication o"
micro/rocessor inc0udes 4eskto/ >@Ms* Da/to/s* note/ads
etc

Cut this is not the case with Microcontro00ers
Microcontro00er has a @>U* in addition with a "i2ed
amount o" -=M* -?M and other /eri/hera0s a00
em%edded on a sin#0e chi/ =t times it is a0so termed as a
mini com/uter or a com/uter on a sin#0e chi/ Toda1
di""erent manu"acturers /roduce microcontro00ers with a
wide ran#e o" "eatures a$ai0a%0e in di""erent $ersions
Aome manu"acturers are =TMED* Microchi/* TI*
5reesca0e* >hi0i/s* Motoro0a etc

Microcontro00ers are desi#ned to /er"orm s/eci"ic tasks
A/eci"ic means a//0ications where the re0ationshi/ o"
in/ut and out/ut is de"ined 4e/endin# on the in/ut* some
/rocessin# needs to %e done and out/ut is de0i$ered 5or
e2am/0e* ke1%oards* mouse* washin# machine* di#icam*
/endri$e* remote* microwa$e* cars* %ikes* te0e/hone*
mo%i0es* watches* etc Aince the a//0ications are $er1
s/eci"ic* the1 need sma00 resources 0ike -=M* -?M* I(?
/orts etc and hence can %e em%edded on a sin#0e chi/
This in turn reduces the siHe and the cost

Micro/rocessor "ind a//0ications where tasks are
uns/eci"ic 0ike de$e0o/in# so"tware* #ames* we%sites*
/hoto editin#* creatin# documents etc In such cases the
re0ationshi/ %etween in/ut and out/ut is not de"ined The1
need hi#h amount o" resources 0ike -=M* -?M* I(?
/orts etc
The c0ock s/eed o" the Micro/rocessor is quite hi#h as
com/ared to the microcontro00er !hereas the
microcontro00ers o/erate "rom a "ew M;H to 30 to <0
M;H* toda1Ms micro/rocessor o/erate a%o$e 1:;H as
the1 /er"orm com/0e2 tasks -ead more a%out what is
microcontro00er

Comparing microcontroller and microprocessor in
terms o" cost is not 3usti"ied Undou%ted01 a
microcontro00er is "ar chea/er than a micro/rocessor
;owe$er microcontro00er cannot %e used in /0ace o"
micro/rocessor and usin# a micro/rocessor is not ad$ised
in /0ace o" a microcontro00er as it makes the a//0ication
quite cost01 Micro/rocessor cannot %e used stand a0one
The1 need other /eri/hera0s 0ike -=M* -?M* %u""er* I(?
/orts etc and hence a s1stem desi#ned around a
micro/rocessor is quite cost01
iidraw a %0ock dia#ram o" a %asic microcontro00er and
e2/0ain the "unction o" each su%s1stem
D?@9 4I=:-=M ?5 .0<1 MI@-?@?NT-?DDE-E
Microcontro00er .0<1 %0ock dia#ram is shown %e0ow
DetMs ha$e a c0oser 0ook at each P e$er1 "raction or %0ock
o" this desi#nE
.0<1 MI@-?@?NT-?DDE- CD?@9 4I=:-=M
E6>D=N=TI?NE
@>U '@ENT-=D >-?@EAA?- UNIT,E
=s 1ou ma1 %e "ami0iar that @entra0 >rocessor Unit or
@>U is the mind o" an1 /rocessin# machine It scrutiniHes
and mana#es a00 /rocesses that are carried out in the
Microcontro00er User has no /ower o$er the "unctionin#
o" @>U It inter/rets /ro#ram /rinted in stora#e s/ace
'-?M, and carries out a00 o" them and do the /ro3ected
dut1
INTE--U>TAE
=s the headin# /ut "orward* Interru/t is a su%-routine ca00
that reads the Microcontro00erMs ke1 "unction or 3o% and
he0/s it to /er"orm some other /ro#ram which is e2tra
im/ortant at that /oint o" time The characteristic o"
Interru/t is e2treme01 constructi$e as it aids in emer#enc1
cases Interru/ts /ro$ides us a method to /ost/one or
de0a1 the current /rocess* carr1 out a su%-routine task and
then a00 o$er a#ain restart standard /ro#ram
im/0ementation
The Micro-contro00er .0<1 can %e assem%0ed in such a
manner that it momentari01 sto/s or %reak the core
/ro#ram at the ha//enin# o" interru/t !hen su%-routine
task is "inished then the im/0ementation o" core /ro#ram
initiates automatica001 as usua0 There are < interru/t
su//0ies in .0<1 Microcontro00er* two out o" "i$e are
/eri/hera0 interru/ts* two are timer interru/ts and one is
seria0 /ort interru/t
MEM?-QE
Micro-contro00er needs a /ro#ram which is a set o"
commands This /ro#ram en0i#htens Microcontro00er to
/er"orm /recise tasks These /ro#rams need a stora#e
s/ace on which the1 can %e accumu0ated and inter/ret %1
Microcontro00er to act u/on an1 s/eci"ic /rocess The
memor1 which is %rou#ht into /0a1 to accumu0ate the
/ro#ram o" Microcontro00er is reco#niHed as >ro#ram
memor1 or code memor1 In common 0an#ua#e itMs a0so
known as -ead ?n01 Memor1 or -?M
Micro-contro00er a0so needs a memor1 to amass data or
o/erands "or the short term The stora#e s/ace which is
em/0o1ed to momentari01 data stora#e "or "unctionin# is
acknow0ed#ed as 4ata Memor1 and we em/0o1 -andom
=ccess Memor1 or -=M "or this /rinci/0e reason
Microcontro00er .0<1 contains code memor1 or /ro#ram
memor1 49 so that is has 49C -om and it a0so com/rise
o" data memor1 '-=M, o" 12. %1tes
CUAE
5undamenta001 Cus is a #rou/ o" wires which "unctions as
a communication cana0 or mean "or the trans"er 4ata
These %uses com/rise o" .* 16 or more ca%0es =s a resu0t*
a %us can %ear . %its* 16 %its a00 to#ether There are two
t1/es o" %usesE
1. Address Bus: Microcontro00er .0<1 consists o" 16 %it
address %us It is %rou#ht into /0a1 to address
memor1 /ositions It is a0so uti0iHed to transmit the
address "rom @entra0 >rocessin# Unit to Memor1
2. Data Bus: Microcontro00er .0<1 com/rise o" . %its
data %us It is em/0o1ed to cart data
?A@IDD=T?-E
=s we a00 make out that Microcontro00er is a di#ita0 circuit
/iece o" equi/ment* thus it needs timer "or its "unction
5or this "unction* Microcontro00er .0<1 consists o" an on-
chi/ osci00ator which toi0s as a time source "or @>U
'@entra0 >rocessin# Unit, =s the /roducti$it1 thum/s o"
osci00ator are stead1 as a resu0t* it "aci0itates harmoniHed
em/0o1ment o" a00 /ieces o" .0<1 Microcontro00er
In/ut(out/ut >ortE =s we are acquainted with that
Microcontro00er is em/0o1ed in em%edded s1stems to
mana#e the "unctions o" de$ices Thus to #ather it to other
machiner1* #ad#ets or /eri/hera0s we need I(?
'in/ut(out/ut, inter"acin# /orts in Micro-contro00er 5or
this "unction Micro-contro00er .0<1 consists o" 4
in/ut(out/ut /orts to unite it to other /eri/hera0s
Timers(@ountersE Micro-contro00er .0<1 is incor/orated
with two 16 %it counters P timers The counters are
se/arated into . %it re#isters The timers are uti0iHed "or
measurin# the inter$a0s* to "ind out /u0se width etc
E6>D=N=TI?N ?N .0<1 >IN 4I=:-=ME
5or e2/0ainin# the /in dia#ram and /in con"i#uration o"
microcontro00er .0<1* we are takin# into de0i%eration a 40
/in 4ua0 in0ine /acka#e '4I>, Now 0etMs stud1 throu#h
/in con"i#uration in %rie"E-
Pins 1 :! reco#niHed as >ort 1 4i""erent "rom other
/orts* this /ort doesnMt /ro$ide an1 other /ur/ose >ort 1
is a domestica001 /u00ed u/* quasi %i directiona0
In/ut(out/ut /ort
Pin ":! =s made c0ear /re$ious01 -EAET /in is uti0iHed to
set the micro-contro00er .0<1 to its /rimar1 $a0ues*
whereas the micro-contro00er is "unctionin# or at the ear01
%e#innin# o" a//0ication The -EAET /in has to %e set
e0e$ated "or two machine rotations
Pins 1# 1$:! reco#niHed as >ort 3 This /ort a0so
su//0ies a num%er o" other "unctions such as timer in/ut*
interru/ts* seria0 communication indicators T24 P -24*
contro0 indicators "or outside memor1 inter"acin# !- P
-4* etc This is a domestic /u00 u/ /ort with quasi %i
directiona0 /ort within
Pins 1 and 1":! These are em/0o1ed "or inter"acin# an
outer cr1sta0 to #i$e s1stem c0ock
Pin %#:! Tit0ed as Rss it s1m%o0iHes #round '0 R,
association
Pins! %1!%:! reco#niHed as >ort 2 '> 20 > 2), other
than ser$in# as In/ut(out/ut /ort* senior order address %us
indicators are mu0ti/0e2ed with this quasi %i directiona0
/ort
Pin! %":! >ro#ram Atore Ena%0e or >AEN is em/0o1ed to
inter/ret si#n "rom outer /ro#ram memor1
Pin!&#:! E2terna0 =ccess or E= in/ut is em/0o1ed to
/ermit or /rohi%it outer memor1 inter"acin# I" there is no
outer memor1 need* this /in is dra##ed hi#h %1 0inkin# it
to Rcc
Pin!&1:! =ka =ddress Datch Ena%0e or =DE is %rou#ht
into /0a1 to de-mu0ti/0e2 the address data indication o"
/ort 0 '"or outer memor1 inter"acin#, Two =DE thro%s
are o%taina%0e "or e$er1 machine rotation
Pins &%!&": reco#niHed as >ort 0 '>00 to >0), other
than ser$in# as In/ut(out/ut /ort* 0ow order data P
address %us si#na0s are mu0ti/0e2ed with this /ort 'to
/ro$ide the use o" outer memor1 inter"acin#, This /in is
a %i directiona0 In/ut(out/ut /ort 'the sin#0e one in
microcontro00er .0<1, and outer /u00 u/ resistors are
necessar1 to uti0iHe this /ort as In/ut(out/ut
Pin!'#: termed as Rcc is the chie" /ower su//01 C1 and
0ar#e it is J<R 4@
?r
%draw the %0ock dia#ram o" .0.< micro/roccesor and
e2/0ain the "unction o" each e0ement
A(C)*T+C)T,(+ or -,NCT*ONAL BLOC.
D*A/(A0 O- #1
T2e functional bloc3 diagram or arc2itec2ture of #1
0icroprocessor is 4er5 important as it gi4es t2e
complete details about a 0icroprocessor6 -ig6 s2ows
t2e Bloc3 diagram of a 0icroprocessor6
#1 Bus 7tructure:
Address Bus:
T2e address bus is a group of 18 lines generall5
identified as A# to A116
T2e address bus is unidirectional: bits flow in one
direction!from t2e 0P, to perip2eral de4ices6
T2e 0P, uses t2e address bus to perform t2e first
function: identif5ing a perip2eral or a memor5
location6
Data Bus:
T2e data bus is a group of eig2t lines used for data
flow6
T2ese lines are bi!directional ! data flow in bot2
directions between t2e 0P, and memor5 and
perip2eral de4ices6
T2e 0P, uses t2e data bus to perform t2e second
function: transferring binar5 information6
T2e eig2t data lines enable t2e 0P, to
manipulate !bit data ranging from ## to -- 9% :
%18 numbers;6
T2e largest number t2at can appear on t2e data
bus is 111111116
Control Bus:
T2e control bus carries s5nc2roni<ation signals
and pro4iding timing signals6
T2e 0P, generates specific control signals for
e4er5 operation it performs6 T2ese signals are
used to identif5 a de4ice t5pe wit2 w2ic2 t2e 0P,
wants to communicate6
(egisters of #1:
T2e #1 2a4e si= general!purpose registers to
store !bit data during program e=ecution6
T2ese registers are identified as B> C> D> +> )> and
L6
T2e5 can be combined as register pairs!BC> D+>
and )L!to perform some 18!bit operations6
Accumulator 9A;:
T2e accumulator is an !bit register t2at is part of
t2e arit2metic?logic unit 9AL,;6
T2is register is used to store !bit data and to
perform arit2metic and logical operations6
T2e result of an operation is stored in t2e
accumulator6
-lags:
T2e AL, includes fi4e flip!flops t2at are set or
reset according to t2e result of an operation6
T2e microprocessor uses t2e flags for testing t2e
data conditions6
T2e5 are @ero 9@;> Carr5 9CA;> 7ign 97;> Parit5
9P;> and Au=iliar5 Carr5 9AC; flags6 T2e most
commonl5 used flags are 7ign> @ero> and Carr56
T2e bit position for t2e flags in flag register is>
167ign -lag 97;:
After e=ecution of an5 arit2metic and logical
operation> if D$ of t2e result is 1> t2e sign flag
is set6 Ot2erwise it is reset6
D$ is reser4ed for indicating t2e signB t2e
remaining is t2e magnitude of number6
*f D$ is 1> t2e number will be 4iewed as negati4e
number6 *f D$ is #> t2e number will be 4iewed
as positi4e number6
%6@ero -lag 9<;:
*f t2e result of arit2metic and logical operation is
<ero> t2en <ero flag is set ot2erwise it is reset6
&6Au=iliar5 Carr5 -lag 9AC;:
*f D& generates an5 carr5 w2en doing an5
arit2metic and logical operation> t2is flag is set6
Ot2erwise it is reset6
'6Parit5 -lag 9P;:
*f t2e result of arit2metic and logical operation
contains e4en number of 1Cs t2en t2is flag will be
set and if it is odd number of 1Cs it will be reset6
16Carr5 -lag 9CA;:
*f an5 arit2metic and logical operation result an5
carr5 t2en carr5 flag is set ot2erwise it is
reset6
2aideri$e the mathematica0 mode0 "or a machine
mounted on the #round to stud1 the e""ects o" #round
distur%ances on the machine %ed dis/0acement
iicom/are the contro0 s1stem /er"ormance "or a s1stem
with /ro/ortiona0 contro0 and a s1stem with inte#ra0
contro0
?"ten contro0 s1stems are desi#ned usin# >ro/ortiona0
@ontro0 In this contro0 method* the contro0 s1stem acts in
a wa1 that the contro0 e""ort is /ro/ortiona0 to the error
Qou shou0d not "or#et that /hrase The contro0 e""ort is
/ro/ortiona0 to the error in a /ro/ortiona0 contro0 s1stem*
and thatSs what makes it a /ro/ortiona0 contro0 s1stem I"
it doesnSt ha$e that /ro/ert1* it isnSt a /ro/ortiona0 contro0
s1stems
;ereMs a %0ock dia#ram o" such a s1stem In this
0esson we wi00 e2amine how a /ro/ortiona0 contro0 s1stem
works
=n inte#ra0 contro00er has one $er1 #ood qua0it1 =n
inte#ra0 contro00er wi00 norma001 ensure Hero AAE in a
contro0 s1stem - "or ste/ 'constant, in/uts
=n inte#ra0 contro00er is not /articu0ar01 di""icu0t to
im/0ement
In an ana0o# s1stem* an inte#ra0 contro0 s1stem
inte#rates the error si#na0 to #enerate the contro0
si#na0 I" the error si#na0 is a $o0ta#e* and the contro0
si#na0 is a0so a $o0ta#e* then a /ro/ortiona0 contro00er
is 3ust an ana0o# inte#rator
In a di#ita0 contro0 s1stem* an inte#ra0 contro0 s1stem
com/utes the error "rom measured out/ut and user
in/ut to a /ro#ram* and inte#rates the error usin#
some standard inte#ration a0#orithm* then #enerates
an out/ut(contro0 si#na0 "rom that inte#ration
Inte#ra0 contro00ers ha$e these /ro/erties
The contro00er inte#rates the error as shown in the
%0ock dia#ram o" an e2am/0e s1stem %e0ow
o The inte#ra0 contro00er has a trans"er "unction o"
9
i
(s
Ao* the actuatin# si#na0 'the in/ut to the s1stem %ein#
contro00ed, is /ro/ortiona0 to the inte#ra0 o" the error
!e can e2amine some o" the "eatures o" inte#ra0
contro0 usin# an inte#ra0 contro00er
?r
%ideri$e the di""erentia0 equation #o$ernin# the
mechanica0 s1stem o" an e0ectric motor
iie2/0ain the charecteristics o" >I4 contro00er
= proportional!integral!deri4ati4e controller 'P*D
controller, is a #eneric contro0 0oo/ "eed%ack mechanism
'contro00er, wide01 used in industria0 contro0 s1stems =
>I4 contro00er ca0cu0ates an IerrorI $a0ue as the
di""erence %etween a measured /rocess $aria%0e and a
desired set/oint The contro00er attem/ts to minimiHe the
error %1 ad3ustin# the /rocess contro0 in/uts
The >I4 contro00er ca0cu0ation a0#orithm in$o0$es three
se/arate constant /arameters* and is accordin#01
sometimes ca00ed t2ree!term controlE the /ro/ortiona0*
the inte#ra0 and deri$ati$e $a0ues* denoted P, I, and D.
Aim/01 /ut* these $a0ues can %e inter/reted in terms o"
timeE P de/ends on the present error* I on the
accumu0ation o" past errors* and D is a /rediction o"
future errors* %ased on current rate o" chan#e
F1G
The
wei#hted sum o" these three actions is used to ad3ust the
/rocess $ia a contro0 e0ement such as the /osition o" a
contro0 $a0$e* a dam/er* or the /ower su//0ied to a
heatin# e0ement
In the a%sence o" know0ed#e o" the under01in# /rocess* a
>I4 contro00er has historica001 %een considered to %e the
%est contro00er
F2G
C1 tunin# the three /arameters in the
>I4 contro00er a0#orithm* the contro00er can /ro$ide
contro0 action desi#ned "or s/eci"ic /rocess requirements
The res/onse o" the contro00er can %e descri%ed in terms
o" the res/onsi$eness o" the contro00er to an error* the
de#ree to which the contro00er o$ershoots the set/oint*
and the de#ree o" s1stem osci00ation Note that the use o"
the >I4 a0#orithm "or contro0 does not #uarantee o/tima0
contro0 o" the s1stem or s1stem sta%i0it1
Aome a//0ications ma1 require usin# on01 one or two
actions to /ro$ide the a//ro/riate s1stem contro0 This is
achie$ed %1 settin# the other /arameters to Hero = >I4
contro00er wi00 %e ca00ed a >I* >4* > or I contro00er in the
a%sence o" the res/ecti$e contro0 actions >I contro00ers
are "air01 common* since deri$ati$e action is sensiti$e to
measurement noise* whereas the a%sence o" an inte#ra0
term ma1 /re$ent the s1stem "rom reachin# its tar#et
$a0ue due to the contro0 action
3aiwith a %0ock dia#ram*e2/0ain the use o"
microcontro00er "or the house ho0d a//0ication
ii0ist $arious a//0ications o" microcontro00er
=>>DI@=TI?NA ?5 MI@-?@?NT-?DDE-AE
Microcontro00ers are most01 used in "o00owin# e0ectronic
equi/ments E
Mo%i0e >hones
=uto Mo%i0es
@4(4R4 >0a1ers
!ashin# Machines
@ameras
In @om/uters-T Modems and 9e1%oard @ontro00ers
Aecurit1 =0arms
E0ectronic Measurement Instruments
Microwa$e ?$en
- Aee more atE
htt/E((wwwwiki"orucom(2012(10(a//0ications-o"-
microcontro00erhtm0Usthash-t;M2s#id/u"
?r
%iwrite the /ro#ram to di$ide two .-%it num%ers and to
store resu0t in memor1 a#ain %1 micro/rocessor usin#
.0.<
MI@-?>-?@EAA?- - >-?:-=M T? 4IRI4E T!?
NUMCE-A ?5 . CIT 4=T=
=IME To write an assem%01 0an#ua#e /ro#ram to di$ide
two num%ers o" . %it data
=>>=-=TUA -EVUI-E4E Micro/rocessor .0.< Trainer
9it
>-?@E4U-EE
>-?CDEM =N=DQAIAE
WThe di$ision in .0.< is /er"ormed as re/eated
su%traction The di$idend is stored in = re#ister and
di$isor in C-re#ister
WThe initia0 $a0ue o" quotient is assumed as Xero
WAu%traction shou0d %e /er"ormed on01 when the di$idend
is #reater than di$isor
WAu%traction is continued unti0 di$idend is 0esser than the
di$isor
W5or each su%traction quotient is incremented %1 one
WThen store the quotient and remainder in memor1
=D:?-IT;ME
1Doad the di$isor in the accumu0ator and mo$e it to C
re#ister
2Doad the di$idend in accumu0ator
3@0ear @ re#ister to account "or quotient
4@heck whether di$isor is 0ess than di$idend
<I" di$isor is 0ess than the di$idend #o to ste/ .*
otherwise #o to ne2t ste/
6Increment the contents o" @ re#ister' quotient,
):o to ste/ 4
.Atore the content o" accumu0ator 'remainder, in
memor1
+Mo$e the content o" @ re#ister 'quotient, to
accumu0ator and store in memor1
10Ato/
T=CUD=TI?NE
IN>UT IN>UT ?UT>UT
4ecima0;e2a4ecima0;e2aVuotient-emainder

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-EAUDTE The Micro/rocessor 4i$ision /ro#ram is
$eri"ied usin# .0.< Trainer 9it
iidiscuss the workin# o" micro/rocessor contro00er tra""ic
si#na0 s1stem
Casic /rinci/0e o" tra""ic 0i#ht contro0 s1stem
Aome 0i#hts donSt ha$e an1 sort o" detectors 5or e2am/0e*
in a 0ar#e cit1* the tra""ic 0i#hts ma1 sim/01o/erate on
timers -- no matter what time o" da1 it is* there is #oin# to
%e a 0ot o" tra""ic In the su%ur%sand on countr1 roads*
howe$er* detectors are common The1 ma1 detect when a
car arri$es at anintersection* when too man1 cars are
stacked u/ at an intersection 'to contro0 the 0en#th o" the
0i#ht,*or when cars ha$e entered a turn 0ane 'in order to
acti$ate the arrow 0i#ht,There are a00 sorts o"
techno0o#ies "or detectin# cars -- e$er1thin# "rom 0asers
to ru%%er hoses "i00edwith airY C1 "ar the most common
technique is the inducti$e 0oo/ =n inducti$e 0oo/ is
sim/01 a coi0o" wire em%edded in the roadSs sur"ace To
insta00 the 0oo/* the1 0a1 the as/ha0t and then come
%ack and cut a #roo$e in the as/ha0t with a saw The wire
is /0aced in the #roo$e and sea0ed with a
ru%%er1com/ound Qou can o"ten see these %i#
rectan#u0ar 0oo/s cut in the /a$ement %ecause the
com/oundis o%$ious
Inducti$e 0oo/s work %1 detectin# a chan#e o" inductance
To understand the /rocess* 0etSs "irst 0ook atwhat
inductance is This "i#ure is he0/"u0E!e see here is a
%atter1* a 0i#ht %u0%* a coi0 o" wire around a /iece o" iron
'1e00ow,* and a switch Thecoi0 o" wire is an inductor I"
we ha$e read ;ow E0ectroma#nets !ork* we wi00 a0so
reco#niHe thatthe inductor is an e0ectroma#net I" we were
to take the inductor out o" this circuit* then what weha$e
is a norma0 "0ash0i#ht !e c0ose the switch and the %u0%
0i#hts u/ !ith the inductor in the circuitas shown* the
%eha$ior is com/0ete01 di""erent The 0i#ht %u0% is a
resistor 'the resistance creates heatto make the "i0ament in
the %u0% #0ow, The wire in the coi0 has much 0ower
resistance 'itSs 3ust wire,*so what 1ou wou0d e2/ect when
1ou turn on the switch is "or the %u0% to #0ow $er1 dim01
Most o" thecurrent shou0d "o00ow the 0ow-resistance /ath
throu#h the 0oo/ !hat ha//ens instead is that when1ou
c0ose the switch* the %u0% %urns %ri#ht01 and then #ets
dimmer !hen we o/en the switch* the %u0% %urns $er1
%ri#ht01 and then quick01 #oes out
Micro/rocessor as tra""ic 0i#ht contro0 s1stemE
= tra""ic 0i#ht contro0 and in"ormation transmission
de$ice com/risin#E a micro/rocessor 0ocatedinside the
tra""ic contro0 %o2 and to contro0 a00 the circuitriesZ a
tra""ic 0i#ht contro00er connected toand contro00ed %1 said
micro/rocessor to send out the sto/* #o and direction
si#na0sZ an e0ectronicdis/0a1 %oard connected to and
contro00ed %1 said micro/rocessor to dis/0a1 characters*
/atterns and#ra/hic ima#esZ a $ideo camera connected to
and contro00ed %1 said micro/rocessor to monitor
thetra""ic "0owZ a com/ression circuitr1 connected to said
micro/rocessor and said $ideo camera* saidcom/ression
circuitr1 com/resses the ima#e data ca/tured %1 said
$ideo camera and sends the data tosaid micro/rocessorZ
an I(? inter"ace connected to said micro/rocessor to
recei$e* transmit data andcontro0 si#na0sZ a tra""ic "0ow
detector connected to said I(? inter"ace and #atherin# the
tra""ic "0owin"ormationZ the tra""ic "0ow in"ormation is
in/ut to said micro/rocessorZ a 4AD connected to said
I(?inter"ace 6 and recei$in#* transmittin# data and contro0
si#na0sZ a %road%and network 0inkin# sai
4aa hot o%3ect with ca/acitance @ and tem/erature T*
coo0s in a 0ar#e room at a tem/erature T
a
i" the therma0
s1stem has a resistance -*deri$e an equation descri%in#
how the tem/erature o" the hot o%3ect chan#es with the
time and #i$e an e0ectrica0 ana0o#ue o" the s1stem
?r
%i/ro/ose a mode0 "or a ste//ed sha"t used to rotate a
mass and deri$e an equation re0atin# the in/ut torque and
the an#u0ar rotation ne#0ect dam/in# e""ect
iidescri%e and com/are the charecteristics o"
1, /ro/ortiona0 contro00er
2, /ro/ortiona0 /0us inte#ra0 contro00er
<aie2/0ain the mathematica0 mode0 "or rotatin# mass on
the end o" a sha"t and "or torsiona0 s/rin# mass s1stem
iidistin#uish %etween continous and discreet /rocess
contro00ers
?r
%idiscuss the /rinci/0e and o/eration o" a >I4 contro00er
ii e2/0ain the /rinci/0e and o/eration o" se0"-tunin#
circuit
6 aie2/0ain the mathematica0 mode0 "or resistor*
inductor* ca/acitor s1stem usin# kircho""sMs 0aw
iicom/are the contro0 s1stem /er"ormance "or a s1stem
with /ro/ortiona0 contro0 and a s1stem with inte#ra0
contro0
or
Cia motor is used to rotate a 0oad 4esi#n a
mathematica0 mode0 and draw a mechanica0 mode0 and
equi$a0ent mode0 "or the same
iienumerate the essentia0 charecteristics o" the >I4
contro00er
PID CONTROLLER THEORY
This section describes the parallel or non-interacting form of the PID controller. For other
forms please see the section Alternative nomenclature and PID forms.
The >I4 contro0 scheme is named a"ter its three correctin# terms* whose sum constitutes the
mani/u0ated $aria%0e 'MR, The /ro/ortiona0* inte#ra0* and deri$ati$e terms are summed to
ca0cu0ate the out/ut o" the >I4 contro00er 4e"inin# as the contro00er out/ut* the "ina0 "orm
o" the >I4 a0#orithm isE
where
: Proportional gain, a tuning parameter
: Integral gain, a tuning parameter
: Deriatie gain, a tuning parameter
: Error
: Time or in!tantaneou! time "t#e pre!ent$
: %aria&le o' integration( ta)e! on alue! 'rom time * to t#e pre!ent .
PROPORTION+L TERM
Plot o' P% ! time, 'or t#ree alue! o' ,p ",i an- ,- #el- .on!tant$
The /ro/ortiona0 term /roduces an out/ut $a0ue that is /ro/ortiona0 to the current error $a0ue
The /ro/ortiona0 res/onse can %e ad3usted %1 mu0ti/01in# the error %1 a constant K
p
* ca00ed the
/ro/ortiona0 #ain constant
The /ro/ortiona0 term is #i$en %1E
= hi#h /ro/ortiona0 #ain resu0ts in a 0ar#e chan#e in the out/ut "or a #i$en chan#e in the error I"
the /ro/ortiona0 #ain is too hi#h* the s1stem can %ecome unsta%0e 'see the section on 0oo/
tunin#, In contrast* a sma00 #ain resu0ts in a sma00 out/ut res/onse to a 0ar#e in/ut error* and a
0ess res/onsi$e or 0ess sensiti$e contro00er I" the /ro/ortiona0 #ain is too 0ow* the contro0 action
ma1 %e too sma00 when res/ondin# to s1stem distur%ances Tunin# theor1 and industria0 /ractice
indicate that the /ro/ortiona0 term shou0d contri%ute the %u0k o" the out/ut chan#e
Fcitation neededG
DROOP
Cecause a non-Hero error is required to dri$e it* a /ro/ortiona0 contro00er #enera001 o/erates with
a stead1-state error* re"erred to as droop
Fnote 1G
4roo/ is /ro/ortiona0 to the /rocess #ain and
in$erse01 /ro/ortiona0 to /ro/ortiona0 #ain 4roo/ ma1 %e miti#ated %1 addin# a com/ensatin#
%ias term to the set/oint or out/ut* or corrected d1namica001 %1 addin# an inte#ra0 term
INTE/R+L TERM
Plot o' P% ! time, 'or t#ree alue! o' ,i ",p an- ,- #el- .on!tant$
The contri%ution "rom the inte#ra0 term is /ro/ortiona0 to %oth the ma#nitude o" the error and the
duration o" the error The inte#ra0 in a >I4 contro00er is the sum o" the instantaneous error o$er
time and #i$es the accumu0ated o""set that shou0d ha$e %een corrected /re$ious01 The
accumu0ated error is then mu0ti/0ied %1 the inte#ra0 #ain ' , and added to the contro00er out/ut
The inte#ra0 term is #i$en %1E
The inte#ra0 term acce0erates the mo$ement o" the /rocess towards set/oint and e0iminates the
residua0 stead1-state error that occurs with a /ure /ro/ortiona0 contro00er ;owe$er* since the
inte#ra0 term res/onds to accumu0ated errors "rom the /ast* it can cause the /resent $a0ue to
o$ershoot the set/oint $a0ue 'see the section on 0oo/ tunin#,
DERI%+TI%E TERM
Plot o' P% ! time, 'or t#ree alue! o' ,- ",p an- ,i #el- .on!tant$
The deri$ati$e o" the /rocess error is ca0cu0ated %1 determinin# the s0o/e o" the error o$er time
and mu0ti/01in# this rate o" chan#e %1 the deri$ati$e #ain K
d
The ma#nitude o" the contri%ution
o" the deri$ati$e term to the o$era00 contro0 action is termed the deri$ati$e #ain* K
d

The deri$ati$e term is #i$en %1E

4eri$ati$e action /redicts s1stem %eha$ior and thus im/ro$es sett0in# time and sta%i0it1 o" the
s1stem
F)GF.G
4eri$ati$e action* howe$er* is se0dom used in /ractice
Fcitation neededG
%ecause o" its
inherent sensiti$it1 to measurement noise
F+G
I" this noise is se$ere enou#h* the deri$ati$e action
wi00 %e erratic and actua001 de#rade contro0 /er"ormance Dar#e* sudden chan#es in the measured
error 'which t1/ica001 occur when the set /oint is chan#ed, cause a sudden* 0ar#e contro0 action
stemmin# "rom the deri$ati$e term* which #oes under the name o" derivative kick This /ro%0em
can %e ame0iorated to a de#ree i" the measured error is /assed throu#h a 0inear 0ow-/ass "i0ter or a
non0inear %ut sim/0e median "i0ter
F+G
LOOP T0NIN/
Tuning a contro0 0oo/ is the ad3ustment o" its contro0 /arameters '/ro/ortiona0 %and(#ain* inte#ra0
#ain(reset* deri$ati$e #ain(rate, to the o/timum $a0ues "or the desired contro0 res/onse Ata%i0it1
'%ounded osci00ation, is a %asic requirement* %ut %e1ond that* di""erent s1stems ha$e di""erent
%eha$ior* di""erent a//0ications ha$e di""erent requirements* and requirements ma1 con"0ict with
one another
>I4 tunin# is a di""icu0t /ro%0em* e$en thou#h there are on01 three /arameters and in /rinci/0e is
sim/0e to descri%e* %ecause it must satis"1 com/0e2 criteria within the 0imitations o" >I4 contro0
There are accordin#01 $arious methods "or 0oo/ tunin#* and more so/histicated techniques are
the su%3ect o" /atentsZ this section descri%es some traditiona0 manua0 methods "or 0oo/ tunin#
4esi#nin# and tunin# a >I4 contro00er a//ears to %e conce/tua001 intuiti$e* %ut can %e hard in
/ractice* i" mu0ti/0e 'and o"ten con"0ictin#, o%3ecti$es such as short transient and hi#h sta%i0it1
are to %e achie$ed Usua001* initia0 desi#ns need to %e ad3usted re/eated01 throu#h com/uter
simu0ations unti0 the c0osed-0oo/ s1stem /er"orms or com/romises as desired
Aome /rocesses ha$e a de#ree o" non0inearit1 and so /arameters that work we00 at "u00-0oad
conditions donSt work when the /rocess is startin# u/ "rom no-0oadZ this can %e corrected %1 #ain
schedu0in# 'usin# di""erent /arameters in di""erent o/eratin# re#ions, >I4 contro00ers o"ten
/ro$ide acce/ta%0e contro0 usin# de"au0t tunin#s* %ut /er"ormance can #enera001 %e im/ro$ed %1
care"u0 tunin#* and /er"ormance ma1 %e unacce/ta%0e with /oor tunin#
1T+2ILITY
I" the >I4 contro00er /arameters 'the #ains o" the /ro/ortiona0* inte#ra0 and deri$ati$e terms, are
chosen incorrect01* the contro00ed /rocess in/ut can %e unsta%0e* ie* its out/ut di$er#es* with or
without osci00ation* and is 0imited on01 %1 saturation or mechanica0 %reaka#e Insta%i0it1 is
caused %1 excess #ain* /articu0ar01 in the /resence o" si#ni"icant 0a#
:enera001* sta%i0iHation o" res/onse is required and the /rocess must not osci00ate "or an1
com%ination o" /rocess conditions and set/oints* thou#h sometimes mar#ina0 sta%i0it1 '%ounded
osci00ation, is acce/ta%0e or desired
Fcitation neededG
OPTIM0M 2EH+%IOR
The o/timum %eha$ior on a /rocess chan#e or set/oint chan#e $aries de/endin# on the
a//0ication
Two %asic requirements are regulation 'distur%ance re3ection sta1in# at a #i$en set/oint, and
command tracking 'im/0ementin# set/oint chan#es, these re"er to how we00 the contro00ed
$aria%0e tracks the desired $a0ue A/eci"ic criteria "or command trackin# inc0ude rise time and
sett0in# time Aome /rocesses must not a00ow an o$ershoot o" the /rocess $aria%0e %e1ond the
set/oint i"* "or e2am/0e* this wou0d %e unsa"e ?ther /rocesses must minimiHe the ener#1
e2/ended in reachin# a new set/oint
O%ER%IE3 O4 METHOD1
There are se$era0 methods "or tunin# a >I4 0oo/ The most e""ecti$e methods #enera001 in$o0$e
the de$e0o/ment o" some "orm o" /rocess mode0* then choosin# >* I* and 4 %ased on the d1namic
mode0 /arameters Manua0 tunin# methods can %e re0ati$e01 ine""icient* /articu0ar01 i" the 0oo/s
ha$e res/onse times on the order o" minutes or 0on#er
Fcitation neededG
The choice o" method wi00 de/end 0ar#e01 on whether or not the 0oo/ can %e taken Io""0ineI "or
tunin#* and on the res/onse time o" the s1stem I" the s1stem can %e taken o""0ine* the %est tunin#
method o"ten in$o0$es su%3ectin# the s1stem to a ste/ chan#e in in/ut* measurin# the out/ut as a
"unction o" time* and usin# this res/onse to determine the contro0 /arameters
) ae2/0ain the construction o" >I4 contro00er =0so write
mathematica0 equation "or this
MODI4IC+TION1 TO THE PID +L/ORITHM
The %asic >I4 a0#orithm /resents some cha00en#es in contro0 a//0ications that ha$e %een
addressed %1 minor modi"ications to the >I4 "orm
INTE/R+L 3IND0P
4or more -etail! on t#i! topi., !ee Integral 5in-up.
?ne common /ro%0em resu0tin# "rom the idea0 >I4 im/0ementations is inte#ra0 windu/* where a
0ar#e chan#e in set/oint occurs 'sa1 a /ositi$e chan#e, and the inte#ra0 term accumu0ates an error
0ar#er than the ma2ima0 $a0ue "or the re#u0ation $aria%0e 'windu/,* thus the s1stem o$ershoots
and continues to increase as this accumu0ated error is unwound This /ro%0em can %e addressed
%1E
Initiali6ing t#e .ontroller integral to a -e!ire- alue
In.rea!ing t#e !etpoint in a !uita&le ramp
Di!a&ling t#e integral 'un.tion until t#e P% #a! entere- t#e .ontrolla&le region
Preenting t#e integral term 'rom a..umulating a&oe or &elo5 pre7-etermine- &oun-!
O%ER1HOOTIN/ 4ROM ,NO3N DI1T0R2+NCE1
5or e2am/0e* a >I4 0oo/ is used to contro0 the tem/erature o" an e0ectric resistance "urnace
where the s1stem has sta%i0iHed Now when the door is o/ened and somethin# co0d is /ut into the
"urnace the tem/erature dro/s %e0ow the set/oint The inte#ra0 "unction o" the contro00er tends to
com/ensate this error %1 introducin# another error in the /ositi$e direction This o$ershoot can
%e a$oided %1 "reeHin# o" the inte#ra0 "unction a"ter the o/enin# o" the door "or the time the
contro0 0oo/ t1/ica001 needs to reheat the "urnace
REPL+CIN/ THE INTE/R+L 40NCTION 2Y + MODEL 2+1ED P+RT
?"ten the time-res/onse o" the s1stem is a//ro2imate01 known Then it is an ad$anta#e to
simu0ate this time-res/onse with a mode0 and to ca0cu0ate some unknown /arameter "rom the
actua0 res/onse o" the s1stem I" "or instance the s1stem is an e0ectrica0 "urnace the res/onse o"
the di""erence %etween "urnace tem/erature and am%ient tem/erature to chan#es o" the e0ectrica0
/ower wi00 %e simi0ar to that o" a sim/0e -@ 0ow-/ass "i0ter mu0ti/0ied %1 an unknown
/ro/ortiona0 coe""icient The actua0 e0ectrica0 /ower su//0ied to the "urnace is de0a1ed %1 a 0ow-
/ass "i0ter to simu0ate the res/onse o" the tem/erature o" the "urnace and then the actua0
tem/erature minus the am%ient tem/erature is di$ided %1 this 0ow-/ass "i0tered e0ectrica0 /ower
Then* the resu0t is sta%i0iHed %1 another 0ow-/ass "i0ter 0eadin# to an estimation o" the
/ro/ortiona0 coe""icient !ith this estimation* it is /ossi%0e to ca0cu0ate the required e0ectrica0
/ower %1 di$idin# the set/oint o" the tem/erature minus the am%ient tem/erature %1 this
coe""icient The resu0t can then %e used instead o" the inte#ra0 "unction This a0so achie$es a
contro0 error o" Hero in the stead1-state* %ut a$oids inte#ra0 windu/ and can #i$e a si#ni"icant01
im/ro$ed contro0 action com/ared to an o/timiHed >I4 contro00er This t1/e o" contro00er does
work /ro/er01 in an o/en 0oo/ situation which causes inte#ra0 windu/ with an inte#ra0 "unction
This is an ad$anta#e i"* "or e2am/0e* the heatin# o" a "urnace has to %e reduced "or some time
%ecause o" the "ai0ure o" a heatin# e0ement* or i" the contro00er is used as an ad$isor1 s1stem to a
human o/erator who ma1 not switch it to c0osed-0oo/ o/eration It ma1 a0so %e use"u0 i" the
contro00er is inside a %ranch o" a com/0e2 contro0 s1stem that ma1 %e tem/orari01 inacti$e
PI CONTROLLER
2a!i. &lo.) o' a PI .ontroller
= P* Controller '/ro/ortiona0-inte#ra0 contro00er, is a s/ecia0 case o" the >I4 contro00er in which
the deri$ati$e '4, o" the error is not used
The contro00er out/ut is #i$en %1
where is the error or de$iation o" actua0 measured $a0ue 'PV, "rom the set/oint 'SP,
.
= >I contro00er can %e mode00ed easi01 in so"tware such as Aimu0ink or 6cos usin# a I"0ow chartI
%o2 in$o0$in# Da/0ace o/eratorsE
where
8 proportional gain
8 integral gain
Aettin# a $a0ue "or is o"ten a trade o"" %etween decreasin# o$ershoot and increasin# sett0in#
time
The 0ack o" deri$ati$e action ma1 make the s1stem more stead1 in the stead1 state in the case o"
nois1 data This is %ecause deri$ati$e action is more sensiti$e to hi#her-"requenc1 terms in the
in/uts
!ithout deri$ati$e action* a >I-contro00ed s1stem is 0ess res/onsi$e to rea0 'non-noise, and
re0ati$e01 "ast a0terations in state and so the s1stem wi00 %e s0ower to reach set/oint and s0ower to
res/ond to /ertur%ations than a we00-tuned >I4 s1stem ma1 %e
DE+D2+ND
Man1 >I4 0oo/s contro0 a mechanica0 de$ice '"or e2am/0e* a $a0$e, Mechanica0 maintenance
can %e a ma3or cost and wear 0eads to contro0 de#radation in the "orm o" either stiction or a
dead%and in the mechanica0 res/onse to an in/ut si#na0 The rate o" mechanica0 wear is main01 a
"unction o" how o"ten a de$ice is acti$ated to make a chan#e !here wear is a si#ni"icant
concern* the >I4 0oo/ ma1 ha$e an out/ut dead%and to reduce the "requenc1 o" acti$ation o" the
out/ut '$a0$e, This is accom/0ished %1 modi"1in# the contro00er to ho0d its out/ut stead1 i" the
chan#e wou0d %e sma00 'within the de"ined dead%and ran#e, The ca0cu0ated out/ut must 0ea$e
the dead%and %e"ore the actua0 out/ut wi00 chan#e
1ETPOINT 1TEP CH+N/E
The /ro/ortiona0 and deri$ati$e terms can /roduce e2cessi$e mo$ement in the out/ut when a
s1stem is su%3ected to an instantaneous ste/ increase in the error* such as a 0ar#e set/oint chan#e
In the case o" the deri$ati$e term* this is due to takin# the deri$ati$e o" the error* which is $er1
0ar#e in the case o" an instantaneous ste/ chan#e =s a resu0t* some >I4 a0#orithms incor/orate
the "o00owin# modi"icationsE
Deriatie o' t#e pro.e!! aria&le
In t#i! .a!e t#e PID .ontroller mea!ure! t#e -eriatie o' t#e mea!ure- pro.e!! aria&le "P%$,
rat#er t#an t#e -eriatie o' t#e error. T#i! 9uantit: i! al5a:! .ontinuou! "i.e., neer #a! a
!tep .#ange a! a re!ult o' .#ange- !etpoint$. 4or t#i! te.#ni9ue to &e e''e.tie, t#e -eriatie
o' t#e P% mu!t #ae t#e oppo!ite !ign o' t#e -eriatie o' t#e error, in t#e .a!e o' negatie
'ee-&a.) .ontrol.
1etpoint ramping
In t#i! mo-i'i.ation, t#e !etpoint i! gra-uall: moe- 'rom it! ol- alue to a ne5l: !pe.i'ie-
alue u!ing a linear or 'ir!t or-er -i''erential ramp 'un.tion. T#i! aoi-! t#e -i!.ontinuit:
pre!ent in a !imple !tep .#ange.
1etpoint 5eig#ting
1etpoint 5eig#ting u!e! -i''erent multiplier! 'or t#e error -epen-ing on 5#i.# element o' t#e
.ontroller it i! u!e- in. T#e error in t#e integral term mu!t &e t#e true .ontrol error to aoi-
!tea-:7!tate .ontrol error!. T#i! a''e.t! t#e .ontroller;! !etpoint re!pon!e. T#e!e parameter!
-o not a''e.t t#e re!pon!e to loa- -i!tur&an.e! an- mea!urement noi!e.
?r
% E2/0ain the ada/ti$e contro0 s1stem in detai0
Adapti4e control is the contro0 method used %1 a contro00er which must ada/t to a
contro00ed s1stem with /arameters which $ar1* or are initia001 uncertain 5or e2am/0e* as an
aircra"t "0ies* its mass wi00 s0ow01 decrease as a resu0t o" "ue0 consum/tionZ a contro0 0aw is
needed that ada/ts itse0" to such chan#in# conditions =da/ti$e contro0 is di""erent "rom ro%ust
contro0 in that it does not need a priori in"ormation a%out the %ounds on these uncertain or time-
$ar1in# /arametersZ ro%ust contro0 #uarantees that i" the chan#es are within #i$en %ounds the
contro0 0aw need not %e chan#ed* whi0e ada/ti$e contro0 is concerned with contro0 0aw chan#in#
themse0$es
P+R+METER E1TIM+TION
The "oundation o" ada/ti$e contro0 is /arameter estimation @ommon methods o" estimation
inc0ude recursi$e 0east squares and #radient descent Coth o" these methods /ro$ide u/date 0aws
which are used to modi"1 estimates in rea0 time 'ie* as the s1stem o/erates, D1a/uno$ sta%i0it1
is used to deri$e these u/date 0aws and show con$er#ence criterion 't1/ica001 /ersistent
e2citation, >ro3ection 'mathematics, and norma0iHation are common01 used to im/ro$e the
ro%ustness o" estimation a0#orithms
.e2/0ain the workin# and constructiona0 detai0s *
ad$anta#es and disad$anta#es o" a ser$o motor
= ser4omotor is a rotar1 actuator that a00ows "or /recise contro0 o" an#u0ar /osition
F1G
It
consists o" a motor cou/0ed to a sensor "or /osition "eed%ack* throu#h a reduction #ear%o2 It
a0so requires a re0ati$e01 so/histicated contro00er* o"ten a dedicated modu0e desi#ned s/eci"ica001
"or use with ser$omotors
Aer$omotors are used in a//0ications such as ro%otics* @N@ machiner1 or automated
manu"acturin#
MECH+NI1M
=s the name su##ests* a ser$omotor is a ser$omechanism More s/eci"ica001* it is a c0osed-0oo/
ser$omechanism that uses /osition "eed%ack to contro0 its motion and "ina0 /osition The in/ut to
its contro0 is some si#na0* either ana0o#ue or di#ita0* re/resentin# the /osition commanded "or the
out/ut sha"t
The motor is /aired with some t1/e o" encoder to /ro$ide /osition and s/eed "eed%ack In the
sim/0est case* on01 the /osition is measured The measured /osition o" the out/ut is com/ared to
the command /osition* the e2terna0 in/ut to the contro00er I" the out/ut /osition di""ers "rom that
required* an error si#na0 is #enerated which then causes the motor to rotate in either direction* as
needed to %rin# the out/ut sha"t to the a//ro/riate /osition =s the /ositions a//roach* the error
si#na0 reduces to Hero and the motor sto/s
The $er1 sim/0est ser$omotors use /osition-on01 sensin# $ia a /otentiometer and %an#-%an#
contro0 o" their motorZ the motor a0wa1s rotates at "u00 s/eed 'or is sto//ed, This t1/e o"
ser$omotor is not wide01 used in industria0 motion contro0* %ut the1 "orm the %asis o" the sim/0e
and chea/ ser$os used "or radio-contro00ed mode0s
More so/histicated ser$omotors measure %oth the /osition and a0so the s/eed o" the out/ut sha"t
The1 ma1 a0so contro0 the s/eed o" their motor* rather than a0wa1s runnin# at "u00 s/eed Coth o"
these enhancements* usua001 in com%ination with a >I4 contro0 a0#orithm* a00ow the ser$omotor
to %e %rou#ht to its commanded /osition more quick01 and more /recise01* with 0ess
o$ershootin#
1ER%OMOTOR1 %1. 1TEPPER MOTOR1
Aer$omotors are #enera001 used as a hi#h /er"ormance a0ternati$e to the ste//er motor Ate//er
motors ha$e some inherent a%i0it1 to contro0 /osition* as the1 ha$e %ui0t-in out/ut ste/s This
o"ten a00ows them to %e used as an o/en-0oo/ /osition contro0* without an1 "eed%ack encoder* as
their dri$e si#na0 s/eci"ies the num%er o" ste/s o" mo$ement to rotate This 0ack o" "eed%ack
thou#h 0imits their /er"ormance* as the ste//er motor can on01 dri$e a 0oad that is we00 within its
ca/acit1* otherwise missed ste/s under 0oad ma1 0ead to /ositionin# errors The encoder and
contro00er o" a ser$omotor are an additiona0 cost* %ut the1 o/timise the /er"ormance o" the
o$era00 s1stem '"or a00 o" s/eed* /ower and accurac1, re0ati$e to the ca/acit1 o" the %asic motor
!ith 0ar#er s1stems* where a /ower"u0 motor re/resents an increasin# /ro/ortion o" the s1stem
cost* ser$omotors ha$e the ad$anta#e
Man1 a//0ications* such as 0aser cuttin# machines* ma1 %e o""ered in two ran#es* the 0ow-/riced
ran#e usin# ste//er motors and the hi#h-/er"ormance ran#e usin# ser$omotors
F2G
ENCODER1
The "irst ser$omotors were de$e0o/ed with s1nchros as their encoders
F3G
Much work was done
with these s1stems in the de$e0o/ment o" radar and anti-aircra"t arti00er1 durin# !or0d !ar II
Aim/0e ser$omotors ma1 use resisti$e /otentiometers as their /osition encoder These are on01
used at the $er1 sim/0est and chea/est 0e$e0* and are in c0ose com/etition with ste//er motors
The1 su""er "rom wear and e0ectrica0 noise in the /otentiometer track =0thou#h it wou0d %e
/ossi%0e to e0ectrica001 di""erentiate their /osition si#na0 to o%tain a s/eed si#na0* >I4 contro00ers
that can make use o" such a s/eed si#na0 #enera001 warrant a more /recise encoder
Modern ser$omotors use o/tica0 encoders* either a%so0ute or incrementa0 =%so0ute encoders can
determine their /osition at /ower-on* %ut are more com/0icated and e2/ensi$e Incrementa0
encoders are sim/0er* chea/er and work at "aster s/eeds Incrementa0 s1stems* 0ike ste//er
motors* o"ten com%ine their inherent a%i0it1 to measure inter$a0s o" rotation with a sim/0e Hero-
/osition sensor to set their /osition at start-u/
Man1 ser$omotors are rotar1* %ut are used "or u0timate contro0 o" a 0inear motion In some o"
these cases* a 0inear encoder is used
F4G
These ser$omotors a$oid inaccuracies in the dri$etrain
%etween the motor and 0inear carria#e* %ut their desi#n is made more com/0icated as the1 are no
0on#er a /re-/acka#ed "actor1-made s1stem
MOTOR1
The t1/e o" motor is not critica0 to a ser$omotor and di""erent t1/es ma1 %e used =t the
sim/0est* %rushed /ermanent ma#net 4@ motors are used* owin# to their sim/0icit1 and 0ow cost
Ama00 industria0 ser$omotors are t1/ica001 e0ectronica001-commutated %rush0ess motors
F<G
5or
0ar#e industria0 ser$omotors* =@ induction motors are t1/ica001 used* o"ten with $aria%0e
"requenc1 dri$es to a00ow contro0 o" their s/eed 5or u0timate /er"ormance in a com/act /acka#e*
%rush0ess =@ motors with /ermanent ma#net "ie0ds are used* e""ecti$e01 0ar#e $ersions o"
Crush0ess 4@ e0ectric motors
F6G
4ri$e modu0es "or ser$omotors are a standard industria0 com/onent Their desi#n is a %ranch o"
/ower e0ectronics* usua001 %ased on a three-/hase M?A5ET ; %rid#e These standard modu0es
acce/t a sin#0e direction and /u0se count 'rotation distance, as in/ut The1 ma1 a0so inc0ude
o$er-tem/erature monitorin#* o$er-torque and sta00 detection "eatures
F)G
=s the encoder t1/e*
#earhead ratio and o$era00 s1stem d1namics are a//0ication s/eci"ic* it is more di""icu0t to
/roduce the o$era00 contro00er as an o""-the-she0" modu0e and so these are o"ten im/0emented as
/art o" the main contro00er
CONTROL
Most modern ser$omotors are desi#ned and su//0ied around a dedicated contro00er modu0e "rom
the same manu"acturer @ontro00ers ma1 a0so %e de$e0o/ed around microcontro00ers* %ut this is
rare01 worth the time and trou%0e* com/ared to %u1in# o""-the-she0"
?r
+e2/0ain the $arious mechanica0 actuation s1stem with
neat sketches
Diaphragm actuator works on the principle of gauge pressure i e difference between input
pressure signal and atmospheric pressure (Pressure = force per unit area)


Where, = Pressure difference (Pascal)
A = Diaphragm area ( )
= orce (!)
"onstruction
# Diaphragm actuator consists of a diaphragm made of rubber and is sandwiched between two
circular steel discs$ %he diaphragm is mounted in upper chamber where the &ar'ing pressure
from controller is applied$
# %he bottom chamber contains a spring that forcing the diaphragm and connected to shaft
down against the spring force$ ig$ shows the construction of actuator diaphragm$

ig$ Pneumatic diaphragm actuator
Working(
# )n upper chamber on appl'ing the &ar'ing air pressure results in a &ar'ing force on the top
of the diaphragm$ )nitiall', with no air pressure, the spring (S) forces the diaphragm upward
and holds the &al&e full' open$ %he pressure on opposite side of diaphragm is maintained at
atmospheric pressure b' open whole *$
# %he effect of changes in input air pressure applies a force on the diaphragm this forces
diaphragm down against the sprig force ig shows the condition of diaphragm after appl'ing
pressure and ma+imum tra&el of shaft (high pressure state)$


ig Pneumatic diaphragm actuator under high pressure
# %he pressure and force are linearl' related b' e,uation (-)$ As the compression of a spring is
linearl' related to force hence the shaft position is linearl' related to applied control pressure$
)t is gi&en b'

Where, = Shaft tra&el (meters)
= Differential pressure (Pa)
A =Diaphragm area
. = Spring constant (!/m)$
11 com/are the /ower transmission %1 #ear*%e0t and
chain dri$es
1.2.1 POWER TRANSMISSION USES
>ower transmission machines use either chains* #ears* or %e0ts Ta%0e 11 /ro$ides a com/arison
o" t1/ica0 a//0ications
Usua001* chain is an economica0 /art o" /ower transmission machines "or 0ow s/eeds and 0ar#e
0oads ;owe$er* it is a0so /ossi%0e to use chain in hi#h-s/eed conditions 0ike automo%i0e en#ine
camsha"t dri$es This is accom/0ished %1 de$isin# a method o" o/eration and 0u%rication
Casica001* there are 0ower 0imits o" "ati#ue stren#th in the #ear and the chain* %ut not in the %e0t
5urthermore* i" a #ear tooth %reaks* the #ear wi00 sto/ at the ne2t tooth There"ore* the order is
#ear T chain T %e0t in the as/ect o" re0ia%i0it1
In most casesE
1. +n in.rea!e in gear noi!e in-i.ate! t#at t#e en- o' t#e !eri.e li'e i! near.
2. You 5ill )no5 t#at t#e .#ain i! almo!t at t#e en- o' it! li'e &: 5ear elongation or an in.rea!e in
i&ration .au!e- &: 5ear elongation.
<. It i! -i''i.ult to -ete.t toot#e-7&elt li'e 5it#out !topping t#e ma.#ine an- in!pe.ting t#e &elt
.are'ull:.
It is /ossi%0e to decrease #ear noise %1 ad3ustin# the #ears /recise01 or %1 ada/tin# the dri$e to a
he0ica0 or dou%0e he0ica0 #ear Coth o" these are e2/ensi$e* and thrust 0oad ma1 occur with the
use o" he0ica0 #ears
@hain is more suita%0e to 0on#-term continuous runnin# and /ower transmission with 0imited
torque "0uctuation :ears are more "it to re$ersin# or intermittent dri$es
The #reater the sha"t center distance* the more /ractica0 the use o" chain and %e0t* rather than
#ears
Table 1.1 .ompari!on Ta&le
Type Roller Chain Tooth Belt V Belt Spr !ear
1:n.#roni6ation
Tran!mi!!ion
E''i.ien.:
+nti71#o.)
Noi!e=%i&ration
1urroun-ing
Con-ition
+oi- 3ater,
Du!t
+oi- Heat, Oil,
3ater, Du!t
+oi- Heat, Oil,
3ater, Du!t
+oi- 3ater, Du!t
1pa.e 1aing
"Hig# 1pee-= Lo5
Loa-$
1pa.e 1aing
"Lo5 1pee-= Hig#
Loa-$
Compa.t Hea: Pulle: 3i-er Pulle:
Le!! Dura&ilit: Due to Le!!
Engagement
Lu&ri.ation
Re9uire- No Lu&e No Lu&e Re9uire-
La:out 4le>i&ilit:
E>.e!! Loa- onto
2earing
E2ce00ent :ood 5air >oor
:enera001* under the same transmission conditions* the cost o" toothed %e0ts and /u00e1s is much
hi#her than the cost o" chains and s/rockets
Aee the "o00owin# "eatures and /oints o" notice a%out ro00er chain transmission
5eatures o" @hain 4ri$esE
1. 1pee- re-u.tion=in.rea!e o' up to !een to one .an &e ea!il: a..ommo-ate-.
2. C#ain .an a..ommo-ate long !#a't7.enter -i!tan.e! "le!! t#an ? m$, an- i! more er!atile.
<. It i! po!!i&le to u!e .#ain 5it# multiple !#a't! or -rie! 5it# &ot# !i-e! o' t#e .#ain.
?. 1tan-ar-i6ation o' .#ain! un-er t#e +meri.an National 1tan-ar-! In!titute "+N1I$, t#e
International 1tan-ar-i6ation Organi6ation "I1O$, an- t#e @apane!e In-u!trial 1tan-ar-! "@I1$
allo5 ea!e o' !ele.tion.
A. It i! ea!: to .ut an- .onne.t .#ain!.
B. T#e !pro.)et -iameter 'or a .#ain !:!tem ma: &e !maller t#an a &elt pulle:, 5#ile tran!mitting
t#e !ame tor9ue.
C. 1pro.)et! are !u&De.t to le!! 5ear t#an gear! &e.au!e !pro.)et! -i!tri&ute t#e loa-ing oer
t#eir man: teet#.
12adiscuss a%out the desi#n o" an enhanced non0inear
>I4 contro00er
+n en#an.e- nonlinear PID "EN7PID$ .ontroller t#at e>#i&it! t#e improe- per'orman.e t#an t#e
.onentional linear 'i>e-7gain PID .ontroller i! propo!e- in t#i! paper, &: in.orporating a !e.tor7
&oun-e- nonlinear gain in .a!.a-e 5it# a .onentional PID .ontrol ar.#ite.ture. To a.#iee t#e #ig#
ro&u!tne!! again!t noi!e, t5o nonlinear tra.)ing -i''erentiator! are u!e- to !ele.t #ig#79ualit:
-i''erential !ignal in t#e pre!en.e o' mea!urement noi!e. T#e .riterion to -etermine t#e nonlinear gain
to retain t#e !ta&ilit: o' t#e propo!e- EN7PID .ontrol !:!tem i! a--re!!e-, &: u!ing t#e Popo !ta&ilit:
.riterion. T#e main a-antage! o' t#e propo!e- EN7PID .ontroller lie in it! #ig# ro&u!tne!! again!t noi!e
an- ea!: o' implementation. 1imulation re!ult! per'orme- on a ro&ot manipulator are pre!ente- to
-emon!trate t#e &etter per'orman.e o' t#e -eelope- EN7PID .ontroller t#an t#e .onentional 'i>e-7
gain PID .ontroller.
?r
%idiscuss a%out the hardware o" micro/rocessor
= microprocessor 'microscopic processor or processor on a c2ip, is the miniaturiHed circuitr1
o" a com/uter /rocessor -- the @>U* the /art that /rocesses* or mani/u0ates* data into
in"ormation It is the most im/ortant /art o" /ersona0 com/uters and workstations It contro0s
0o#ic o" a0most a00 di#ita0 de$ices* "or e2am/0eE mo%i0e de$ices* c0ocks and com/uters
Micro/rocessors are di""erent on the %asis o" instructions set* %andwidth and c0ock s/eed It is
$er1 tin1 in siHe %ut it can /er"orm $arious o/erations within a matter o" "ew seconds It is 0ike a
en#ine that #oes on when the com/uter starts @om/uters cannot /er"orm an1 o/erations without
a micro/rocessor Micro/rocessors take the data as an in/ut* trans0ate it into a machine 0an#ua#e
and dis/0a1 the resu0t as an out/ut !e use so man1 thin#s in our dai01 0i"e which work with
em%edded s1stems and micro/rocessors are a /art o" it Micro/rocessors techno0o#1 has taken a
once %u0k1 series o" switches and miniaturiHed /ower"u0 e0ectronic circuitr1 to %e a%0e to "it in
/ersona0 com/uters* ce00 /hones* /daSs* and other /o/u0ar de$ices !hen re"errin# to
micro/rocessors* /eo/0e are usua001 ta0kin# a%out the @>U* which is made u/ o" at 0east one
micro/rocessor that hand0es the chie" I%rainI "unctions
=ccordin# to scienti"ic 0aw* the s/eed o" micro/rocessors wi00 increase ra/id01 "rom 1ear to 1ear*
and 1ou can see e$idence o" this as current techno0o#1 %ecomes outdated $er1 quick01
Micro/rocessors are necessar1 in a0most an1 en#ineerin# /ro3ect @ircuit %oard desi#n ma1
de/end on a s/eci"ic micro/rocessor construction that can %e su//0ied throu#h contract
manu"acturin#* and outsourced ser$ices
3OR,1T+TION
The !ork Atation @om/uter is an e2/ensi$e* /ower"u0 /ersona0 com/uter* usua001 used "or the
com/0e2 scienti"ic mathematica0 and en#ineerin# @a0cu0ations and "or com/uter aided desi#n
and manu"acturin# These com/uters are common01 used %1 en#ineers and other scienti"ic
/eo/0e who wou0d need the e2tra /ower in a com/uter "or man1 man1 * ca0cu0ations The
workstation o""er man1 ca/a%i0ities simi0ar to the midsiHed main "rames* such as desi#nin# car
en#ines and intricate mechanica0 "unctions The workstations ha$e incredi%0e #ra/hic ca/a%i0ities
witch has he0/ed catch the /u%0icSs e1e The ca/a%i0ities o" a 0ow end workstation o$er0a/ those
o" a hi#h end deskto/ microcom/uter
iiwhat are the t1/e o" contro0 used in MIM? s1stems&
4iscuss
M0LTI7INP0T, M0LTI7O0TP0T
A1stems with more than one in/ut and(or more than one out/ut are known as 0ulti!*nput
0ulti!Output s1stems* or the1 are "requent01 known %1 the a%%re$iation 0*0O This is in
contrast to s1stems that ha$e on01 a sin#0e in/ut and a sin#0e out/ut 'AIA?,* 0ike we ha$e %een
discussin# /re$ious01
13aie2/0ain the s1stem mode0in# o" a cham%er "i00ed
with "0uid
P0RE 4L0ID C+P+CITOR
+ p#:!i.al element in 5#i.# t#e energ: !tore- i! a 'un.tion o' 'lui- pre!!ure ma: &e t#oug#t o' a! a
P0RE 4L0ID C+P+CITOR. +n IDE+L 4L0ID C+P+CITOR i! a pure 'lui- .apa.itor -e'ine- &: t#e linear
.on!tituen.: relation
V"t$ 8 Cf p"t$ "2?$
or
"2A$
5#ere V"t$ i! t#e olume o' t#e 'lui- in t#e .apa.itor, Q"t$ i! t#e 'lui- olume 'lo5 rate into t#e
.apa.itor, p"t$ i! t#e 'lui- pre!!ure in t#e .apa.itor, an- Cf Em
<
.Pa
71
F i! t#e .on!tant parameter .alle-
t#e 4L0ID C+P+CIT+NCE o' t#e .apa.itor.
=s e2am/0e o" a su%s1stem which ma1 %eha$e a//ro2imate01 0ike an idea0 "0uid ca/acitor is a
c0osed >-EAAU-IXE4 @;=MCE- with ri#id wa00s com/0ete01 "i00ed with "0uid shown in
5i# 40a The ener#1 is stored in the cham%er %ecause o" the com/ressi%i0it1 o" the "0uid* and the
$ariation o" /ressure in the cham%er occurs as a resu0t o" the amount o" "0uid that has %een "orced
into it
"i#re $%& "a$ C#am&er .ontaining .ompre!!e- 'lui-. "b$ 1:m&ol o' pure 'lui- .apa.itor. "c$ Mo-el o'
t#e pre!!uri6e- .#am&er. "d$ Open 'lui- re!eroir.
=ccordin# to the 0aw o" conser$ation o" mass the time rate o" mass enterin# the cham%er throu#h
the in0et A must equa0 to the increase o" mass in the cham%er* or
"2B$
5#ere E)g=m
<
F i! t#e 'lui- -en!it: an- Em
<
F i! t#e .on!tant .#am&er olume.
To em/0o1 cham%er /ressure p rather than the mass densit1 as a $aria%0e* we can uti0iHe the
equation o" state o" the 0iquid 5or most 0iquids* a reasona%01 #ood "irst-order a//ro2imation "or
their equation o" state is
"2C$
5#ere EN=m
2
F i! t#e &ul) mo-ulu! o' ela!ti.it: o' t#e li9ui-. 1u&!tituting "2C$ into "2B$ :iel-!
"2G$
5#ere pA i! t#e gage pre!!ure mea!ure- at t#e .#am&er inlet A.
@om/arin# this resu0t with '2<, indicates that the cham%er %eha$es 0ike an idea0 "0uid ca/acitor
with the ca/acitance
"2H$
In the a%o$e deri$ation we ha$e tacit01 made the "o00owin# assum/tionsE
t#e in'luen.e o' grait: on t#e 'lui- i! negligi&le
'lui- inertia an- 'ri.tional e''e.t! .an &e negle.te-
t#e pre!!ure o' t#e 'lui- 5#i.# #a! &een 'or.e- into t#e .#am&er i! uni'orm "&ut not
ne.e!!aril: .on!tant$ t#roug#out t#e tan)
t#e pre!!ure an- temperature ariation! o' t#e &ul) mo-ulu! o' ela!ti.it: are negligi&le
Under the a%o$e assum/tions the /ressuriHed cham%er can %e re/resented in the d1namic
dia#ram o" a s1stem mode0 %1 the s1m%o0 o" the /ure "0uid ca/acitor #i$en in 5i# 40b The
s1m%o0 consists o" a square re/resentin# the ca/acitor $o0ume and /in re/resentin# the ca/acitor
in0et The ca/acitor is associated with two $aria%0es* the ca/acitor /ressure p measured with
res/ect to a constant /ressure re"erence* and the ca/acitor "0ow rate Q The assumed /ositi$e
/o0arit1 o" p is indicated %1 the em/t1-head arrow /0aced %etween the s1m%o0 "or the /ressure
re"erence and the s1m%o0 /in The orientation o" the "u00-head arrow shows that the /ositi$e Q is
a0wa1s directed into the ca/acitor
5i# 40c shows the /ure ca/acitor s1m%o0 a//0ied to the /ressuriHed cham%er The s1m%o0 /in is
coa0esced with node A The ca/acitor /ressure p re/resents in0et #a#e /ressure p
A
corres/onds to
the ca/acitor - characteriHed %1 the constituti$e re0ation '2.,
=s a second e2am/0e o" the idea0 "0uid ca/acitor we can consider the mode0 o" an ?>EN T=N9
or -EAE-R?I- shown in 5i# 40d Det us assume that the 0iquid in the reser$oir is
incom/ressi%0e* the reser$oir wa00s are ri#id* there are no "0uid acce0erations e2ce/t due to
#ra$it1* and there are there no "0uid-resistance e""ects o" im/ortance Then the $o0ume "0ow rate
into the reser$oir throu#h the o/enin# A at the %ottom
"<*$
5#ere A Em
2
F i! t#e re!eroir #ori6ontal area an- h EmF i! t#e #eig#t o' t#e li9ui- .olumn in t#e
re!eroir.
The di""erence p
A
%etween the "0uid /ressure %1 the reser$oir %ottom and the /ressure %1 the "0uid
0e$e0 in the o/en reser$oir* ie the am%ient or atmos/heric re"erence /ressure* must %e equa0 to
the wei#ht o" the 0iquid /er the reser$oir horiHonta0 area* or
"<1$
5#ere E)g.m
7<
F i! t#e li9ui- ma!! -en!it: an- g Em.!
72
F i! t#e a..eleration -ue to grait:.
Di''erentiating "<1$ 5it# re!pe.t to time an- .om&ining it 5it# "<*$ 5e o&tain t#e open re!eroir
.apa.itan.e
iie2/0ain the $arious t1/es o" contro0 modes
here is only two modes of control if you really think about it.
On/Off Control and PID Control.
Where some confusion can come in, is when you look at he
various CON!O""#! modes available on a DC$.
PID controllers are also sometimes linked to%ether like in
cascade or feed forward control confi%uration, but the
control modes is still PID control.
"ook at On/Off control&
'ou can have a o(en/close control valve in the field that is
controlled by the #$D or DC$ system that will either o(en or
close this valve.
he #$D system do not do any control but it can o(en or
close a valve durin% a emer%ency as a ste( in it)s blow down
or shut down se*uence. his is in %eneral not consider as
control +ust a action.
'ou can also have another o(en/close control valve in the
field that is controllin% the level in a tank. In this case
it is connected to a Deca( controller in the DC$. a Dca(
controller have a set,(oint that can be set to control the
level of the tank, but if a on/off valve is used as is, this
valve will o(en and close all the time to try and kee( the
level on the set,(oint. $o to (revent this the controller
have a small dead band around the set,(oint that can be
ad+usted. his will then (revent the valve from o(enin% and
closin% until it reaches the dead,band threshold (osition.
Normally about -. over and under the set,(oint. It is still
on/off control.
"ookin% at PID control&
/ny mode in con+unction with (ro(ortional control is
(ossible on a PID controller it +ust de(ends on the
a((lication. 0or e1am(le PID, PI, PD, P.
'ou can see them each as individual control modes if you
want, but I (refer to +ust stick to PID or on/off control
modes since there is a definite and distinct control mode
difference between the two. I see Dca(, PI, PD and P modes
as sub divisions on the two main control modes.
P 2 Pro(ortional
I 2 Inte%ral
D 2 Derivative
?r
%ie2/0ain %rie"01 a mathematica0 mode0 o" a $ehi$0e
mo$in# on a road
Aerious tra""ic #rid0ocks* 0ike the 3am on Cei3in#Ms nationa0 e2/resswa1 a "ew months a#o which
%rou#ht $ehic0es to a ha0t "or da1s* are a rea0-wor0d issue needin# attention Un"ortunate01* such
standsti00s are not uncommon in Cei3in#* or in other cities around the wor0d
Auch incidents moti$ate the ana01sis o" tra""ic to minimiHe simi0ar e$ents and /ro$ide insi#ht into
road desi#n and construction* such as where to insta00 tra""ic 0i#hts and to00 %ooths* how man1
0anes to %ui0d* and where to construct an o$er/ass or a tunne0 The #oa0s o" these ana01ses are to
re0ie$e con#estion in hi#h tra""ic areas* reduce the risk o" accidents* and mana#e sa"et1 and
securit1 o" motorists
Not sur/risin#01* $ehicu0ar tra""ic "0ow has %een tack0ed %1 mathematicians* en#ineers and
/h1sicists a0ike Mathematica0 a//roaches to stud1 tra""ic are usua001 %ased on the s/eed*
densit1 and "0ow o" $ehic0es on a #i$en roadwa1 In a /a/er /u%0ished this month in the IA!
"ournal on !athematical Anal#sis* authors @orrado DattanHio* =me0io MauriHi and Cenedetto
>icco0i /ro/ose a mathematica0 mode0 o" $ehicu0ar tra""ic %ased on the stud1 o" a mo$in#
%ott0eneck caused %1 a s0ow-mo$in# $ehic0e within the "0ow o" cars The e""ect o" mo$in#
%ott0enecks on "0ow o" tra""ic is an im/ortant "actor in e$a0uatin# tra$e0 times and tra$e0in# /aths
"or commuters
Man1 di""erent mathematica0 mode0s ha$e %een /ro/osed to stud1 tra""ic* inc0udin# mode0s that
use second-order equations "or mass and momentum* mu0ti/o/u0ation mode0s that "actor in the
$ar1in# characteristics o" di""erent kinds o" $ehic0es* and d1namic mode0s that consider tra""ic
"0ows
Most o" the mode0s so "ar /ro/osed* howe$er* so0$e the /ro%0em o" a sin#0e $ehic0e
inde/endent01 o" the entire tra""ic "0ow* and so are not com/0ete01 cou/0ed =n e2am/0e is a
>4E-?4E mode0 that used a /artia0 di""erentia0 equation to mode0 the "0ow o" tra""ic whi0e usin#
an ordinar1 di""erentia0 equation to determine the /osition o" a sin#0e $ehic0e Aince %oth cou0d
%e so0$ed inde/endent01* the s1stem did not take into account the in"0uence o" the sin#0e car on
the entire tra""ic "0ow
The /a/er %1 DattanHio et al /ro$ides a "u001 cou/0ed* mu0ti-sca0e mode0 in which the
microsco/ic /osition o" a sin#0e car is taken to#ether with the macrosco/ic car densit1 on the
road In this micro-macro mode0* the d1namics o" a mo$in# %ott0eneck caused %1 a s0ow-mo$in#
$ehic0e on a street are used to stud1 the e""ects o" disru/tions on the "0ow o" tra""ic
Mathematica001* the /ro%0em is so0$ed usin# the "ractiona0 ste/ method In successi$e time ste/s*
a >4E is "irst so0$ed "or the densit1 o" tra""ic and then the ?4E is so0$ed "or the /osition o" the
s0ow-mo$in# $ehic0e
C1 so0$in# the %ott0eneck /ro%0em in a cou/0ed "ashion* %etter trans/ortation desi#ns can %e
made in antici/ation o" such ine$ita%0e tra""ic con#estion
Unit 4E
1ai4esi#n a circuit that can %e used with domestic
washin# machine to switch on a /um/ to water"or 100s
into the machine*then switch o"" and switch on a heater
"or <0s to heat the water The heater is then switched o""
and another /um/ is to em/t1 the water "rom the machine
"or 100s
iie2/0ain how a >D@ can %e used "or data mo$ement and
data com/arison
Data mo4ement instructions
There are t1/ica001 2 common instruction [sets[E
The sin#0e instruction is common01 ca00ed M?R 'mo$e, co/ies a $a0ue "rom one address to
another
The M?R instruction needs to know 2 thin#sE
Aource where the data we want to mo$e is 0ocated
4estination the 0ocation where the data wi00 %e mo$ed to
!e write an address here =00so* the data can %e mo$ed to the /h1sica0 out/uts
Data comparison
The data com/arison instruction #ets the >D@ to com/are two data $a0ues
Thus it mi#ht %e to com/are a di#ita0 $a0ue read "rom some in/ut de$ice with a second $a0ue
contained in a re#ister
P$%s generall# can make comparisons for&
0ess than '\ or DEAA,*
equa0 to '8 or EVU,*
0ess than or equa0 to '\8 or DEV,*
#reater than 'T or :-T,*
#reater than or equa0 to 'T8 or :EV,* and
not equa0 to ' NEV,
?r
%ie2/0ain how a counter can %e used in >D@Ms
@on$entiona0 counter re/0aced %1 the /0c counter
"unction inc0ude mechanica0 e0ectrica0* e0ectronic
t1/esmost >D@ contain %oth u/ and down counter which
"unction simi0ar01 some >D@ a0so inc0ude a com%ination
u/( down counter in one "unction the u/ counter counts
"rom 0 u/to a /reset count*where some indicatin# action
takes /0acethe down counter starts "rom the /reset $a0ue
and counts down to 0 *where the indicatin# action takes
/0ace The out /ut Q0 is /roduced a"ter 12 occurrence o"
e$ent 62 the reset %utton 61 ensures the counter starts
"rom 0 counts
iidiscuss the use o" interna0 re0a1s in >D@
Ce"ore the ad$ent o" so0id-state 0o#ic circuits* 0o#ica0 contro0 s1stems were desi#ned and %ui0t
e2c0usi$e01 around e0ectromechanica0 re0a1s -e0a1s are "ar "rom o%so0ete in modern desi#n* %ut
ha$e %een re/0aced in man1 o" their "ormer ro0es as 0o#ic-0e$e0 contro0 de$ices* re0e#ated most
o"ten to those a//0ications demandin# hi#h current and(or hi#h $o0ta#e switchin#
A1stems and /rocesses requirin# Ion(o""I contro0 a%ound in modern commerce and industr1* %ut
such contro0 s1stems are rare01 %ui0t "rom either e0ectromechanica0 re0a1s or discrete 0o#ic #ates
Instead* di#ita0 com/uters "i00 the need* which ma1 %e programmed to do a $ariet1 o" 0o#ica0
"unctions
In the 0ate 1+60Ss an =merican com/an1 named Ced"ord =ssociates re0eased a com/utin# de$ice
the1 ca00ed the !'DI%'( =s an acron1m* it meant 0odu0ar Di#ita0 Contro00er* and 0ater
%ecame the name o" a com/an1 di$ision de$oted to the desi#n* manu"acture* and sa0e o" these
s/ecia0-/ur/ose contro0 com/uters ?ther en#ineerin# "irms de$e0o/ed their own $ersions o" this
de$ice* and it e$entua001 came to %e known in non-/ro/rietar1 terms as a P$%* or Pro#ramma%0e
Lo#ic Contro00er The /ur/ose o" a >D@ was to direct01 re/0ace e0ectromechanica0 re0a1s as 0o#ic
e0ements* su%stitutin# instead a so0id-state di#ita0 com/uter with a stored /ro#ram* a%0e to
emu0ate the interconnection o" man1 re0a1s to /er"orm certain 0o#ica0 tasks
= >D@ has man1 Iin/utI termina0s* throu#h which it inter/rets Ihi#hI and I0owI 0o#ica0 states
"rom sensors and switches It a0so has man1 out/ut termina0s* throu#h which it out/uts Ihi#hI
and I0owI si#na0s to /ower 0i#hts* so0enoids* contactors* sma00 motors* and other de$ices 0endin#
themse0$es to on(o"" contro0 In an e""ort to make >D@s eas1 to /ro#ram* their /ro#rammin#
0an#ua#e was desi#ned to resem%0e 0adder 0o#ic dia#rams Thus* an industria0 e0ectrician or
e0ectrica0 en#ineer accustomed to readin# 0adder 0o#ic schematics wou0d "ee0 com"orta%0e
/ro#rammin# a >D@ to /er"orm the same contro0 "unctions
>D@s are industria0 com/uters* and as such their in/ut and out/ut si#na0s are t1/ica001 120 $o0ts
=@* 3ust 0ike the e0ectromechanica0 contro0 re0a1s the1 were desi#ned to re/0ace =0thou#h some
>D@s ha$e the a%i0it1 to in/ut and out/ut 0ow-0e$e0 4@ $o0ta#e si#na0s o" the ma#nitude used in
0o#ic #ate circuits* this is the e2ce/tion and not the ru0e
Ai#na0 connection and /ro#rammin# standards $ar1 somewhat %etween di""erent mode0s o" >D@*
%ut the1 are simi0ar enou#h to a00ow a I#enericI introduction to >D@ /ro#rammin# here The
"o00owin# i00ustration shows a sim/0e >D@* as it mi#ht a//ear "rom a "ront $iew Two screw
termina0s /ro$ide connection to 120 $o0ts =@ "or /owerin# the >D@Ss interna0 circuitr1* 0a%e0ed
D1 and D2 Ai2 screw termina0s on the 0e"t-hand side /ro$ide connection to in/ut de$ices* each
termina0 re/resentin# a di""erent in/ut Ichanne0I with its own I6I 0a%e0 The 0ower-0e"t screw
termina0 is a I@ommonI connection* which is #enera001 connected to D2 'neutra0, o" the 120
R=@ /ower source
Inside the >D@ housin#* connected %etween each in/ut termina0 and the @ommon termina0* is an
o/to-iso0ator de$ice 'Di#ht-Emittin# 4iode, that /ro$ides an e0ectrica001 iso0ated Ihi#hI 0o#ic
si#na0 to the com/uterSs circuitr1 'a /hoto-transistor inter/rets the DE4Ss 0i#ht, when there is 120
R=@ /ower a//0ied %etween the res/ecti$e in/ut termina0 and the @ommon termina0 =n
indicatin# DE4 on the "ront /ane0 o" the >D@ #i$es $isua0 indication o" an Iener#iHedI in/utE
?ut/ut si#na0s are #enerated %1 the >D@Ss com/uter circuitr1 acti$atin# a switchin# de$ice
'transistor* T-I=@* or e$en an e0ectromechanica0 re0a1,* connectin# the IAourceI termina0 to an1
o" the IQ-I 0a%e0ed out/ut termina0s The IAourceI termina0* corres/ondin#01* is usua001
connected to the D1 side o" the 120 R=@ /ower source =s with each in/ut* an indicatin# DE4
on the "ront /ane0 o" the >D@ #i$es $isua0 indication o" an Iener#iHedI out/utE
In this wa1* the >D@ is a%0e to inter"ace with rea0-wor0d de$ices such as switches and so0enoids
The actua0 logic o" the contro0 s1stem is esta%0ished inside the >D@ %1 means o" a com/uter
/ro#ram This /ro#ram dictates which out/ut #ets ener#iHed under which in/ut conditions
=0thou#h the /ro#ram itse0" a//ears to %e a 0adder 0o#ic dia#ram* with switch and re0a1 s1m%o0s*
there are no actua0 switch contacts or re0a1 coi0s o/eratin# inside the >D@ to create the 0o#ica0
re0ationshi/s %etween in/ut and out/ut These are imaginar# contacts and coi0s* i" 1ou wi00 The
/ro#ram is entered and $iewed $ia a /ersona0 com/uter connected to the >D@Ss /ro#rammin#
/ort
@onsider the "o00owin# circuit and >D@ /ro#ramE
!hen the /ush%utton switch is unactuated 'un/ressed,* no /ower is sent to the 61 in/ut o" the
>D@ 5o00owin# the /ro#ram* which shows a norma001-o/en 61 contact in series with a Q1 coi0*
no I/owerI wi00 %e sent to the Q1 coi0 Thus* the >D@Ss Q1 out/ut remains de-ener#iHed* and the
indicator 0am/ connected to it remains dark
I" the /ush%utton switch is /ressed* howe$er* /ower wi00 %e sent to the >D@Ss 61 in/ut =n1 and
a00 61 contacts a//earin# in the /ro#ram wi00 assume the actuated 'non-norma0, state* as thou#h
the1 were re0a1 contacts actuated %1 the ener#iHin# o" a re0a1 coi0 named I61I In this case*
ener#iHin# the 61 in/ut wi00 cause the norma001-o/en 61 contact wi00 Ic0ose*I sendin# I/owerI
to the Q1 coi0 !hen the Q1 coi0 o" the /ro#ram Iener#iHes*I the rea0 Q1 out/ut wi00 %ecome
ener#iHed* 0i#htin# u/ the 0am/ connected to itE
It must %e understood that the 61 contact* Q1 coi0* connectin# wires* and I/owerI a//earin# in
the /ersona0 com/uterSs dis/0a1 are a00 virtual The1 do not e2ist as rea0 e0ectrica0 com/onents
The1 e2ist as commands in a com/uter /ro#ram -- a /iece o" so"tware on01 -- that 3ust ha//ens to
resem%0e a rea0 re0a1 schematic dia#ram
Equa001 im/ortant to understand is that the /ersona0 com/uter used to dis/0a1 and edit the >D@Ss
/ro#ram is not necessar1 "or the >D@Ss continued o/eration ?nce a /ro#ram has %een 0oaded to
the >D@ "rom the /ersona0 com/uter* the /ersona0 com/uter ma1 %e un/0u##ed "rom the >D@*
and the >D@ wi00 continue to "o00ow the /ro#rammed commands I inc0ude the /ersona0 com/uter
dis/0a1 in these i00ustrations "or 1our sake on01* in aidin# to understand the re0ationshi/ %etween
rea0-0i"e conditions 'switch c0osure and 0am/ status, and the /ro#ramSs status 'I/owerI throu#h
$irtua0 contacts and $irtua0 coi0s,
The true /ower and $ersati0it1 o" a >D@ is re$ea0ed when we want to a0ter the %eha$ior o" a
contro0 s1stem Aince the >D@ is a /ro#ramma%0e de$ice* we can a0ter its %eha$ior %1 chan#in#
the commands we #i$e it* without ha$in# to recon"i#ure the e0ectrica0 com/onents connected to
it 5or e2am/0e* su//ose we wanted to make this switch-and-0am/ circuit "unction in an in$erted
"ashionE /ush the %utton to make the 0am/ turn off* and re0ease it to make it turn on The
IhardwareI so0ution wou0d require that a norma001-c0osed /ush%utton switch %e su%stituted "or
the norma001-o/en switch current01 in /0ace The Iso"twareI so0ution is much easierE 3ust a0ter the
/ro#ram
2aie2/0ain a architecture o" a >D@ and e2/0ain a%out its
e0ements
PRO!RAMMAB'E 'O!IC CONTRO''ERS& (AR)WARE* SO"TWARE ARC(ITECTURE
E4IT?-MA N?TEE T;IA IA T;E 5I-AT >=-T ?5 = T!?->=-T =-TI@DE ?N T;E
M=IN 4IATIN:UIA;IN: @;=-=@TE-IATI@A ?5 T;E >D@E ITA C=AI@ ;=-4!=-E
=N4 A?5T!=-E =-@;ITE@TU-E T;E AE@?N4 >=-T !IDD @?RE- ;?! T;E
>-?:-=M =N4 IN>UT(?UT>UT 'I(?, M?4UDEA =-E A@=NNE4* =N4 IT !IDD CE
=R=ID=CDE =A = !EC E6@DUAIRE IN 4E@EMCE-
'!!!IA=?-:(DIN9(C=AI@ANM=IN,
In man1 res/ects* the architecture o" the /ro#ramma%0e 0o#ic contro00er '>D@, resem%0es a
#enera0-/ur/ose com/uter with s/ecia0iHed in/ut(out/ut 'I(?, modu0es ;owe$er* some
im/ortant characteristics distin#uish a >D@ "rom a #enera0-/ur/ose com/uter Most im/ortant* a
>D@ is much more re0ia%0e* desi#ned "or a mean time %etween "ai0ures measured in 1ears
Aecond* a >D@ can %e /0aced in an industria0 en$ironment with its su%stantia0 amount o"
e0ectrica0 noise* $i%ration* e2treme tem/eratures* and humidit1 Third* >D@s are easi01
maintained %1 /0ant technicians
Basic PLC 2ardware arc2itecture
The %asic architecture o" a >D@ consists o" main com/onents]the /rocessor modu0e* the /ower
su//01* and the I(? modu0es The /rocessor modu0e consists o" the centra0 /rocessin# unit '@>U,
and memor1 In addition to a micro/rocessor* the @>U a0so contains at 0east an inter"ace to a
/ro#rammin# de$ice and ma1 contain inter"aces to remote I(? and other communication
networks The /ower su//01 is usua001 a se/arate modu0e* and the I(? modu0es are se/arate "rom
the /rocessor The t1/es o" I(? modu0es inc0ude discrete 'on(o"",* ana0o# 'continuous $aria%0e,*
and s/ecia0 modu0es 0ike motion contro0 or hi#h-s/eed counters The "ie0d de$ices are connected
to the I(? modu0es
4e/endin# on the amount o" I(? and the /articu0ar >D@ /rocessor* the I(? modu0es ma1 %e in
the same chassis as the /rocessor and(or in one or more other chassis U/ unti0 the 0ate 1+.0s* the
I(? modu0es in a t1/ica0 >D@ s1stem were in chassis se/arate "rom the >D@ /rocessor In the
more t1/ica0 /resent-da1 >D@* some o" the I(? modu0es are /resent in the chassis that contains
the /rocessor Aome >D@ s1stems a00ow more than one /rocessor in the same chassis Ama00er
>D@s are o"ten mounted on a 4IN rai0 The sma00est >D@s 'o"ten ca00ed micro->D@s or nano-
>D@s, inc0ude the /ower su//01* /rocessor* and a00 o" the I(?s in one /acka#e Aome micro-
>D@s contain a %ui0t-in o/erator inter"ace /ane0 5or man1 micro->D@s* the amount o" I(? is
0imited and not e2/anda%0e
Basic software> memor5 arc2itecture 9*+C 811&1!&;
The IE@ 61131-3 standard de"ines a memor1 and /ro#ram mode0 that "o00ows modern so"tware
en#ineerin# conce/ts This mode0 incor/orates such "eatures as to/-down desi#n* structured
/ro#rammin#* hierarchica0 or#aniHation* "orma0 so"tware inter"aces* and /ro#ram enca/su0ation
5ortunate01* e2tensi$e trainin# in so"tware en#ineerin# techniques is not necessar1 to %ecome a
/ro"icient /ro#rammer I" "u001 im/0emented* the mode0 is reasona%01 com/0icated The main
disad$anta#es o" the mode0 are its com/0e2it1 and its contrast to the sim/0icit1 o" the ear01 >D@s
The o$era00 IE@ 61131-3 memor1 /ro#ram and memor1 mode0 are descri%ed '5or $arious
im/0ementations o" the standard* $isit wwwisaor#(0ink(EricksonN>D@, The IE@ 61131-3
memor1 mode0 'what the standard ca00s the so"tware mode0, is 0a1ered]each 0a1er hides man1
o" the "eatures o" the 0a1ers %eneath Each o" the main e0ements is now descri%ed
The configuration is the entire %od1 o" so"tware '/ro#ram and data, that corres/onds to a >D@
s1stem :enera001* a con"i#uration equates with the /ro#ram and data "or one >D@ In 0ar#e
com/0e2 s1stems that require mu0ti/0e coo/eratin# >D@s* each >D@ has a se/arate con"i#uration
= con"i#uration communicates with other IE@ con"i#urations within the contro0 s1stem throu#h
de"ined inter"aces* ca00ed access /aths The choice o" the term @?N5I:U-=TI?N con"0icts
with the historic use o" this term in the contro0s industr1 :enera001* @?N5I:U-=TI?N re"ers
to the /rocess o" s/eci"1in# items such as the >D@ /rocessor mode0* communication inter"aces*
remote I(? connections* memor1 a00ocation* and so on There"ore* the $endors /roducin# IE@-
com/0iant >D@s that use the term con"i#uration in the historic sense re"er to the entire %od1 o"
so"tware with some other term* such as >-?BE@T
= resource /ro$ides the su//ort "unctions "or the e2ecution o" /ro#rams ?ne or more resources
constitute a con"i#uration Norma001* a resource e2ists within a >D@* %ut it ma1 e2ist within a
/ersona0 com/uter to su//ort /ro#ram testin# ?ne o" the main "unctions o" a resource is to
/ro$ide an inter"ace %etween a /ro#ram and the /h1sica0 I(? o" the >D@
= program #enera001 consists o" an interconnection o" function bloc3s> each o" which ma1 %e
written in an1 o" the IE@ 0an#ua#es = "unction %0ock or /ro#ram is a0so ca00ed a >-?:-=M
?-:=NIX=TI?N UNIT In addition to the "unction %0ocks* the /ro#ram contains dec0arations
o" /h1sica0 in/uts(out/uts and an1 $aria%0es 0oca0 to the /ro#ram = /ro#ram can read and write
to I(? channe0s* #0o%a0 $aria%0es* and communicate with other /ro#rams =@@EAA >=T;A
/ro$ide the means to trans"er in"ormation %etween con"i#urations Tasks contro0 the e2ecution o"
the /ro#ram or /arts o" a /ro#ram
= tas3 contro0s one or more /ro#rams and(or "unction %0ocks to e2ecute The e2ecution o" a
/ro#ram im/0ies that a00 o" the "unction %0ocks in the /ro#ram are /rocessed once The e2ecution
o" a "unction %0ock im/0ies that a00 o" the so"tware e0ements o" the "unction %0ock are /rocessed
once There are no im/0ied mechanisms "or /ro#ram e2ecution In order "or a /ro#ram to %e
e2ecuted* it must %e assi#ned to a task* and the task must %e con"i#ured to e2ecute continuous01*
/eriodica001* or with a tri##er
Raria%0es are dec0ared within the di""erent so"tware e0ements o" the mode0 = local 4ariable is
de"ined at the so"tware e0ement and can on01 %e accessed %1 the so"tware e0ement Doca0
$aria%0es can %e de"ined "or the "unction %0ock* /ro#ram* resource* or con"i#uration
= global 4ariable de"ined "or a con"i#uration* resource* or /ro#ram is accessi%0e to a00 e0ements
contained in it 5or e2am/0e* a #0o%a0 con"i#uration $aria%0e is accessi%0e to a00 so"tware
e0ements in the con"i#uration = #0o%a0 /ro#ram $aria%0e is accessi%0e to a00 "unction %0ocks in
the /ro#ram
Directl5 represented 4ariables are memor1 and I(? 0ocations in the >D@ IE@ 61131-3 de"ines
"ormats "or re"erences to such data ;owe$er* man1 im/0ementers o" the standard use their own
"ormats* which are not consistent with the IE@ standard
+2O0T THE +0THOR
Dr6 .el4in T6 +ric3son is a /ro"essor o" E0ectrica0 P @om/uter En#ineerin# at the Missouri
Uni$ersit1 o" Acience and Techno0o#1 '"ormer01 the Uni$ersit1 o" Missouri--o00a* UM-, in
-o00a ;is /rimar1 areas o" interest are in manu"acturin# automation and /rocess contro0 ;e is a
re#istered >ro"essiona0 En#ineer '@ontro0 A1stems, in Missouri ;e is a mem%er o" IA= and
senior mem%er o" IEEE
iicreate a 0adder dia#ram "or the "o00owin# a//0icationE a
/neumatic s1stem with dou%0e so0enoid $a0$es contro0s
two dou%0e actin# c10inder = and C the sequence o"
c10inder o/erations are as "o00owsE c10inder = e2tends
"o00owed %1 c10inder C e2tendin#*then the c10inder C
retracts and "ina001 the c1c0e is com/0eted %1 the c10inder
= retractin# E2/0ain the 0o#ic o" the >D@ circuit used
?r
%ia work /iece is 0oaded on a con$e1er %e0t and o/erates
%etween two 0imits o" tra$e0 = and C when 0imits switch
at station = is acti$ated*the con$e1er mo$es "orward
!hen 0imit switch at station C is acti$ated* the con$e1er
chan#es direction /ressin# the start %utton sto/s the
motor create a 0adder 0o#ic dia#ram and e2/0ain
iiwhat are the "actors to %e considered whi0e se0ectin# a
>D@&
1; Determine w2et2er 5our s5stem is new or e=isting: !i00 1our s1stem %e insta00ed "rom
scratch or are there e2istin# /roducts a0read1 insta00ed& The rest o" 1our s1stem wi00 need to %e
com/ati%0e with new com/onents
D25 t2is is important: @ertain contro00er /roducts ma1 not %e com/ati%0e with others Makin#
sure 1our e2istin# /roducts are com/ati%0e with an1 new /roducts 1ou are researchin# wi00 sa$e
1ou time and mone1
%; Define an5 en4ironmental issues t2at will effect 5our application: @onsider an1
en$ironmenta0 issues that wi00 a""ect 1our a//0ication 'tem/erature* dust* $i%ration* codes
s/eci"ic to 1our "aci0it1* etc,
D25 t2is is important: @ertain en$ironments ma1 a""ect the o/eration o" a contro00er 5or
e2am/0e* t1/ica0 contro00ers ha$e an o/eratin# tem/erature o" 0-<< de#rees @e0sius '32-130
de#rees 5, I" 1our a//0ication wi00 inc0ude an1 e2treme en$ironmenta0 conditions* or 1ou ha$e
s/eci"ic codes at 1our "aci0it1 that must %e met* 1ou wi00 need to either research /roducts that
meet those s/eci"ications or desi#n the insta00ation to meet requirements
&; Determine 2ow man5 discrete and analog de4ices 5our s5stem will 2a4e: ;ow man1
discrete and ana0o# de$ices wi00 1ou ha$e& !hich t1/es '=@* 4@* etc, are needed&
D25 t2is is important: The num%er and t1/e o" de$ices 1our s1stem wi00 inc0ude is direct01
0inked to the amount o" I(? that wi00 %e necessar1 "or 1our s1stem Qou wi00 need to choose a
contro00er that su//orts 1our I(? count requirements and has modu0es that su//ort 1our si#na0
t1/es
'; Determine w2et2er 5our s5stem will reEuire an5 specialt5 features: !i00 1our a//0ication
require hi#h-s/eed countin# or /ositionin#& !hat a%out a rea0-time c0ock or other s/ecia0t1
"eature&
D25 t2is is important: A/ecia0t1 "unctions are not necessari01 a$ai0a%0e in a contro00er @>U or
in standard I(? modu0es Understandin# the s/ecia0 "unctions 1our s1stem ma1 /er"orm wi00 he0/
1ou determine whether or not 1ou wi00 need to /urchase additiona0 s/ecia0t1 modu0es
1; Determine t2e t5pe of CP, 5ou will need: ;ow much memor1 wi00 1our s1stem require&
;ow man1 de$ices wi00 1our s1stem ha$e 'determines data memor1,& ;ow 0ar#e is 1our
/ro#ram* and what t1/es o" instructions wi00 1our /ro#ram inc0ude 'determines /ro#ram
memor1,& ;ow "ast a scan time do 1ou need&
D25 t2is is important: 4ata memor1 re"ers to the amount o" memor1 needed "or d1namic data
mani/u0ation and stora#e in the s1stem 5or e2am/0e* counter and timer instructions t1/ica001 use
data memor1 to store set/oints* current $a0ues* and other interna0 "0a#s I" the a//0ication requires
historica0 data retention* such as measured de$ice $a0ues o$er a 0on# /eriod o" time* the siHe o"
the data ta%0es required ma1 determine the @>U mode0 1ou choose >ro#ram memor1 is the
amount o" memor1 needed to store the sequence o" /ro#ram instructions that ha$e %een se0ected
to /er"orm the a//0ication Each t1/e o" instruction requires a s/eci"ic amount o" /ro#ram
memor1* t1/ica001 de"ined in a /ro#rammin# manua0 =//0ications that are %asica001 sequentia0
in nature can re01 on the I(? de$ice ru0e o" thum% to estimate /ro#ram memor1 '"i$e words o"
memor1 "or each I(? de$ice,Z com/0e2 a//0ications wi00 %e more di""icu0t to 3ud#e
I" scan time is im/ortant in 1our a//0ication* consider the @>U /rocessor s/eed as we00 as
instruction e2ecution s/eed Aome @>Us are "aster at %oo0ean 0o#ic %ut s0ower with data
hand0in# instructions
I" s/ecia0 "unctions such as >I4 are required* the @>U 1ou se0ect ma1 make those "unctions
easier to /er"orm
5or /ro#ram memor1 required* "o00ow this ru0e o" thum%E < words o" /ro#ram memor1 "or each
discrete de$ice and 2< words "or each ana0o# de$ice
8; Determine w2ere 5our *?O will be located: !i00 1our s1stem require on01 0oca0 I(?* or %oth
0oca0 and remote I(? 0ocations&
D25 t2is is important: I" su%s1stems wi00 %e needed at 0on# distances "rom the @>U* 1ou wi00
need a contro00er that su//orts remote I(? Qou wi00 a0so ha$e to determine i" the remote
distances and s/eeds su//orted wi00 %e adequate "or 1our a//0ication Aeria0 and Ethernet-%ased
I(? hardware are two t1/ica0 choices a$ai0a%0e "or most s1stems This I(? ma1 a0so %e re"erred to
as distri%uted I(?* and ma1 require a /articu0ar /rotoco0* such as Mod%us
$; Determine 5our communication reEuirements: !i00 1our s1stem %e communicatin# to
other networks* s1stems* or "ie0d de$ices&
D25 t2is is important: @ommunication /orts 'other than the /ro#rammin# /ort, are not a0wa1s
inc0uded with a contro00er 9nowin# 1our s1stem communication requirements wi00 he0/ 1ou
choose a @>U that su//orts 1our communication requirements* or additiona0 communication
modu0es i" necessar1
; Determine 5our programming reEuirements: 4oes 1our a//0ication require on01 traditiona0
/ro#rammin# instructions* or are s/ecia0 instructions necessar1&
D25 t2is is important: @ertain contro00ers ma1 not su//ort e$er1 t1/e o" instruction Qou wi00
need to choose a mode0 that su//orts a00 instructions that 1ou ma1 need "or a s/eci"ic a//0ication
5or e2am/0e* %ui0t-in >I4 "unctions are much easier to use than writin# 1our own code to
/er"orm c0osed-0oo/ /rocess contro0 T1/ica0 instructions such as timers* counters* etc are
a$ai0a%0e in most contro00ersZ note an1 other s/ecia0 instructions required here
3aiiwhat is meant %1 interna0 re0a1s& E2/0ain
!elay is one of the most im(ortant electromechanical devices hi%hly used in industrial a((lications
s(ecifically in automation. / relay is used for electronic to electrical interfacin% i.e. it is used to switch on
or off electrical circuits o(eratin% at hi%h /C volta%e usin% a low DC control volta%e. / relay %enerally has
two (arts, a coil which o(erates at the rated DC volta%e and a mechanically movable switch. he
electronic and electrical circuits are electrically isolated but ma%netically connected to each other, hence
any fault on either side does not affects the other side.


Relay switch shown in the ima%e above consists of five terminals. wo terminals are used to %ive the
in(ut DC volta%e also known as the o(eratin% volta%e of the relay. !elays are available in different
o(eratin% volta%es like 34, 564, 674 etc. he rest of the three terminals are used to connect the hi%h
volta%e /C circuit. he terminals are called Common, Normally O(en 8NO9 and Normally Closed 8NC9.
!elays are available in various ty(es : cate%ories and in order to identify the correct confi%uration of the
out(ut terminals, it is best to see the data sheet or manual. 'ou can also identify the terminals usin% a
multimeter and at times it is (rinted on the relay itself.
he internal structure of the relay is shown in the ima%e above which is embedded inside the (lastic
coverin%.
!hen 1ou con"i#ure an interna0 re0a1 domain* some or a00 o" the reci/ients in this domain donSt
ha$e mai0%o2es in this E2chan#e or#aniHation Mai0 "rom the Internet is re0a1ed "or this domain
throu#h ;u% Trans/ort ser$ers in this E2chan#e or#aniHation This con"i#uration is used in the
scenarios that are descri%ed in this section
=n or#aniHation ma1 ha$e to share the same AMT> address s/ace %etween two or more di""erent
e-mai0 s1stems 5or e2am/0e* 1ou ma1 ha$e to share the AMT> address s/ace %etween Microso"t
E2chan#e and a third-/art1 e-mai0 s1stem* or %etween E2chan#e en$ironments that are
con"i#ured in di""erent =cti$e 4irector1 "orests In these scenarios* users in each e-mai0 s1stem
ha$e the same domain su""i2 as /art o" their e-mai0 addresses
To su//ort these scenarios* 1ou must create an acce/ted domain thatSs con"i#ured as an interna0
re0a1 domain Qou must a0so add a Aend connector thatSs sourced on a ;u% Trans/ort ser$er and
con"i#ured to send e-mai0 to the shared address s/ace I" an acce/ted domain is con"i#ured as
authoritati$e and a reci/ient isnSt "ound in =cti$e 4irector1* a non-de0i$er1 re/ort 'N4-, is
returned to the sender The acce/ted domain thatSs con"i#ured as an interna0 re0a1 domain "irst
tries to de0i$er to a reci/ient in the E2chan#e or#aniHation I" the reci/ient isnSt "ound* the
messa#e is routed to the Aend connector that has the c0osest address s/ace match
I" an or#aniHation contains more than one "orest and has con"i#ured #0o%a0 address 0ist ':=D,
s1nchroniHation* the AMT> domain "or one "orest ma1 %e con"i#ured as an interna0 re0a1 domain
in a second "orest Messa#es "rom the Internet that are addressed to reci/ients in interna0 re0a1
domains are recei$ed and /rocessed %1 the Ed#e Trans/ort ser$er and then re0a1ed to the ;u%
Trans/ort ser$ers in the same or#aniHation The recei$in# ;u% Trans/ort ser$ers then route the
messa#es to the ;u% Trans/ort ser$ers in the reci/ient "orest Qou con"i#ure the AMT> domain
as an interna0 re0a1 domain to make sure that e-mai0 thatSs addressed to that domain is acce/ted
%1 the E2chan#e or#aniHation The connector con"i#uration o" 1our or#aniHation determines how
messa#es are routed
In the "o00owin# "i#ure* 5ourthco""eecom is con"i#ured as an interna0 re0a1 domain "or the
E2chan#e 2010 or#aniHation in the @ontosocom "orest The M6 resource records "or
5ourthco""eecom re"erence a /u%0ic I> address "or the @ontosocom or#aniHation = "orest trust
e2ists %etween 5ourthco""eecom and @ontosocom* and :=D s1nchroniHation is con"i#ured The
@ontosocom Ed#e Trans/ort ser$er acce/ts messa#es "or the 5ourthco""eecom AMT> domain
"rom the Internet and then re0a1s those messa#es to the ;u% Trans/ort ser$ers in the
@ontosocom E2chan#e or#aniHation The messa#es are then routed to the ;u% Trans/ort ser$ers
in the 5ourthco""eecom E2chan#e or#aniHation = cross-"orest Aend connector is con"i#ured "or
routin# messa#es "rom @ontosocom to 5ourthco""eecom Messa#es that are sent "rom
5ourthco""eecom to e2terna0 reci/ients are routed to the ;u% Trans/ort ser$ers in the
@ontosocom "orest = second cross-"orest Aend connector is con"i#ured "or routin# messa#es
"rom 5ourthco""eecom to @ontosocom !hen the ;u% Trans/ort ser$ers in @ontosocom
recei$e messa#es "rom the interna0 re0a1 domain 5ourthco""eecom* the1 de0i$er messa#es "or
reci/ients in authoritati$e domains and re0a1 messa#es "or Internet reci/ients to the Ed#e
Trans/ort ser$er "or de0i$er1
%%rie"01 e2/0ain how data hand0in# is carried out in >D@
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d%1rotatin#awhee0usin#
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/utinC@4"ormat
4adesi#n a s1stem* usin# a >D@ that cou0d %e used with
a con$e1er %e0t which is used to mo$e an item to work
station The /resence o" an item at the work station is
detected %1 means o" %reakin# a contact acti$ated %1 a
%eam o" 0i#ht to a /hoto sensorthere it sto/s "or 100s "or
an o/eration to %e carried out and then starts mo$in# The
motor "or the %e0t is started %1 a norma001 o/en start
switch and sto//ed %1 a norma001 c0osed switch
?r
% desi#n a circuit that cou0d %e used with a domestic
washin# machine to switch on a /um/ to /um/ water "or
100s in to the machine *then switch o"" the /um/ water
"or 100s in to the machine* then switch o"" the /um/ and
switch on the heater "or <0s to heat the water the heater
is then switched o"" and another /um/ is then switched
o"" and another /um/ is switched on "or 100s to em/t1
the water "rom the machine
<aidescri%e the di""erent 0o#ic "unction and their
/er"ormance
= logic gate is an idea0iHed or /h1sica0 de$ice im/0ementin# a Coo0ean "unction* that is* it
/er"orms a 0o#ica0 o/eration on one or more 0o#ica0 in/uts* and /roduces a sin#0e 0o#ica0 out/ut
4e/endin# on the conte2t* the term ma1 re"er to an ideal logic gate* one that has "or instance
Hero rise time and un0imited "an-out* or it ma1 re"er to a non-idea0 /h1sica0 de$ice
F1G
'see Idea0
and rea0 o/-am/s "or com/arison,
Do#ic #ates are /rimari01 im/0emented usin# diodes or transistors actin# as e0ectronic switches*
%ut can a0so %e constructed usin# e0ectroma#netic re0a1s 're0a1 0o#ic,* "0uidic 0o#ic* /neumatic
0o#ic* o/tics* mo0ecu0es* or e$en mechanica0 e0ements !ith am/0i"ication* 0o#ic #ates can %e
cascaded in the same wa1 that Coo0ean "unctions can %e com/osed* a00owin# the construction o"
a /h1sica0 mode0 o" a00 o" Coo0ean 0o#ic* and there"ore* a00 o" the a0#orithms and mathematics
that can %e descri%ed with Coo0ean 0o#ic
Do#ic circuits inc0ude such de$ices as mu0ti/0e2ers* re#isters* arithmetic 0o#ic units '=DUs,* and
com/uter memor1* a00 the wa1 u/ throu#h com/0ete micro/rocessors* which ma1 contain more
than 100 mi00ion #ates In /ractice* the #ates are made "rom "ie0d-e""ect transistors '5ETs,*
/articu0ar01 M?A5ETs 'meta0o2idesemiconductor "ie0d-e""ect transistors,
@om/ound 0o#ic #ates =N4-?--In$ert '=?I, and ?--=N4-In$ert '?=I, are o"ten em/0o1ed in
circuit desi#n %ecause their construction usin# M?A5ETs is sim/0er and more e""icient than the
sum o" the indi$idua0 #ates
ELECTRONIC /+TE1
Main arti.le: Logi. 'amil:
To %ui0d a "unctiona001 com/0ete 0o#ic s1stem* re0a1s* $a0$es '$acuum tu%es,* or transistors can
%e used The sim/0est "ami01 o" 0o#ic #ates usin# %i/o0ar transistors is ca00ed resistor-transistor
0o#ic '-TD, Un0ike diode 0o#ic #ates* -TD #ates can %e cascaded inde"inite01 to /roduce more
com/0e2 0o#ic "unctions These #ates were used in ear01 inte#rated circuits 5or hi#her s/eed* the
resistors used in -TD were re/0aced %1 diodes* 0eadin# to diode-transistor 0o#ic '4TD,
Transistor-transistor 0o#ic 'TTD, then su//0anted 4TD with the o%ser$ation that one transistor
cou0d do the 3o% o" two diodes e$en more quick01* usin# on01 ha0" the s/ace In $irtua001 e$er1
t1/e o" contem/orar1 chi/ im/0ementation o" di#ita0 s1stems* the %i/o0ar transistors ha$e %een
re/0aced %1 com/0ementar1 "ie0d-e""ect transistors 'M?A5ETs, to reduce siHe and /ower
consum/tion sti00 "urther* there%1 resu0tin# in com/0ementar1 meta0o2idesemiconductor
'@M?A, 0o#ic
5or sma00-sca0e 0o#ic* desi#ners now use /re"a%ricated 0o#ic #ates "rom "ami0ies o" de$ices such
as the TTD )400 series %1 Te2as Instruments and the @M?A 4000 series %1 -@=* and their more
recent descendants Increasin#01* these "i2ed-"unction 0o#ic #ates are %ein# re/0aced %1
/ro#ramma%0e 0o#ic de$ices* which a00ow desi#ners to /ack a 0ar#e num%er o" mi2ed 0o#ic #ates
into a sin#0e inte#rated circuit The "ie0d-/ro#ramma%0e nature o" /ro#ramma%0e 0o#ic de$ices
such as 5>:=s has remo$ed the ShardS /ro/ert1 o" hardwareZ it is now /ossi%0e to chan#e the
0o#ic desi#n o" a hardware s1stem %1 re/ro#rammin# some o" its com/onents* thus a00owin# the
"eatures or "unction o" a hardware im/0ementation o" a 0o#ic s1stem to %e chan#ed
E0ectronic 0o#ic #ates di""er si#ni"icant01 "rom their re0a1-and-switch equi$a0ents The1 are much
"aster* consume much 0ess /ower* and are much sma00er 'a00 %1 a "actor o" a mi00ion or more in
most cases, =0so* there is a "undamenta0 structura0 di""erence The switch circuit creates a
continuous meta00ic /ath "or current to "0ow 'in either direction, %etween its in/ut and its out/ut
The semiconductor 0o#ic #ate* on the other hand* acts as a hi#h-#ain $o0ta#e am/0i"ier* which
sinks a tin1 current at its in/ut and /roduces a 0ow-im/edance $o0ta#e at its out/ut It is not
/ossi%0e "or current to "0ow %etween the out/ut and the in/ut o" a semiconductor 0o#ic #ate
=nother im/ortant ad$anta#e o" standardiHed inte#rated circuit 0o#ic "ami0ies* such as the )400
and 4000 "ami0ies* is that the1 can %e cascaded This means that the out/ut o" one #ate can %e
wired to the in/uts o" one or se$era0 other #ates* and so on A1stems with $ar1in# de#rees o"
com/0e2it1 can %e %ui0t without #reat concern o" the desi#ner "or the interna0 workin#s o" the
#ates* /ro$ided the 0imitations o" each inte#rated circuit are considered
The out/ut o" one #ate can on01 dri$e a "inite num%er o" in/uts to other #ates* a num%er ca00ed
the S"anout 0imitS =0so* there is a0wa1s a de0a1* ca00ed the S/ro/a#ation de0a1S* "rom a chan#e in
in/ut o" a #ate to the corres/ondin# chan#e in its out/ut !hen #ates are cascaded* the tota0
/ro/a#ation de0a1 is a//ro2imate01 the sum o" the indi$idua0 de0a1s* an e""ect which can %ecome
a /ro%0em in hi#h-s/eed circuits =dditiona0 de0a1 can %e caused when a 0ar#e num%er o" in/uts
are connected to an out/ut* due to the distri%uted ca/acitance o" a00 the in/uts and wirin# and the
"inite amount o" current that each out/ut can /ro$ide
1YM2OL1
+ !:n.#ronou! ?7&it up=-o5n -e.a-e .ounter !:m&ol "C?L11H2$ in a..or-an.e 5it# +N1I=IEEE 1t-. H17
1HG? an- IEC Pu&li.ation B*B1C712.
There are two sets o" s1m%o0s "or e0ementar1 0o#ic #ates in common use* %oth de"ined in
=NAI(IEEE Atd +1-1+.4 and its su//0ement =NAI(IEEE Atd +1a-1++1 The Idistincti$e sha/eI
set* %ased on traditiona0 schematics* is used "or sim/0e drawin#s* and deri$es "rom MID-AT4-
.06 o" the 1+<0s and 1+60s It is sometimes uno""icia001 descri%ed as Imi0itar1I* re"0ectin# its
ori#in The Irectan#u0ar sha/eI set* %ased on IE@ 6061)-12 and other ear01 industr1 standards*
has rectan#u0ar out0ines "or a00 t1/es o" #ate and a00ows re/resentation o" a much wider ran#e o"
de$ices than is /ossi%0e with the traditiona0 s1m%o0s
F3G
The IE@Ss s1stem has %een ado/ted %1
other standards* such as EN 6061)-12E1+++ in Euro/e and CA EN 6061)-12E1+++ in the United
9in#dom
The #oa0 o" IEEE Atd +1-1+.4 was to /ro$ide a uni"orm method o" descri%in# the com/0e2 0o#ic
"unctions o" di#ita0 circuits with schematic s1m%o0s These "unctions were more com/0e2 than
sim/0e =N4 and ?- #ates The1 cou0d %e medium sca0e circuits such as a 4-%it counter to a
0ar#e sca0e circuit such as a micro/rocessor IE@ 61)-12 and its successor IE@ 6061)-12 do not
e2/0icit01 show the Idistincti$e sha/eI s1m%o0s* %ut do not /rohi%it them
F3G
These are* howe$er*
shown in =NAI(IEEE +1 'and +1a, with this noteE IThe distincti$e-sha/e s1m%o0 is* accordin# to
IE@ >u%0ication 61)* >art 12* not /re"erred* %ut is not considered to %e in contradiction to that
standardI This com/romise was reached %etween the res/ecti$e IEEE and IE@ workin# #rou/s
to /ermit the IEEE and IE@ standards to %e in mutua0 com/0iance with one another
= third st10e o" s1m%o0s was in use in Euro/e and is sti00 /re"erred %1 some* see the co0umn
I4IN 40)00I in the ta%0e in the :erman !iki/edia
In the 1+.0s* schematics were the /redominant method to desi#n %oth circuit %oards and custom
I@s known as #ate arra1s Toda1 custom I@s and the "ie0d-/ro#ramma%0e #ate arra1 are t1/ica001
desi#ned with ;ardware 4escri/tion Dan#ua#es ';4D, such as Reri0o# or R;4D
Type )i+tin,ti-e +hape Re,tan#lar +hape
Boolean al#ebra
bet.een A / B
Trth table
AN)
INPUT OUTPUT
+ 2 + +ND 2
* * *
* 1 *
1 * *
1 1 1
OR
INPUT OUTPUT
+ 2 + OR 2
* * *
* 1 1
1 * 1
1 1 1
NOT
INPUT OUTPUT
+ NOT +
* 1
1 *
In ele.troni.! a NOT gate i! more .ommonl: .alle- an inerter. T#e .ir.le on t#e !:m&ol i! .alle- a
bubble, an- i! u!e- in logi. -iagram! to in-i.ate a logi. negation &et5een t#e e>ternal logi. !tate an-
t#e internal logi. !tate "1 to * or i.e er!a$. On a .ir.uit -iagram it mu!t &e a..ompanie- &: a
!tatement a!!erting t#at t#e positive logic convention or negative logic convention i! &eing u!e- "#ig#
oltage leel 8 1 or #ig# oltage leel 8 *, re!pe.tiel:$. T#e edge i! u!e- in .ir.uit -iagram! to
-ire.tl: in-i.ate an a.tie7lo5 "#ig# oltage leel 8 *$ input or output 5it#out re9uiring a uni'orm
.onention t#roug#out t#e .ir.uit -iagram. T#i! i! .alle- Direct Polarit! Indication. 1ee IEEE 1t- H1=H1+
an- IEC B*B1C712. 2ot# t#e bubble an- t#e edge .an &e u!e- on -i!tin.tie7!#ape an- re.tangular7
!#ape !:m&ol! on .ir.uit -iagram!, -epen-ing on t#e logi. .onention u!e-. On pure logi. -iagram!,
onl: t#e bubble i! meaning'ul.
NAN)
INPUT OUTPUT
+ 2 + N+ND 2
* * 1
* 1 1
1 * 1
1 1 *
NOR
INPUT OUTPUT
+ 2 + NOR 2
* * 1
* 1 *
1 * *
1 1 *
0OR
INPUT OUTPUT
+ 2 + IOR 2
* * *
* 1 1
1 * 1
1 1 *
0NOR
or
INPUT OUTPUT
+ 2 + INOR 2
* * 1
* 1 *
1 * *
1 1 1
Two more #ates are the e2c0usi$e-?- or 6?- "unction and its in$erse* e2c0usi$e-N?- or
6N?- The two in/ut E2c0usi$e-?- is true on01 when the two in/ut $a0ues are different* "a0se i"
the1 are equa0* re#ard0ess o" the $a0ue I" there are more than two in/uts* the #ate #enerates a true
at its out/ut i" the num%er o" trues at its in/ut is odd 'F1G, In /ractice* these #ates are %ui0t "rom
com%inations o" sim/0er 0o#ic #ates
%idiscuss the "o00owin# E
timer*cascaded timer and on-o"" c1c0ic timer
Count-o5n Timer i! Du!t t#e .ount-o5n ta)en out o' t#e u!ual online7!top5at.#..om !top5at.# an-
.ount-o5n ga-get.
It ma)e! it ea!ier to get to t#e .ount-o5n J Mu.# &etter i' t#e .ount-o5n i! t#e onl: part :ou eer u!e.
1oon t#e ne5 .ount-o5n timer 5ill repla.e t#e one :ou !ee #ere 7 it 5ill allo5 :ou to u!e :our
)e:&oar- to enter t#e num&er!, an- to !tart or !top t#e timer.
iie2/0ain how the shi"t re#ister can %e used "ro
sequencin# e$ents
6aiwith the he0/ o" %0ock dia#ram*e2/0ain the main
com/onents o" a /ro#ramma%0e 0o#ic contro00er
iiwrite a short note on 3um/ contro0 used in >D@ usin# a
0adder dia#ram
%i a work /iece is 0oaded on a con$e1er %e0t and it is
o/erated %etween two 0imits o" tra$e0 = and C when the
0imit switch at = switch is acti$ated *the con$e1er mo$es
in a "orward direction an at station C is acti$ated* the
con$e1er mo$es in the re$erse direction/ressin# the start
%utton makes the motor to run in the "orward direction
and at sto/ %utton makes the motor to sto/ 4raw a
suita%0e 0adder dia#ram and e2/0ain the same0
ii0ist the "actors to %e considerd whi0e se0ectin# a >D@
)adraw timer circuit "or >D@ 0adder /ro#rammin# and
e2/0ain sequence o" o/eration
%how is /ro#ramma%0e 0o"ic contro00er used "or
countin#& E2/0ain with a sketch
.ae2/0ain /ro#ramma%0e 0o#ic contro00er o/eratin#
c1c0e
%e2/0ain the need o" /ro#ramma%0e 0o#ic contro00er in
modern industries
+adraw and e2/0ain the s1m%o0s used in the 0adder
dia#ram
Cwhat are the se0ection criteria o" /ro#ramma%0e 0o#ic
contro00er&
?r
10e2/0ain the architecture o" /ro#ramma%0e 0o#ic
contro00er with %0ock dia#ram
11aiwith the he0/ o" >D@ /ro#ram "or tank 0e$e0 contro0
wich is #i$e %e0owe2/0ain the /rocess
iidiscuss a%out in/ut(out/ut /rocessin# in >D@
?r
%ide$o0e/ a re0a1 %ased contro00er that wi00 a00ow three
switches in a room to contro0 a sin#0e 0i#ht and write
0adder /ro#ram "or this desi#n
iie2/0ain a%out data hand0in# in >D@
11de$ice a >D@ circuit "or the "o00owin# a//0icationE
@onsider a con$e1er %e0t that is to
%e used to trans/ort #oods "rom 0oadin# machine to
/acka#in# areawhen an item is 0oaded onto the con$e1er
%e0t* a contact switch mi#ht %e used to indicate that the
item is on the %e0t and start the con$e1er motorthe then
has to kee/ runnin# unti0 the item reaches the "ar end o"
the con$e1er and "a00s o" in the /acka#in# area !hen it
does this *a switch mi#ht %e acti$ated which has the e""ect
o" switchin# o"" the con$e1er motorthe motor is then to
remain o"" unti0 the ne2t item is 0oaded onto the %e0t
?r
% de$ice a >D@ circuit "or the "o00owin# a//0ication E
consider a sim/0e #oods 0i"t to
mo$e items "rom one 0e$e0 to another The 0i"t is to mo$e
u/wards when a /ush %utton is /ressed at the #round 0e$e0
to send the 0i"t u/wards or a /ush %utton is /ressed at the
u//er 0e$e0 to request then 0i"t to mo$e u/wards*%ut in
%oth case there is a condition that has to %e met that a
0imit switch indicates that acess #ate to the 0i"t /0at"orm is
c0osed
Unit <
1with a suita%0e e2am/0e* distin#uish %etween traditiona0
and mechatronic desi#n
A0 no Traditiona0 desi#n Mechatronic desi#n
1 It is %ased on the
s1stem such as
mechanica0*h1drau0ic
and /neumatic
It is %ased on the
mechanica0
*e0ectronics*com/uter
techno0o#1 and
contro0 en#ineerin#
2 Dess "0e2i%0e More "0e2i%0e
3 Dess accurate More accurate
4 More com/0icate
mechanism in desi#n
Dess com/0icate
mechanism in desi#n
< It in$o0$es more
com/onents and
mo$in# /arts
It in$o0$es "ewer
com/onents and
mo$in# /arts

2draw the %0ock dia#ram showin# the interaction o"

$arious e0ements in a domestic washin# machine
+ .a+hin# 1a,hine "lan2ry 1a,hine, ,lothe+ .a+her, or .a+her$ i! a ma.#ine to 5a!# laun-r:, !u.#
a! .lot#ing an- !#eet!. T#e term i! mo!tl: applie- onl: to ma.#ine! t#at u!e 5ater a! oppo!e- to -r:
.leaning "5#i.# u!e! alternatie .leaning 'lui-!, an- i! per'orme- &: !pe.iali!t &u!ine!!e!$ or ultra!oni.
.leaner!. 3a!#ing entail! immer!ing, -ipping, ru&&ing, or !.ru&&ing in 5ater u!uall: a..ompanie- &:
-etergent, or &lea.#. T#e !imple!t ma.#ine! ma: !impl: agitate .lot#e! in 5ater 5#ile !5it.#e- on(
automati. ma.#ine! ma: 'ill, empt:, 5a!#, !pin, an- #eat in a .:.le. Mo!t 5a!#ing ma.#ine! remoe
!u&!tantial amount! o' 5ater 'rom t#e laun-r: at t#e en- o' a 5a!# .:.le, &ut -o not .ompletel: -r:
it.
3+1HIN/
Man1 "ront 0oadin# machines ha$e interna0 e0ectrica0 heatin# e0ements to heat the wash water* to
near %oi0in# i" desired @hemica0 c0eanin# action o" the deter#ent and other 0aundr1 chemica0s
increases #reat01 with tem/erature !ashin# machine with interna0 heaters can use s/ecia0
deter#ents "ormu0ated to re0ease di""erent chemica0 in#redients at di""erent tem/eratures*
a00owin# di""erent t1/e o" stains and soi0s to %e c0eaned "rom the c0othes as the wash water is
heated u/ %1 the e0ectrica0 heater ;i#her-tem/erature washin# uses more ener#1* and man1
"a%rics are dama#ed at hi#her tem/eratures Tem/eratures e2ceedin# 40 ^@ ha$e the undesira%0e
e""ect o" inacti$atin# the enH1mes when usin# %io0o#ica0 deter#ent
Man1 machines are co0d-"i00* connected to co0d water on01* which the1 heat to o/eratin#
tem/erature !here water can %e heated more chea/01 or with 0ess car%on dio2ide emission than
%1 e0ectricit1* co0d-"i00 o/eration is ine""icient
5ront 0oaders need to use 0ow-sudsin# deter#ents %ecause the tum%0in# action o" the drum "o0ds
air into the c0othes 0oad that can cause o$er-sudsin# and o$er"0ows ;owe$er* due to e""icient use
o" water and deter#ent* the sudsin# issue with "ront-0oaders can %e contro00ed %1 sim/01 usin#
0ess deter#ent* without 0essenin# c0eanin# action
RIN1IN/
!ashin# machines /er"orm se$era0 rinses a"ter the main wash to remo$e most o" the deter#ent
Modern washin# machines use 0ess water due to en$ironmenta0 concernsZ howe$er* this has 0ed
to the /ro%0em o" /oor rinsin# on man1 washin# machines on the market*
F2.G
which can %e a
/ro%0em to /eo/0e who are sensiti$e to deter#ents The =00er#1 U9 we%site su##ests re-runnin#
the rinse c1c0e* or rerunnin# the entire wash c1c0e without deter#ent
F2+G
In res/onse to
com/0aints* man1 washin# machines a00ow the user to se0ect additiona0 rinse c1c0es* at the
e2/ense o" hi#her water usa#e and 0on#er c1c0e time
1PINNIN/
;i#her s/in s/eeds remo$e more water* 0eadin# to "aster dr1in# I" a heated c0othes-drier is used
a"ter the wash and s/in* ener#1 use is reduced i" more water has %een remo$ed "rom c0othes
;owe$er* "aster s/innin# can crease c0othes more =0so* mechanica0 wear on %earin#s increases
ra/id01 with rotationa0 s/eed* reducin# 0i"e Ear01 machines wou0d s/in at on01 300 ->M and*
%ecause o" 0ack o" an1 mechanica0 sus/ension* wou0d o"ten shake and $i%rate
Ear01 "ront-0oadin# machines* es/ecia001 those manu"actured in warm Mediterranean countries
such as Ita01* had 0ow ma2imum s/in s/eeds such as .00 ->M or 0ess Nowada1s* a s/in s/eed
o" 1200 ->M is common* and a /eak s/in s/eed as hi#h as 1600 ->M is a$ai0a%0e on man1
machines Aome current mode0s in Euro/e ha$e s/eeds o" 1.00 ->M* whi0e a "ew hi#h-end
washin# machines ha$e a s/in s/eed o" 2000 ->M
Man1 modern machines are equi//ed with an automatic c0othes 0oad %a0ancer* usin# a sea0ed
rin# o" $iscous 0iquid* that he0/s to counteract an1 out-o"-%a0ance distri%ution Cetter machines
ma1 inc0ude interna0 sus/ension and shock s1stems to reduce noise* and sensors and so"tware to
detect and correct an out-o"-%a0ance 0oad
5ront-0oadin# washers can %e si#ni"icant01 quieter durin# s/in than to/-0oaders %ecause o" the
0ack o" a nois1 #ear%o2 to dri$e the machineSs mo$in# /arts ;owe$er* %ecause the1 were not as
susce/ti%0e to #ra$itationa0 "orces and im%a0ances* some ear01 to/-0oadin# machines had s/in
s/eeds in e2cess o" 1000 ->M* a0thou#h some were as 0ow as 360 ->M Most UA to/-0oadin#
washers ha$e s/in s/eeds 0ess than 1000 ->M
Ae/arate s/in-driers* without washin# "unctiona0it1* are a$ai0a%0e "or s/ecia0ised a//0ications
5or e2am/0e* a sma00 hi#h-s/eed centri"u#e machine ma1 %e /ro$ided in 0ocker rooms o"
communa0 swimmin# /oo0s to a00ow wet %athin# costumes to %e su%stantia001 dried to a s0i#ht01
dam/ condition a"ter dai01 use
M+INTEN+NCE 3+1H
Man1 home washin# machines use a /0astic* rather than meta0* outer she00
F30G
to contain the wash
waterZ residue can %ui0d u/ on the /0astic tu% o$er time Aome manu"acturers ad$ise users to
/er"orm a re#u0ar maintenance or I"reshenin#I wash to c0ean the inside o" the washin# machine
o" an1 mo0d* %acteria* encrusted deter#ent* and uns/eci"ied dirt more e""ecti$e01 than with a
norma0 wash
= maintenance wash is /er"ormed without an1 0aundr1* on the hottest wash /ro#ramme*
F31G

addin# su%stances such as white $ine#ar* 100 #rams o" citric acid* a deter#ent with %0eachin#
/ro/erties* or a /ro/rietar1 washin# machine c0eaner The "irst in3ection o" water #oes into the
sum/
F32G
so the machine can %e a00owed to "i00 "or a%out 30 seconds %e"ore addin# c0eanin#
su%stances
@ommon washin# machine s/are /arts and t1/ica0 costs!ashin# machine /artT1/ica0 cost o"
re/0acement /art!hen 1ou mi#ht need to re/0ace it4IQ or 3o% "or a /ro"essiona0&Drum
paddles ? drum lifters
_10 - _1< eachI" the e2istin# /add0es are dama#ed or ha$e %roken
o""4IQDispenser drawer
_10 - _2<I" the e2istin# drawer is dama#ed4IQ)oses
_3 - _10 eachI" 1our e2istin# hoses are wearin# thin(start 0eakin#4IQDoor
2andle
_< - _1<I" the e2istin# door hand0e is %roken4IQDoor seal
_1< - _3<I" water is 0eakin# "rom the door o" 1our machine>ro"essiona0)eating
element
_20 - _)0 '%i# di""erence de/endin# on %rand,I" 1our heatin# e0ement is %roken -
ma1 need /ro"essiona0 to dia#nose>ro"essiona00otor pump
_10 - _.0 '%i# di""erence de/endin# on %rand,I" the water wonSt drain "rom 1our
machine* and the "i0ter and waste /i/e arenSt %0ocked>ro"essiona00otor brus2es
_10 - _3<I" the machine wi00 turn on %ut the drum wonSt s/in>ro"essiona0

3ie2/a0in the $arious mechatronics e0ements required to
desi#n an automated #uided $ehic0e
=n automated guided 4e2icle or automatic guided 4e2icle '=:R, is a mo%i0e ro%ot that
"o00ows markers or wires in the "0oor* or uses $ision or 0asers The1 are most o"ten used in
industria0 a//0ications to mo$e materia0s around a manu"acturin# "aci0it1 or a warehouse
=//0ication o" the automatic #uided $ehic0e has %roadened durin# the 0ate 20th centur1
:: *ntroduction :: =utomated #uided $ehic0es '=:Rs, increase e""icienc1 and reduce costs %1
he0/in# to automate a manu"acturin# "aci0it1 or warehouse The "irst =:R was in$ented %1
Carrett E0ectronics in 1+<3 The =:R can to) ob*ects %ehind them in trai0ers to which the1 can
autonomous01 attach The trai0ers can %e used to mo$e raw materia0s or "inished /roduct The
=:R can a0so store o%3ects on a %ed The o%3ects can %e /0aced on a set o" motoriHed ro00ers
'con$e1or, and then /ushed o"" %1 re$ersin# them =:Rs are em/0o1ed in near01 e$er1 industr1*
inc0udin#* /u0/* /a/er* meta0s* news/a/er* and #enera0 manu"acturin# Trans/ortin# materia0s
such as "ood* 0inen or medicine in hos/ita0s is a0so done
=n =:R can a0so %e ca00ed a 0aser #uided $ehic0e 'D:R, In :erman1 the techno0o#1 is a0so
ca00ed +ahrerlose Transports#steme '5TA, and in Aweden f,rarl,sa truckar Dower cost $ersions
o" =:Rs are o"ten ca00ed =utomated :uided @arts '=:@s, and are usua001 #uided %1 ma#netic
ta/e =:@s are a$ai0a%0e in a $ariet1 o" mode0s and can %e used to mo$e /roducts on an
assem%01 0ine* trans/ort #oods throu#hout a /0ant or warehouse* and de0i$er 0oads The "irst
=:R was %rou#ht to market in the 1+<0s* %1 Carrett E0ectronics o" North%rook* I00inois* and at
the time it was sim/01 a tow truck that "o00owed a wire in the "0oor instead o" a rai0 ?$er the
1ears the techno0o#1 has %ecome more so/histicated and toda1 automated $ehic0es are main01
Daser na$i#ated e# D:R 'Daser :uided Rehic0e, In an automated /rocess* D:Rs are
/ro#rammed to communicate with other ro%ots to ensure /roduct is mo$ed smooth01 throu#h the
warehouse* whether it is %ein# stored "or "uture use or sent direct01 to shi//in# areas Toda1* the
=:R /0a1s an im/ortant ro0e in the desi#n o" new "actories and warehouses* sa"e01 mo$in#
#oods to their ri#ht"u0 destination
=utomated :uided Rehic0es mo$e routine and on-demand de0i$eries o" %u0k materia0s "or
hea0thcare* /harmaceutica0 industr1 and warehouse distri%ution centers
=utomated #uided $ehic0es o""er man1 %ene"its* such as redirectin# o/eratin# costs throu#h
schedu0ed trans/ort* reducin# the /otentia0 "or in3ur1 %1 e0iminatin# manua0 trans/ort* and
ensurin# the time01 de0i$er1 o" materia0s
1upplie- &:: NDC +utomation
+utomate- /ui-e- %e#i.le! 7 Cu!tom De!igne-
NDC H+1 O%ER ?* YE+R1 EIPERIENCE IN 20ILDIN/ +ND DE1I/NIN/ +0TOM+TED
/0IDED %EHICLE1.
!e ha$e a 0ar#e ran#e o" standard =:R mode0s ca/a%0e o" carr1in# standard 0oads throu#h an1
"aci0it1 Aome %usiness howe$er are outside the standard and require s/ecia0ised equi/ment and
s/ecia0ised e2/ertise N4@ =utomation can o""er 1ou %oth
!e can work with 1ou to desi#n a unique $ehic0e /er"ect01 suited to 1our "aci0it1 and 1our
o/erations -e#ard0ess o" the s/eci"ications unique 0oadin# and un0oadin# /rocedures* odd01
sha/ed 0oad con"i#urations* ti#ht s/ace constraints* cha00en#in# en$ironmenta0 conditions we
can /ro$ide 1ou with a so0ution
?ur =:R desi#ners wi00 work with 1ou to ensure e$er1 /art o" 1our custom $ehic0e* "rom the
chassis to the runnin# 0i#hts* is matched to the "unctiona0it1 1ou require
A/F features and benefits
1 E""icient automated materia0 "0ow
2 24() materia0 trans/ort ca/a%i0it1
3 -educe de/endence u/on manua0 0a%or
4 Uti0iHe e2istin# ri#ht-o"-wa1s
< MinimiHe /otentia0 "or in3uries
6 ;ea$1 wei#ht 0i"tin# ca/a%i0it1
) Easi01 recon"i#ure chan#es in 0a1out or "unction
4ae2/0ain the mechatronic s1stem used in an automatic
camera with a neat %0ok dia#ram
2LOC, DI+/R+M
@0ick on the co0ored %0ocks to $iew or sam/0e recommended so0utions
DE1I/N CON1IDER+TION1
?$er the 0ast "ew 1ears* di#ita0 cameras ha$e %ecome more and more so/histicated ena%0in#
man1 ad$anced "eatures inc0udin# noise "i0terin#* instant red-e1e remo$a0* hi#h-qua0it1 /rints
e2tracted "rom $ideo* ima#e and $ideo sta%i0iHation* in-camera editin# o" /ictures and wire0ess
transmission o" /hotos
Te2as Instruments has a 0on# histor1 o" /ro$idin# e2/ertise and su/erior /roducts to the $ideo
market TISs com/rehensi$e so0utions co$er the entire $ideo chain e$er1thin# "rom the initia0
ca/ture o" $ideo content to the "ina0 $iewin# e2/erience TISs o/timiHed di#ita0 camera so0utions*
a0on# with a so/histicated and eas1-to-use de$e0o/ment en$ironment* ena%0e camera
manu"acturers to ad$ance ne2t-#eneration di#ita0 /hoto#ra/h1

<e2/0ain with a dia#ram how a micro contro00er can %e

used to contro0 so0enoid $a0$es to actuate a ro%ot unit
The Weapons Module shall have as input an R/C servo signal, and shall activate
either of two solenoids based on that input. When the input signal is at 75% of its
full etension, !olenoid "# shall activate, when that signal drops below $$% of its
full etension !olenoid "# shall deactivate. When the servo signal eceeds 75% of
its full retraction, !olenoid "% shall activate. &nd at $$% of full retraction
!olenoid "% shall deactivate. 'f a signal that is less than $$% of full etension or
retraction is received, or no signal is received for %( )!, both solenoids shall be
deactivated.
The relationship between the input and the solenoid activation is shown in *igure #
below.
*igure #+ Relationship of ,ulse 'nput to !olenoid &ctivation
&s -ou can see fro) the figure there is a s)all deadband around neutral. This is
not strictl- necessar- however it has been )- eperience that for those
applications that re.uire a neutral in their operation, it is better to )a/e the value
for neutral a bit 0fu11-0. This insures that stic/s on R/C trans)itters that don0t
go bac/ to their eact location still show up as neutral on the controller. M- *utaba
2,34!uper can be off b- up to 5 u! on the wheel when -ou 5ust let it go and it
atte)pts to self center.
The other aspect that isn0t captured well in the figure is that the solenoids
activate when -ou go to 75% but onl- de4activate when -ou drop below $$%. This is
called h-steresis. 6-steresis prevents oscillations right around the activation point
and de4activation point fro) occurring. ')agine that -our trans)itter was putting
out eactl- 75%. Then if it dipped slightl- below and up again, and there was no
h-steresis, then the solenoid would turn on4off4on4off rapidl-. *urther when its
turning off -ou don0t want it to suddenl- snap bac/ on. 7- setting the activation
and deactivation points as ' have the solenoid responds reliabl- to the input signal,
even in nois- environ)ents.
!8!T9M C:;*'<=R&T':;
*or this )odule, -ou should hoo/ it up as shown net in *igure %.
*igure %. 6oo/ing up the T!< as a Weapons Module
'n the figure, the nu)ber in parenthesis reflects the pin nu)ber of the connector
to which that signal is connected. *or all of the connectors, pin # is the top )ost
pin.
The input voltage should be the voltage that -our solenoids need to activate >or if
-ou are using rela-s, the rela- coil voltage?. T-picall- this will be $, #%, or %@ volts
AC. 'f -ou are using %@ volts AC and not using a )ounting brac/et, then ' strongl-
reco))end -ou put a heat sin/ on the voltage regulator as it will get fairl- hot and
the last thing -ou want is the controller resetting in the )iddle of the actionB
Re)e)ber that there is an upper li)it of 2$ volts on the regulator and the T' chip
so if -ou are using a @CD s-ste) then -ou can0t use this board directl-. 'nstead
-ou will need to switch a rela- using this board and have the rela- switch the @CD
to the s-ste).
*inal note on the configuration, if the 5u)per above 3# E 3% is installed the board
will provide 5D to power -our receiver, if -ou don0t install that 5u)per then this pin
is not connected to the circuit.
6* discuss %rie"01 the "o00owin# mechatronics s1stem
I ,/ick-and-/0ace ro%ot
Pick and Place RobotsE (obot pic3 and place automation s/eeds u/ the /rocess o" /ickin#
/arts u/ and /0acin# them in new 0ocations* whi0e a0so increasin# /roduction rates
These pic3 and place robots are more accurate and do not "ati#ue whi0e doin# %ack-%reakin# or
hard to maneu$er mo$ements that ma1 %e di""icu0t "or humans
The consistenc1* qua0it1 and re/eata%i0it1 o" a pic3 and place robot s5stem is unmatched
These s1stems are a0so $ersati0e and can %e re/ro#rammed and too0ed to /ro$ide mu0ti/0e
a//0ications "or consumers
=n increase in out/ut with a pic3 and place robot s5stem o""er 0on#-term sa$in#s to com/anies
!ith the ad$ancements in techno0o#1 and a""orda%i0it1 o" ro%ots* more /ick and /0ace ro%otic
ce00s are %ein# insta00ed "or automation a//0ications
Pic3 and place robot wor3 cells are amon# the most /o/u0ar materia0 hand0in# s1stems The1
/ro$ide de/enda%0e so0utions "or /roduction 0ines >ic3 and place robot wor3 cells /er"orm
tedious* re/etiti$e tasks with ease* s/eed and accurac1
(obotwor= integrates pic3 and place robots with 0ower costs and 100` customer satis"action
Each ro%ot comes with a "u00 warrant1* trainin# and technica0 su//ort -o%ot!or2 se00s new and
reconditioned /ick and /0ace ro%ots "rom manu"acturers such as Motoman* 5anuc* and 9U9=*
as we00 as se$era0 others
)what are the $arious sta#es in mechatronics s1stem
desi#n& E2/0ain in detai0
Need o" desi#n
=na01sis o" /ro%0em
>re/aration o" s/eci"ication
:eneration o" /ossi%0e so0ution
Ae0ection o" suita%0e so0ution
>roduction o" detai0ed desi#n
>roduction o" workin# drawin#
Im/0ementation o" desi#n
0ec2atronics is a desi#n /rocess that inc0udes a com%ination o" mechanica0 en#ineerin#*
e0ectrica0 en#ineerin#* contro0 en#ineerin# and com/uter en#ineerin#
F1GF2G
Mechatronics is a
mu0tidisci/0inar1 "ie0d o" en#ineerin#* that is to sa1* it re3ects s/0ittin# en#ineerin# into se/arate
disci/0ines ?ri#ina001* mechatronics 3ust inc0uded the com%ination o" mechanics and e0ectronics*
hence the word is a com%ination o" mec2anics and e0ectronicsZ howe$er* as technica0 s1stems
ha$e %ecome more and more com/0e2 the word has %een Iu/datedI durin# recent 1ears to
inc0ude more technica0 areas
5rench standard N5 E 01-010 #i$es the "o00owin# de"initionE [a//roach aimin# at the s1ner#istic
inte#ration o" mechanics* e0ectronics* contro0 theor1* and com/uter science within /roduct desi#n
and manu"acturin#* in order to im/ro$e and(or o/timiHe its "unctiona0it1I
.aciscuss in detai0 a%out sma00 mo%i0e ro%ot with neat
sketches
= mobile robot is an automatic machine that is ca/a%0e o" mo$ement in an1 #i$en en$ironment
+ !p:ing ro&ot i! an e>ample o' a mo&ile ro&ot .apa&le o' moement in a gien enironment.
E1F
Mo%i0e ro%ots ha$e the ca/a%i0it1 to mo$e around in their en$ironment and are not "i2ed to one
/h1sica0 0ocation In contrast* industria0 ro%ots usua001 consist o" a 3ointed arm 'mu0ti-0inked
mani/u0ator, and #ri//er assem%01 'or end e""ector, that is attached to a "i2ed sur"ace
Mo%i0e ro%ots are a ma3or "ocus o" current research and a0most e$er1 ma3or uni$ersit1 has one or
more 0a%s that "ocus on mo%i0e ro%ot research Mo%i0e ro%ots are a0so "ound in industr1* mi0itar1
and securit1 en$ironments 4omestic ro%ots are consumer /roducts* inc0udin# entertainment
ro%ots and those that /er"orm certain househo0d tasks such as $acuumin# or #ardenin#
?r
+e2/0ain a%out en#ine mana#ement s1stem "or a 4-stroke
en#ine
Casic En#ine Mana#ement A1stem or EMA is a se0" contained custom %ui0t com/uter which
contro0s the runnin# o" an en#ine %1 monitorin# the en#ine s/eed* 0oad and tem/erature and
/ro$idin# the i#nition s/ark at the ri#ht time "or the /re$ai0in# conditions and meterin# the "ue0
to the en#ine in the e2act quantit1 required
There are two discrete su%s1stems in o/eration within the En#ine Mana#ement A1stem* the "ue0
or in3ection s1stem and the i#nition s1stem It is /ossi%0e to run an en#ine mana#ement s1stem
which 3ust /ro$ides one o" these su%s1stems* "or e2am/0e 3ust the i#nition s1stem It is much
more common to use the ma//ed i#nition within an En#ine Mana#ement A1stem in iso0ation
than it is to use 3ust the in3ection
Casica001* an en#ine mana#ement s1stem is an e0ectronic contro0 unit 'E@U, which recei$es
si#na0s "rom $arious sensors* makes ca0cu0ations and then sends out/ut si#na0s to carr1 out
$arious o/erations and "unctions around and within the en#ine It works %1 recei$in# in"ormation
"rom se$era0 or one sensor around the $ehic0e and then uses the in"ormation to make decisions
and carr1 out certain actions in the $ehic0e It reduces emissions and achie$es %etter "ue0
econom1
10ae2/0ain a%out desi#n o" a mechatronics s1stem
considerin# wire0ess sur$ei0ence %a00ons as an e2am/0e

Aur$ei00ance Ca00oonsE =n Indian >ers/ecti$e
ith the e$er #rowin# threat o" terrorism the needs "or a moreeconomic method o"
sur$ei00ance toconstant01 monitor
0ar#e areas o" concern
kee/s on #rowin#@on$entiona0 sur$ei00ance s1stems*%oth wired and wire0ess*
%ecomeuneconomica0 when the su%3ect area isa 0ar#e o/en 0and mass where
ano$era00 %road /ers/ecti$e $iew isim/ortant It is in such domains o" sur$ei00ance
that aeria0 sur$ei00ance%ecomes %oth necessar1 andeconomica0 This artic0e
e$a0uates the"easi%i0it1 o" usin# =erostats ortethered %a00oons as /0at"orms
"orcarr1in# sur$ei00ance cameras andtheir use"u0ness "or %oth mi0itar1 andci$i0
o/erations in an Indian/ers/ecti$e
=erostats* a0so sometimes re"erred to as ca/ti$e%a00oons are tethered Di#hter-than-
=ir 'DT=,/0at"orms "i00ed with either ;e0ium or ;1dro#enwhich he0/s them sta1
a0o"t in air due to%uo1anc1 Their re0ati$e chea/ness and ease o" maintenance
makes them an attracti$e o/tion to%e considered as a /0at"orm "or
carr1in#sur$ei00ance camera /a10oads hi#h-u/ in the airto o%tain a %roader
/ers/ecti$e $iew o" the tar#etarea= more common term known to us is
the[airshi/sa which are a0so DT= $ehic0es with thedi""erence that the1 are not
tethered* and arethere"ore contro00ed either manua001 or remote01and /ro/e00ed
"orward %1 di""erent means Inother words* =irshi/s are sim/01 the
DT=re/0acement "or hea$ier-than-air ';T=, $ehic0es0ike air/0anes and he0ico/ters
The third kind o" DT= /0at"orms is the ;1%rid =irshi/s which aremain01 airshi/s
with a 0i"tin# %od1 so that e2traaerod1namic 0i"t is #enerated as the airshi//ro/e0s
itse0" throu#h air
Need "or =erostats in the /resentscenario
=s the threat o" terrorism #rows* a common/re$ai0in# need o" sur$ei00ance is to
monitor0ar#e areas o" concern in the ci$i0 sector with a#enera0 o$era00 /ers/ecti$e
rather than acquirin#/in-/oint detai0 @onsider the case o" ane2hi%ition %ein# he0d
at >ra#ati Maidan :roundsin New 4e0hi Take "or e2am/0e the Internationa0Trade
5air current01 %ein# he0d in 4e0hi* wherearound 30 0akh /eo/0e $isited the 14 da1
0on#"air Now monitorin# a00 these /eo/0e so0e01throu#h sur$ei00ance cameras
mounted on /o0esand e2hi%ition wa00s* %ecomes a $er1 tedious anuneconomica0
task The re0ati$e e""icienc1 sti00remains 0ow The 4e0hi >o0ice is usin# around.<0
armed /ersonne0 a0on# with 4 com/anies o" /arami0itar1 "orces* a00 aided %1 <0
@@TRcameras insta00ed at critica0 areas Thou#h this isa "air01 ti#ht securit1
insta00ation* the 0e$e0 o" situationa0 awareness remains 0ow 5or e2am/0e*i" we ha$e
to track a trou%0e-maker runnin# awa1"rom a scene* owin# to the 0ar#e crowd o"
/eo/0e*the task is "air01 di""icu0t The task howe$er%ecomes re0ati$e01 eas1 i" we
ha$e a %roader/ers/ecti$e $iew o" the area usin# an aeria001mounted camera
=#ain* i" "or some reason* astam/ede occurs* situationa0 awareness #ained
11e2/0ain a%out mechatronic s1stem desi#n o" an
automatic car /ark %arrier
E2?A* P+R,IN/ 2+RRIER1 C+N E+1ILY INTE/R+TE 3ITH RE%EN0E COLLECTION +ND
+CCE11 CONTROL 1Y1TEM1. E2?A* P+R,IN/ 2+RRIER1 +RE +0TOM+TIC
2+RRIER1 10ITED TO 1T+ND+RD RO+D 3IDTH1 +ND +RE RECOMMENDED 4OR
P+R,IN/ CONTROL +ND +CCE11 TO 1PECI4IC P+R,IN/ +RE+1.
=$on EC4<0 /arkin# %arriersS stand 113<mm a%o$e "oundation 0e$e0* with the /arkin# contro0
%arrierSs risin# arm a0so known as a %oom* .40mm a%o$e "oundation 0e$e0 The %arriers hea$1
dut1 motor /0ate su//orts the 100` dut1 c1c0e /ermanent ca/acitor 4 /o0e TE5@ motor which
/ro$ides the /ower "or the sinusoida0 dri$e mechanism $ia an industria0 #rade 0ow ratio #ear%o2
Two hea$1 dut1 %earin#s su//ort the dri$e sha"t* this ha$in# 2 machined cams to acti$ate the
ad3usta%0e 0imit switches to contro0 the %oom tra$e0
The automatic /arkin# %arriers hin#ed 0ocka%0e stee0 to/ co$er /ro$ides access to the dri$e
mechanism The /arkin# contro0 %arriers ca%inet houses the %arrier S/arkin# 0o#icS contro0 /ane0
/ro$idin# the necessar1 /ower su//01 iso0ator* "uses* therma0 o$er0oad tri/s and motor
contactors
=n inte#ra0 su//ort is /ro$ided to maintain the /arkin# %arriers arm a0so known as %oom in the
horiHonta0 /osition* %ut an ad3usta%0e s/rin# 0oaded end stead1 can %e su//0ied i" required
It is recommended that automatic /arkin# %arriers are secured to the "oundations usin# 4 nos
M12 2 160mm chemica0 anchors
5or sa"et1 reasons /edestrians* c1c0ists and motorc1c0es are ad$ised not to use a %arrier
contro00ed roadwa1* additiona0 sa"et1 measures can %e incor/orated into the %arrier s1stem i"
required
=$on EC4<0 >arkin# Carriers can %e inter"aced with e2istin# or new access contro0 s1stems
/ro$idin# secure access to 1our car /ark or restricted /arkin# areas* the1 are "ast actin#
automatic /arkin# contro0 %arriers