Chemical Bond IV
4. Salts and metal oxides are typical ionic
The Structure of Ionic Compounds:
Crystal Lattices
1. The alternate positive and negative ions
in an ionic solid are arranged in an orderly
way in a giant ionic lattice structure
shown on the left.
2. The ionic bond is the strong electrical
attraction between the positive and
negative ions next to each other in the
lattice.
3. The bonding extends throughout the
crystal in all directions.
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compounds.
5. Some of these compounds, like magnesia
(MgO) and alumina (Al2O3), are so stable
that they are used as refractory material,
to line the inside of furnaces. Such
substances must be stable up to at least
1500 °C.
6. Another property of crystal lattices is that
they are non-conductors of electricity.
This is because the ions are in fixed
positions and are unable to move.
The properties of Ionic Compounds
1. This strong bonding force makes the
structure hard (if brittle) and has high
melting and boiling points, so they are not
very volatile!
2. The bigger the charges on the ions the
stronger the bonding attraction eg
magnesium oxide Mg2+O2- has a higher
melting point than sodium chloride Na+Cl-.
3. Unlike covalent molecules, ALL ionic
compounds are crystalline solids at room
temperature.
4. They are hard but brittle, when stressed
the bonds are broken along planes of ions
which shear away. They are NOT malleable
like metal.
5. Many ionic compounds are soluble in
water but not all, so don't make
assumptions.
6. The solid crystals DO NOT conduct
electricity because the ions are not free
to move to carry an electric current.
7. However, if the ionic compound is
melted or dissolved in water, the liquid
will now conduct electricity, as the ion
particles are now free.
The Structure of Covalent Compounds:
Molecules and Macromolecules
1. Covalent compounds can be divided into
those which form small (simple)
independent molecules and those which
form giant molecular lattices.
Molecular Compounds
1. These are made up of independent
molecular units, as shown in Figure 6.7.
2. As there are no ions formed, the attractive
forces between molecules in solid, covalent
compounds like iodine and sulphur are
much weaker.
3. They are called van der Waals' forces
and produce a weak, molecular lattice
with low melting points.
4. In covalent liquids like water, the
molecules are even further apart, so the
van der Waals' forces are weaker still,
and in covalent gases like ammonia and
methane, these forces are almost non-
existent.
5. However, in water, there are other
attractive forces between molecules.
These forces are called hydrogen bonds
and they give water much higher melting
and boiling points than expected with
such weak van der Waals' forces.
The Properties Of Simple Covalent
Molecular Substances - Small Molecules!
1. The electrical forces of attraction, that is
the chemical bond*, between atoms in
any molecule are strong and most
molecules do not change chemically on
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moderate heating.(* sometimes referred to
as the intramolecular bond)
2. However, the electrical forces** between
molecules are weak and easily weakened
further on heating.
3. These weak attractions are known as
**intermolecular forces and consequently
the bulk material is not usually very
strong.
4. Consequently small covalent molecules
tend to be volatile liquids, easily
vapourised, or low melting point solids.
5. On heating the inter-molecular forces are
easily overcome with the increased kinetic
energy gain of the particles and so have low
melting and boiling points.
6. They are also poor conductors of
electricity because there are no free
electrons or ions in any state to carry
electric charge.
7. Most small molecules will dissolve in a
solvent to form a solution.
Macromolecular compounds
1. These have giant, covalent molecules
with extremely large molecular lattices.
2. They are very stable, as all the atoms
are joined together by strong covalent
bonds to give a giant three-dimensional
lattice.
3. Often the lattice is tetrahedral in shape,
as every atom is covalently linked to
four others.
4. Examples of such macromolecules are
diamond and sand (see Figure 6.8).
Diamond and Silica(Sand)
1. A diamond crystal or a grain of sand is
just one giant molecule. Such molecules,
because they are so rigid and strong,
have very high melting points.
Large Covalent Molecules And Their
Properties
1. This type of structure is thermally very
stable and they have high melting and
boiling points.
2. They are usually poor conductors of
electricity because the electrons are not
usually free to move as they can in metallic
structures.
3. Also because of the strength of the
bonding in all directions in the structure,
they are often very hard, strong and will
not dissolve in solvents like water.
4. Silicon dioxide (silica, SiO2) has a similar
3D structure and properties, shown below
diamond.
5. The hardness of diamond enables it to
be used as the 'leading edge' on cutting
tools.
Graphite
1. Diamond is an allotrope of carbon.
Allotropes are different forms of the
same element in the same physical state
2. Oxygen O2 (dioxygen) and ozone O3
(trioxygen) are two gaseous allotropes of
the element oxygen.
3. Carbon also occurs in the form of
graphite. The carbon atoms form joined
hexagonal rings forming layers 1 atom
thick.
3
4. There are three strong covalent bonds
per carbon (3 C-C bonds in a planar
arrangement from 3 of its 4 outer
electrons), BUT, the fourth outer electron
is 'delocalised' or shared between the
carbon atoms to form the equivalent of a
4th bond per carbon atom.
5. The layers are only held together by
weak intermolecular forces shown by the
dotted lines NOT by strong covalent bonds.
6. Like diamond and silica (above) the large
molecules of the layer ensure graphite has
typically very high melting point
because of the strong 2D bonding
network (note: NOT 3D network)..
7. Graphite will not dissolve in solvents
because of the strong bonding
8. BUT there are two crucial differences
compared to diamond ...
9. Electrons, from the 'shared bond', can
move freely through each layer, so
graphite is a conductor like a metal
(diamond is an electrical insulator and a
poor heat conductor). Graphite is used in
electrical contacts eg electrodes in
electrolysis.
10. The weak forces enable the layers to slip
over each other so where as diamond is
hard material graphite is a 'soft' crystal, it
feels slippery. Graphite is used as a
lubricant.
11. These two different characteristics
described above are put to a common
use with the electrical contacts in electric
motors and dynamos. These contacts
(called brushes) are made of graphite
sprung onto the spinning brass contacts
of the armature. The graphite brushes
provide good electrical contact and are
self-lubricating as the carbon layers slide
over each other.
Summary
substance NaCl iodine diamond graphite
bonding ionic covalent covalent covalent
structure giant ionic lattice simple molecular giant molecular giant molecular
1. High melting and 1. Low melting point. 1. Very high melting 1. Very high melting
boiling point. 2. Soft, shiny black and boiling point. and boiling point.
2. Hard and brittle. solid which forms a 2. Hard and brittle. 2. Soft and brittle.
physical 3. Soluble in water. purple vapour. 3. Insoluble in water. 3. Insoluble in water.
properties 4. Conducts electricity 3. Low solubility in 4. Does not conduct 4. Conducts
when molten or in water. electricity. electricity.
solution. 4. Does not conduct
electricity.
Each sodium ion is Each molecule Each carbon atom is Each carbon atom is
surrounded by six comprises two iodine covalently bonded to covalently bonded to
chloride ion, and each atoms joined by a four other carbon atoms three other carbon
chloride ion is covalent bond. The in an extended atoms to form layers of
surrounded by six molecules in solid tetrahedral atoms in a hexagonal
notes sodium ions (it has 6:6 iodine form a regular arrangement. arrangement.
coordination). array with weak van der Delocalised electrons
Waal's forces between above and below each
molecules. layer. Weak van der
Waal's forces between
layers.

Example 1 Example 3
Which of the following are properties of The diagram below represents the
carbon in the form of diamond? arrangement of the atoms in the crystal of
conductivity melting point a solid element.
A nil -101°
B nil 119°C
C nil 3500°C
D good 30°C
E good 2600°C
Example 2
In which group of the Periodic Table is
this element?
A III D VI
B IV E VII
C V

Example 4
Which of the following is most likely to
be the melting point of an ionic solid?
A -182°C D 114°C
B -78°C E 943°C
C 0°C

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Example 5
Example 6
Example 7
Exercise
1 What are different forms of the same
element in the same physical state called?
A allotropes D monomers
B isomers E polymers
C isotopes
2 Why do graphite and diamond have
different physical properties?
A Graphite is ionic but diamond is
covalent.
B They contain different elements.
C They contain carbon atoms joined to
one another in different ways.
D Diamond has a macromolecular
structure but graphite has not.
E Diamond occurs naturally but
graphite is made artificially.
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Hints:
¾ Oxide of metal is basic
¾ Oxide of non-metal is acidic
¾ Reducing agent is a substance that can
donate electron.
Example 8
Which substances conducts electricity in
both the solid and the molten states?
A paraffin wax
B poly(ethene)
C sodium
D sodium bromide
E sulphur
3 Which of the following statements most
clearly indicates that diamond and
graphite are allotropic forms of carbon?
A Both are crystalline solids.
B Graphite conducts electricity
whereas diamond does not.
C Both have giant molecular
structures.
D Complete combustion of equal
masses of both solids produces
equal masses of carbon dioxide as
the only product.
E Under suitable conditions, graphite
can be partially converted into
diamond
4 The table gives information about the ability What could these four substances be?
of four substances to conduct electricity. W X Y Z
substance property A HCl S NaCl Pb
W does not conduct under any B Pb HC1 NaCl S
conditions C S HC1 NaCl Pb
X conducts only in aqueous D S HC1 Pb NaCl
solution E S NaCl HC1 Pb
Y conducts in both the molten
and solid states
Z conducts in both the molten
and aqueous states

Structure Question
1.
Particle X+ Y2− Z
Number of electron P 10 14
Number of proton q r 14
Table 1
Table 1 shows the number of electrons and neutrons for particles X+, Y2−, and Z.
a. Given that particle X has equal number of electrons as the atoms of argon, what are the most probable
values of p and q? [proton number of argon = 18]

b. What is the most probable value of r? Give the symbol for element Y.

c. Element Y has a few other isotopes. Explain the meaning of isotope and state two other isotopes for
element Y.

d. State the electronic structure for element Z. If element Z forms a compound with element Y, what is the
chemical formula for this compound?

e. Give two properties of the compound formed in (d).

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 2. Complete each of the following diagrams as instructed.
(a) Complete the sodium chloride lattice (b) Complete the graphite structure by
by inserting • for sodium ions, and adding more • for carbon atoms and
for chloride ions. drawing the bonds between the carbon
atoms.

(c) Complete the diagram showing the formation of potassium fluoride using • for potassium
electrons and x for fluorine electrons.

(d) Complete the molecule of tetracloromethane using . for chlorine electrons and X for carbon
electrons. Show the outer electrons only.
x carbon electron
• chlorine electron

Answer
Answer
Example 1 C
Example 2 C
Example 3 B
Example 4 E
Example 5 C
Example 6 C
Example 7 B
Example 8 C

Exercise
1 A 3 D
2 C 4 D