Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

Session Two:
Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design
Author: Rohit Narayan
Presenter: Chris Holst
ERICO

Abstract: This paper captures the fundamental principles of earthing electrode

design, earthing system resistance and soil resistivity measurements and
computations. It will form a basis for understanding the reasoning behind incumbent
earthing practices and will act a guideline to engineers trying to grasp the essence of
earthing system design.
Introduction
The fundamentals of earthing electrode design, are seldom taught as part of the
curriculum in universities and colleges. These days we are also seeing a diminishing
level of formal training offered in the work place on this subject. As such, most new
engineers would have to self-educate on this subject. A lot of information is available
within various standards about earthing electrode resistance and soil resistivity
testing. A remarkable amount of information is also available in older publications
from Power Utilities around the world. This paper attempts to cover the fundamentals
of earthing electrode design in a single document and is good starting point for
someone who is a novice on the subject but also for engineers who are looking for a
quick reference. It will cover:
1. Explanation of what soil resistivity and earth resistance is.
2. Effect of soil resistivity and electrode dimension on the earth resistance.
3. Calculation of earth resistance from known dimensions and soil resistivity
measurements
4. Discussion on parallel earth electrodes and calculation of resistance for
parallel ground rods.
5. Methods of testing soil resistivity and earth resistance.
6. Post installation measurement of step and touch voltages
7. Discussion on the advantages and disadvantages on common earth
improvement techniques including the use of soluble compounds,
Bentonite, GEM and chemical earth rods.
8. Examples of how modern software can be used to make complex
computations of step and touch voltages.
9. Graphics showing commonly used grounding components including
ground rods, couplers, earth mats and connectors.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

1) Distribution of Voltage in Ground- Sheath Theory

To understand grounding principles the first thing that we will consider is how the
voltage is distributed in the mass of earth when a current is injected into a vertical
ground rod. The intuitive understanding of this will enable us to better appreciate
why electrode designs are done a certain way. For example, this will help us to
understand why we would use deeper earth electrodes or radial electrodes.
The soil is not uniform in its conductivity and this factor must be accounted for in the
design of the earth electrode system. However, to develop an understanding of the
principles of the current flow and the voltage distribution in the soil we will use a
graphical model assuming uniform soil. This is called the sheath theory of expanding
soil conductivity. In Figure 1 the hemispherical sheaths depict imaginary equipotential
lines formed in the soil when a current is injected into a vertical ground rod.

2) The Electrode Resistance

The electrode resistance is that resistance offered to the flow of current into the
ground down to the expanse where the resistance of the ground becomes so low that
it becomes negligible.
Consider the cut away section of the sheaths surrounding the earth electrode in
Figure 1. In simple terms this resistance can be explained by the following
relationship.
R 1/A
where R is the resistance and A the area of each of the sheaths.
As the distance from the ground rod increases, the surface area of the sheaths, get
larger. This means that at some distance, the additional soil area has negligible effect
on the ground resistance.
It is for this reason, when measuring earth resistance to a remote earth, the test only
needs to be confined to few tens, perhaps a few hundred of metres. For example:
When testing a single 2-metre electrode, the test is referenced to remote earth at
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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

distance of about 40 metres. Any greater reference distance than this would add
insignificantly to the resistance. Testing of earth resistance is discussed in more
detail later in this paper.
It is easier to see which dimensions of the earth electrode will have a greater impact
on the electrode resistance, if we consider what happens to the area of the
hemispherical sheaths. In Figure 2, we see that when the electrode is made longer,
the area increases significantly. Hence 1/A reduces giving us a reduction in the earth
resistance. However, if the diameter of the ground rod is increased, this offers very
little change in the area of the hemispherical shells and hence little changes in the
resistance.

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This intuitive understanding can be extended to horizontal electrodes. It can be seen

in Figure 3 that making a horizontal electrode longer will increase the surface area of
the sheaths surrounding it. Hence longer electrodes rather than deeper electrodes,
will give a greater reduction in the electrode resistance.

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Another factor that will have an impact on the earth resistance is the conductivity or
resistivity of the soil. It is this factor that makes it impossible to have a one size fits
all earthing design for different sites.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

3) Soil Resistivity
Soil resistivity is another name for the specific resistance of the soil. It is measured in
ohm-metres or ohm centimetres. An ohm-metre is that resistivity of the soil when it
has a resistance of 1 ohm between opposite faces of a cube with 1 m sides.
Resistance is directly proportional to soil resistivity. This relationship is not as easy to
compute in real life as it may sound, because soil resistivity will inevitably vary with
depth. The second difficulty in dealing with different locations is that the resistivity
can vary greatly across a large site and from one site to another.
The tables below give an idea of the resistivity of several mediums that are of interest
for the design of grounding system.
MATERIAL

TYPICAL RESITIVITY

Copper

1.72 x 10-8 ohm.m

GEM, Material

0.12 ohm.m

Bentonite

2.5 ohm.m

Concrete

30 to 90 ohm.m

Factors that will affect the resistivity of the soil are the soil type, compactness,
chemical composition, temperature and water content. Figure 4 shows the effect of
moisture content and temperature on soil resistivity.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

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4) Measurement of Soil Resistivity

There are several methods of measuring the soil resistivity. These include
1) Wenner Array 4 point Method
2) Schlumberger Array
3) Driven Rod Method
The Wenner Array method is discussed in this paper because this is the most
common method of measuring soil resistivity. The scope of this document does not
allow detailed discussion on other soil testing methods.
Using the Wenner Array method, four small electrodes (auxiliary probes) are placed
in a straight line at intervals of a, to a depth of b. A current is passed through the
outer two probes, and the potential voltage is then measured between the two inner
probes. A simple Ohms Law equation determines the resistance. From this
information, it is now possible to calculate the resistivity of the local soil. For most
practical circumstances, a is twenty times larger than b, where we can then make the
assumption that b=0.
Then the Resistivity () is given by: = 2 a Re
Where:

= resistivity of the local soil (-m)

a = distance between probes (m)

b = depth of probes into the ground (m)
Re = resistance value measured by the testing device ()
These values give an average resistivity of the soil to a depth a. It is recommended
that a series of readings be taken at different values of a, as well as in a 90o turned
axis. It is a good practice to tabulate or plot the results because that gives a good
idea of how the resistivity is changing with depth and will indicate the best type of
earthing electrode system to design for the subject site.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

For example, if the resistivity is very high at the top 3 metres but drastically drops
after that depth, the designer would specify electrodes that are driven or drilled to
deeper than 3 metres. Conversely if the resistance does not improve beyond a
certain depth, say 2 metres, then horizontal electrodes may be considered in the
earth electrode design because installing deeper electrodes would yield diminishing
returns.

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Figure 6 shows a typical record sheet for resistivity measurements. Experience has
shown that many people performing soil resistivity tests do not have a full
appreciation of the extent to which the test needs to be carried out. It is often noted
that only a single or a handful of values are measured. It is recommended that for the
design of an earthing electrode system a comprehensive set of results in the range
from 2-40metres should be requested.
SPACING a

Measured
Value of Re

2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
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Resistivity R =
2 a Re

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

5) Calculating the Earth Electrode Resistance of a Single Rod.

The resistance from the electrode to remote earth can either be calculated using
empirical formulae, by using nomograms or by the use of software.
Examples of available formulae are contained in AS1768 Lightning protection
Standard, Appendix C. The formulae listed below, extracted from AS1768, are the
two most commonly used.

Traditionally software programs have been able to carry out earthing electrode
system designs using two-layer models of soil resistivity. That means that resistivity
measured had to be averaged out to two values with corresponding depths. Modern
software can take multiple layer resistivity values as inputs.
In fact, the real value of software is not so much in computing resistance values for
single or a few electrodes as this can be done easily with formulae. Software can be
powerful tools for calculating resistance of multiple electrodes, step and touch
voltages and also simulating fault current injection.
Another method of calculating the resistance of a single earth rod, when the
dimensions and the resistivity are known is using nomograms. In the example in
Figure 7, a 7m earth rod, of diameter 10mm will produce a resistance of 7.6 ohms if
the reading from the Wenner 4 point test is 1 ohm.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

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6) Calculating the Earth Electrode Resistance of Multiple Ground Rods

When electrodes are used in parallel it may seem at first that the resistance could be
calculated by simple equation 1/R = 1/R1+ 1/R2+ 1/R3. However
when one takes a closer look at the sheath theory discussed earlier, it becomes
evident that the spacing between the electrodes may have some impact on the
combined resistance. This is because the hemispherical sheaths of the electrodes
will overlap each other and the overlap area has to be considered in the calculations.
In the extreme case, if two electrodes are as close together as physically possible the
size of the sheath offered by them will be similar to the sheath offered by one
electrode. The combined resistance of the two electrodes will be similar to that of one
electrode if they are installed very close together.

Figure 8 Parallel Ground Rods

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

Rules of thumb and utilisation factors are used in everyday calculations to quickly
compute parallel resistances without excessive analysis.
For example when two electrodes are placed 1 electrode length apart, 85% utilisation
of their parallel resistance is achieved. When these electrodes are 2 electrodes apart,
92 % utilisation is achieved. We sometimes see a rule of thumb used in practice that
states that the electrode spacing needs to be at least twice the electrode depth,
based on this utilisation.
Prior to the existence of software to carry out calculations, nomograms were the
incumbent method of calculating resistance of multiple electrode systems. There is
no reason that these cannot be used today for quick calculations.
Figure 9 shows a nomogram that can be used to design a multiple electrode system
if the resistance of one electrode was known through calculation or measurement.
This has been extracted from the Handbook of the Electricity Authority of NSW,
1973.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

The calculation of the electrode resistance for multiple ground rod systems is quite
easy when using modern software. It is essentially a matter of inputting the soil
resistivity, electrode dimensions and the grid size layout and it will churn out a
number without too much fuss.
7) Measurement of Electrode Resistance
When an electrode system has been designed and installed, it is usually necessary
to measure and confirm the earth resistance between the electrode and true Earth.
The most commonly used method of measuring the earth resistance of an earth
electrode is the 3-point measuring technique shown in Figure 10. This method is
derived from the 4-point method, which is used for soil resistivity measurements.

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The 3-point method, called the fall of potential method, comprises the earth
electrode to be measured labelled E (electrode) and two other electrically
independent test electrodes, usually labelled P (potential) and C (current). These
test electrodes can be of lesser quality (higher earth resistance) but must be
electrically independent of the electrode to be measured. An alternating current (I) is
passed between electrodes E and C through the soil while a voltage measurement is
taken between E and P. The resistance from E to true earth, remote earth or
general mass of earth is simply calculated using Ohms Law; Rg = V/I, internally by
the test equipment.
When performing a measurement, the aim is to position the auxiliary test electrode C
far enough away from the earth electrode under test so that the auxiliary test
electrode P will lay outside the effective resistance areas of both the earth system
and the other test electrode (see Figure 11). If the current test electrode, C, is too
close, the resistance areas will overlap and there will be a steep variation in the
measured resistance as the voltage test electrode is moved. If the current test
electrode is correctly positioned, there will be a flat (or very nearly so) resistance
area somewhere in between it and the earth system, and variations in the position of
the voltage test electrode should only produce very minor changes in the resistance
figure.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

Measurement accuracy can be affected by the proximity of other buried metal objects
to the auxiliary test electrodes. Fences, buildings, buried metal pipes or even other
earthing systems can interfere with the measurement and introduce errors. Often it
is difficult to judge, merely from visual inspection of the site, a suitable location for the
tests stakes and so it is always advisable to perform more than one measurement to
ensure the accuracy of the test.
Fall of Potential Method
This is one of the most common methods employed for the measurement of earth
resistance and is best suited to small systems that dont cover a wide area. It is
simple to carry out and requires a minimal amount of calculation to obtain a result.
The outer test electrode, or current test stake, is driven into the ground a good
distance away from the earth system, This distance will depend on the size of the
system being tested and the inner electrode, or voltage test stake, is then driven into
the ground mid-way between the earth electrode and the current test stake, and in a
direct line between them.
Maximum dimension
across earth system, m

Distance from electrical

centre of earth system to
voltage test stake, m

Minimum distance from

electrical centre of earth
system to current test stake.
m

15

30

20

40

30

60

10

43

85

20

60

120

50

100

200

100

140

280

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

The Fall of Potential method incorporates a check to ensure that the test electrodes
are indeed positioned far enough away for a correct reading to be obtained. It is
advisable that this check be carried out, as it is really the only way of confirming the
accuracy of the test results.
To perform a check on the resistance figure, two additional measurements should be
made; the first with the voltage test electrode (P) moved 10% of the original voltage
electrode-to-earth system separation away from its initial position, and the second
with it moved a distance of 10% closer than its original position, as shown in Figure
13.

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If these two additional measurements are in agreement with the original

measurement, within the required level of accuracy, then the test stakes have been
correctly positioned and the DC resistance figure can be obtained by averaging the
three results. However, if there is substantial disagreement amongst any of these
results, then it is likely that the stakes have been incorrectly positioned, either by
being too close to the earth system being tested, too close to one another or too
close to other structures that are interfering with the results. The stakes should be
repositioned at a larger separation distance or in a different direction and the three
measurements repeated. This process should be repeated until a satisfactory result
is achieved.
The Slope Method
This method is suitable for use with large earthing systems, such as sub-stations. It
involves taking a number of resistance measurements at various earth electrode to
voltage electrode separations and then plotting a curve of the resistance variation
between the earth and the current. From this graph, and from data obtained from
tables, it is possible to calculate the theoretical optimum location for the voltage
electrode and thus, from the resistance curve, calculate the true resistance.
It is similar to the fall of potential method
but several readings are taken by moving
the inner test electrode (P) from very close
to the earth grid to the position of the outer
test electrode. The readings obtained are
then plotted on a graph. Figure 14 shows
and example of the graph obtained. It can
be observed that at approximately 60% of
the distance the slope is the gentlest and
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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

the resistance corresponding to this is the true resistance of the electrode being
measured. In this case it is 20 ohms.
For full details of this method, refer to paper 62975, written by Dr G.F. Tagg, taken
from the proceedings of IEE volume 117, No 11, Nov. 1970.
8) Soil Improvement Techniques
In areas of very high soil resistivity, low resistance cannot be achieved through the
use of buried and driven earth electrodes alone. There are four techniques commonly
used for the improvement of soil. These include:

Use of soluble additives like common salt or copper sulphate

Use of bentonite or bentonite-gypsum mixture
Use of GEM, Ground Enhancement Material
Use of chemical ground rods.

a) Soluble salts will often give good short-term results and are sometimes necessary.
These are soluble in nature and it is envisaged that these will leach away into the soil
over time. No long-term studies have been done to show their performance over
extended periods.
b) Bentonite and Bentonite-Gypsum mixes are relatively cheap in Australia and
available in abundance. Some caution needs to apply when these are used in very
dry soil conditions as exhibited in large parts of Australia. The IEEE Std 80 2000
Section 14.5 States that
Use of bentonite, a natural clay containing the mineral montmorillionite, which was
formed by volcanic action years ago. It is non-corrosive, stable, and has a resistivity
of 2.5 m at 300% moisture. The low resistivity results mainly from an electrolytic
process between water, Na2O (soda), K2O (potash), CaO (lime), MgO (magnesia),
and other mineral salts that ionize forming a strong electrolyte with pH ranging from
8 to 10. This electrolyte will not gradually leach out, as it is part of the clay itself.
Provided with a sufficient amount of water, it swells up to 13 times its dry volume
and will adhere to nearly any surface it touches. Due to its hygroscopic nature, it
acts as a drying agent drawing any available moisture from the surrounding
environment. Bentonite needs water to obtain and maintain its beneficial
characteristics. Its initial moisture content is obtained at installation when the slurry
is prepared. Once installed, bentonite relies on the presence of ground moisture to
maintain its characteristics. Most soils have sufficient ground moisture so that
drying out is not a concern. The hygroscopic nature of bentonite will take advantage
of the available water to maintain its as installed condition. It may not function well
in a very dry environment, because it may shrink away from the electrode,
increasing the electrode resistance.

c) GEM, or Ground Enhancement Materials usually are poured into drilled holes as a
slurry backfill for the electrodes and set hard over time. This material contains a small
percentage of bentonite and cement, but mostly constitutes a conductive form of
carbon. Formulae used for calculating the resistance for concrete encased electrodes
but using the resistivity value of GEM, can be used to calculate or predict
resistances. It is often not possible to predict the resistance when using other types
of soil improvement techniques. Studies have shown that GEM can produce
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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

excellent long-term results in a variety of soil conditions. The IEEE Std 80 2000
Section 14.5 States that
Ground enhancement materials, some with a resistivity of less than 0.12 m
(about 5% of the resistivity of bentonite), are typically placed around the rod in an
augured hole or around grounding conductors in a trench, in either a dry form or
premixed in a slurry. Some of these enhancement materials are permanent and
will not leach any chemicals into the ground. Other available ground enhancement
materials are mixed with local soil in varying amounts and will slowly leach into the
surrounding soil, lowering the earth resistivity.

d) Chemical rods are sometimes used in extreme cases of very high resistivity.
Chemical-type electrodes consist of a copper tube filled with a salt. Holes in the tube
allow moisture to enter, dissolve the salts, and allow the salt solution to leach into the
ground. These electrodes are installed in an augured hole and typically back-filled
with soil treatment. Periodic refilling is required otherwise the electrode will become
ineffective.
9) Step and Touch Voltages
Step and touch voltages are a concern that needs to be incorporated into the
electrode design and testing regime at substations, transmission towers, areas
frequented by people and major sites like wind farms. Figure 15 shows how touch
and step voltages can develop in the near vicinity of a structure, which encounters a
fault current. It also depicts how this voltage can be mitigated, by designing a ground
grid in the area of concern.

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IEEE Std 80-2000 in Annex B, C and D provides the methodology and the
calculations for computing the maximum step and touch voltages using formulae.
It has become a common practice these days to compute maximum and step
voltages, using software programs, most of which use the formulae from IEEE Std
80. Modern programs can use two layer soil models or multi layer soil models
referring to the variation in soil resistivity used as a possible input into the software.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

The example below has been generated by commercially available software and
provided by PhysElec Solutions, courtesy of Dr Franco DAllesandro.

Grounding Design Example: Generated by PhysElec Solutions

Type:
The earth grid being simulated is made of horizontal
conductors (Grid size is 50 x 50 m with a compression ratio of
0.5, buried at a depth of 0.5 m below ground level) and 3 m
ground rods at all node points.
Soil model used:
LAYER
No.
----1
2
3
4

TYPE REFLECTION
RESISTIVITY
THICKNESS
COEFFICIENT
(ohm-meter)
(METERS)
------ ------------- ------------- ------------Air
0.00000
0.1E+11
Infinite
Soil -0.999990
100.000
3.00000
Soil
0.666667
500.000
20.0000
Soil
0.818182
5000.00
Infinite

Soil type: HORIZONTAL MULTILAYER

Fault current specified: 2000 amperes
Grounding Design Example: Generated by PhysElec Solutions

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

Grounding Grid (3D - View) [ID:Scenario1]
-12

SOIL SURFACE

Z AXIS (METERS)

12

24

36

48
30

Y
IS
AX

18

(M

S)
ER
ET

-6
-18

-30

-30

-18

-6

18

30

X AXIS (M TE
E RS)
3-D View of Conductors

Results:
Resistance of Electrode System: 6.68 ohms
Main Electrode Potential Rise (GPR max.): 13360 volts
13348
13308
13267
13226
13185
13145
13104
13063
13022
12982
12941
12900
12859
12819
12778
12737
12696
12656
12615
12574

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

Grounding Design Example: Generated by PhysElec Solutions

Safety report:
MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM
ALLOWABLE
COMPUTED
OUTCOME
VALUE (V)
VALUE (V)
---------------------------------------------------------------------TOUCH VOLTAGE (on grid):
542
490
ACCEPTABLE
STEP VOLTAGE (on grid):
1700
364
ACCEPTABLE
All computed voltages in the observation zone are below the maximum
allowable values.

Touch voltage profile

1524 .. 1608
1440 .. 1524
1356 .. 1440
1272 .. 1356
1188 .. 1272
1104 .. 1188
1020 .. 1104
936 .. 1020
852 .. 936
768 .. 852
684 .. 768
600 .. 684
516 .. 600
432 .. 516
348 .. 432
264 .. 348
180 .. 264
95 .. 180
11 .. 95

Grounding Design Example: Generated by PhysElec Solutions

Step voltage profile

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

345 .. 364
326 .. 345
307 .. 326
287 .. 307
268 .. 287
249 .. 268
230 .. 249
211 .. 230
192 .. 211
173 .. 192
154 .. 173
135 .. 154
116 .. 135
97 .. 116
78 .. 97
59 .. 78
40 .. 59
21 .. 40
2 .. 21

10) Conceptual Design of an Earth Electrode System for a Substation

The IEEE80 Standard for Safety in AC Substation Grounding is a most common
document used to assist with the design of an earthling system. Other documents
like the Australian ENA Earthing Guide and guidelines from local authorities should
be used in conjunction with this standard. Conceptual analysis of a grid system
usually starts with inspection of the substation layout plan, showing all major
equipment and structures. To establish the basic ideas and concepts, the following
points may serve as guidelines for starting a typical grounding grid design:
a) A continuous conductor loop should surround the perimeter to enclose as much
area as practical. This measure helps to avoid high current concentration and, hence,
high gradients both in the grid area and near the projecting cable ends. Enclosing
more area also reduces the resistance of the grounding grid.
b) Within the loop, conductors are typically laid in parallel lines and, where practical,
along the structures or rows of equipment to provide for short ground connections.
c) A typical grid system for a substation may include 120mm2 bare copper
conductors buried 0.30.5 m below grade, spaced 37 m apart, in a grid pattern. At
cross-connections, the conductors would be securely bonded together. Ground rods
may be at the grid corners and at junction points along the perimeter. Ground rods
may also be installed at major equipment, especially near surge arresters. In
multilayer or high resistivity soils, it might be useful to use longer rods or rods
installed at additional junction points.
d) This grid system would be extended over the entire substation switchyard and
often beyond the fence line. Multiple ground leads or larger sized conductors would

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

be used where high concentrations of current may occur, such as at a neutral-toground connection of generators, capacitor banks, or transformers.
e) The ratio of the sides of the grid meshes usually is from 1:1 to 1:3. Frequent crossconnections have a relatively small effect on lowering the resistance of a grid. Their
primary role is to assure adequate control of the surface potentials. The crossconnections are also useful in securing multiple paths for the fault current, minimizing
the voltage drop.
Figure 16 shows the typical layout of an earth electrode for an electrical substation.
11) Post Installation Measurement of Step and Touch Voltage Measurements.
Most good quality ground testers can be used as an aid to measure step and touch
voltages at an installed site. The measurements are made directly by the use of test
probes supplied with the equipment. A reference probe is connected to the main
earth bar of the facility when these tests are being done. For example the touch
voltage test can be done between a piece of switchgear and a distance of 1 m from
the equipment. Or the tests for step voltages can be done at several locations with
the spacing of 1 m in the ground, for example, outside the fence line. These readings
are measured in ohms and need to be multiplied by the maximum permissible fault
current to obtain the step and touch voltages.
These values should then be compared to maximum permissible values for a
specified body mass.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

12) Earthing System Connections

IEEE Std 80 makes the following statement regarding the choice of connectors for
use in ground grids for electrical substations:
All connections made in a grounding network above and below ground should
be evaluated to meet the same general requirements of the conductor used;
namely, electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, current carrying capacity,
and mechanical strength. These connections should be massive enough to
maintain a temperature rise below that of the conductor and to withstand the
effect of heating. The connections should also be strong enough to withstand the
mechanical forces caused by the electromagnetic forces of maximum expected
fault currents and be able to resist corrosion for the intended life of the
installation.
IEEE Std 837-1989 provides detailed information on the application and testing
of permanent connections for use in substation grounding. Grounding
connections that pass IEEE Std 837 1989 for a particular conductor size range
and material should satisfy all the criteriaelectrical conductivity, corrosion
resistance, current carrying capacity, and mechanical strengthfor that same
conductor size range and material.
Exothermic connections (CADWELD) meet all the requirements of IEEE Std 837 and
are the most common method of connection in electrical substations and
telecommunications grounding systems.
Other connection methods, including U-Bolt clamps, Hammerlok, compression
connectors and acorn clamps are available and can be used for other applications
like distribution transformer earthing, switchboard earthing to AS3000 or control
equipment earthing systems.
13) Materials for Earthing Conductors and Electrodes
Copper is almost universally used as the conductor although some legacy use of
galvanized conductors is observed from time to time.
Copper theft has become an endemic problem in recent years and there is a growing
use of alternate conductors, including copper coated steel and composite conductors
that have tinned copper in the centre and steel outer.
The most commonly used ground rods are copper bonded steel. In high salinity soil
conditions, stainless steel ground rods are used. Copper bonded ground rods are
effective in a wide range of soil conditions. Copper Bonded ground rods that comply
with international standards BS7430, and UL467 should be selected to ensure
longevity in the soil.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

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14) Telecommunications Facility Earthing Electrode System Design

The design of an earthing electrode
system for a telecommunications
facility is covered in AS3015-2004.
The calculation and testing of the
earthing electrode resistance is done
in exactly the same manner as
described previously in this paper.
However step and touch voltages are
not usually calculated. This is because
risks of step and touch voltages are
traditionally associated with large fault
currents in power systems and these
risks
do
not
exist
at
telecommunications sites.
It is recognized that high earth
voltages can occur due to lightning
strikes on or near telecommunications
towers. It has not been possible to
calculate these ground voltages due to
the complex nature of lightning
impulses and the lack of a simple and
consistent method of calculation.
Some software programs can simulate
lightning impulses and calculate the
resulting step and touch voltages.
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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

One consideration that has been incumbent in telecommunications earthing

electrode design is the need to handle high frequency noise and lightning strikes. As
such one may find discussions on the need for low impedance earthing at
telecommunications sites as opposed to just low resistance.
While earth impedance measurements can be performed, there is no uniformity in
the test equipment used to measure this and no benchmark on what is a good
impedance. As such earth resistance measurements are done far more commonly
and earth impedance measurement is almost never done. A more common impact
of the high frequency consideration on the electrode design is an intuitive one and is
exhibited in the widespread use of flat tape (commonly 25 x 3mm copper) as the
grounding conductor. Horizontal tape conductors will provide high capacitive
coupling to the ground and hence lower impedance when compared with round or
stranded conductors.
Figure 18 shows the typical layout of the earthing electrode system at an outdoor
telecommunications site.

Conclusion
The process for the design of the earthing electrode system starts with careful
planning. A scaled site drawing showing where equipment, structures and building
will be installed is a good start. The soil resistivity tests should be completed and
results recorded. If it is not possible to access the site for soil resistivity testing, then
it may be possible to have a series of design scenarios or a scaleable design based
on an assumed range of resistivity values.
The key target criteria in the design are the system resistance to remote earth and
the step and touch voltages. The understanding of the sheath theory of conductivity
helps us decide upon the geometry of the earthing electrodes. Empirical formulae,
nomograms and software programs can be used to carry out the calculations. IEEE
Std 80 used in conjunction with country specific guides like the ENA Earthing Guide
in Australia form an excellent reference set for the design of earthing electrode
systems for electrical substations. AS3015-2004 is an excellent reference for the
design of telecommunications earthing electrode systems.
The earthing grid resistance can be measured using several methods. Fall of
potential methods may be used for small earth grids. Larger grids will require testing
using the slope method or more sophisticated methods. The advantage of the slope
method is that it minimises the chances of error and provides a more accurate result
for larger earthing electrode systems.
Post installation step and touch voltages should be measured where step and touch
voltages are part of the design criteria. The resistances and the step and touch
voltages should be measured after installation and compared with the design values.
Ground improvement materials can be used in soils with high resistivity to reduce the
earth resistance. IEEE Std 80 2000 notes the advantages of cement-based ground
improvement materials like GEM. Care should be taken if using bentonite materials in
dry environments.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

The most comprehensive test standard for the pre-qualification of connectors used in
earthing electrode systems is IEEE Std 837-2000. Exothermic (CADWELD)
connections pass the test regime stipulated in this standard c-crimps and bolted
connections do not.
Discussing the choice of conductor size is outside the scope of this paper. Various
standards can be referred to for guidance on this. Copper is the most widely used
conductor material for earthing systems. The high incidence of copper theft has led to
the development and introduction of other materials suitable for use as grounding
conductors if consideration is given to their electrical properties relative to copper.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

Bibliography
1) NSW State Electricity Earthing Handbook, 1973.
2) Standard IEEE 80, - 2000: IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding
3) Standard IEEE 837 IEEE Standard for Qualifying Permanent Connections
Used in Substation Grounding
4) Telecom Training Centre Fiji; Course Notes, Earthing Principles PS001
5) Earthing Training Manual ERICO 2001
6) GROUND MEASURING TECHNIQUES: ELECTRODE RESISTANCE TO
REMOTE EARTH & SOIL RESISTIVITY Elvis R. Sverko ERICO, Inc. Facility
Electrical Protection, U.S.A. Revision Date: February 11, 1999
7) Photos and Images are Courtesy of ERICO Inc.
8) 3 D Graphics of Earth Simulation. Images Courtesy of Dr Franco DAllesandro
9) Paper 62975, written by Dr G.F. Tagg, taken from the proceedings of IEEE
volume 117, No 11, Nov. 1970
10) Grounding Design Example: Generated by PhysElec Solutions, Dr Franco

DAllesandro
11) Standard AS3015 Electrical installationsExtra-low voltage d.c. power

supplies and service earthing within public telecommunications networks

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

Commonly Used Grounding Equipment

The images in this section show some commonly used grounding equipment and
their applications.

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

Figure 21 Grounding Plates

used to Make Effective Bonds to
Reinforcement Steel

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Session Two: Fundamentals of Earth Electrode Design

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