IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 43, NO.

4, JULY/AUGUST 2007 981

Current Control of Induction Machines in the
Field-Weakened Region
Gabriel Gallegos-Lpez, Member, IEEE, Fani S. Gunawan, and James E. Walters
AbstractThis paper presents a novel current regulation
algorithm for induction machines that enables smooth operation
and maximum torque-per-ampere capability over the entire eld-
weakened region. The algorithm enables robust current regulation
with maximum torque capability despite signicant variation in
voltage source and machine parameters. The algorithm identies
when the current regulator begins to saturate and determines the
optimum d-axis current command for the machine. The q-axis
current command is determined as a function of the torque
command and the d-axis current feedback. In the eld-weakened
region, the q-axis current is monitored not to exceed the maximum
q-axis current. The maximum q-axis current is calculated based
on the maximum slip frequency, which is a function of rotor
frequency. q-axis current maximumq-axis current (in motoring
mode) indicates that the machine entered eld-weakened region II,
and the q-axis current is limited to its maximum value. Experi-
mental results from a machine prototype show that the algorithm
provides good overall dynamic response and smooth transitions
into the eld-weakened region with maximum torque-per-ampere
capability in all four quadrants of operation.
Index TermsField-weakened operation, induction machine
control, vector control.
I. INTRODUCTION
I
N HYBRID electric vehicle (HEV) applications, induc-
tion machines have been considered as a viable option
due to their ruggedness and low manufacturing cost. For an
HEV application, the machine design typically has a large
eld-weakened range in order to maximize cranking torque,
maximize high speed generating capability, and minimize the
required inverter ratings [1], [2]. The machine controller de-
sign for this application is quite challenging. In most HEV
systems, the battery size and weight is desired to be small in
order to maximize space utilization. In normal usage for this
application, the battery voltage can swing more than half of its
Paper IPCSD-07-002, presented at the 2006 Industry Applications Society
Annual Meeting, Tampa, FL, October 812, and approved for publication in
the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Power Elec-
tronics Devices and Components Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications
Society. Manuscript submitted for review October 31, 2006 and released for
publication February 15, 2007.
G. Gallegos-Lpez was with Delphi Research Laboratories, Shelby Town-
ship, MI 48315 USA. He is now with the Advanced Technology Center,
General Motors Corporation, Torrance, CA 90505-5103 USA (e-mail: gabriel.
gallegos-lopez@gm.com).
F. S. Gunawan and J. E. Walters are with the Energenix Center, Delphi Cor-
poration, Kokomo, IN 46904-9005 USA (e-mail: fani.gunawan@delphi.com;
jim.walters@delphi.com).
Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TIA.2007.900459
nominal voltage rating. The controller has to be able to not only
provide stable operation but also maximize torque generation
when required throughout the entire voltage and speed range
while maintaining high efciency.
Field-weakened operation of permanent magnet alternating
current machines has been well documented in the literature
[3][6] and has acted as a precursor to work on induction motor
drives. Early work on eld-weakened operation of induction
machines resulted in reducing the ux current component in
the d-axis that is inversely proportional to rotor frequency
r
[1], [7], [8]. Additional work was done considering the impact
of the reference frame on the torque capability of the drive
using this same general principle [9]. These techniques do not
account for variations in the machine parameters or bus voltage
variation, which can signicantly affect the current regulation.
In addition, efciency and torque capabilities are compromised
as the ux is set only as a function of speed.
Several renement techniques have been proposed. One ap-
proach attempts to calculate the current commands directly
from the machine electrical equations [10][12]. This approach
provides some improvement in peak torque capability but re-
quires complex calculations of the machine equations in real
time and does not account for parameter variation and nonide-
alities in the power stage. The strategy does not also provide
optimal efciency either at the maximum torque point or for
lower torques in the eld-weakened region.
An alternative strategy attempts to calculate the desired cur-
rent commands based on commanded voltages from the inverter
[13][17]. This concept provides a degree of insensitivity to
parameters for maintaining control of the machine. Additional
work has been done in order to account for the transition into
the eld-weakened range and to address the issue of attempting
to dynamically operate at the peak operating torque point [14].
There is still a question of algorithm complexity and achieving
the desired torque that remains unaddressed.
This paper introduces a novel approach to control in-
duction machines in the eld-weakened region while main-
taining stability, maximizing torque production, and machine
efciency. The algorithm will maintain the maximum torque
level in the eld-weakened region up to the condition where the
voltage limit ellipse shrinks inside the current limit circle.
The algorithm will then maintain whatever maximum torque
the machine can produce as the frequency is further increased
in the eld-weakened region or the dc-link voltage decreases.
This paper is structured as follows. The current and voltage
limits are discussed in Section II. Then, the proposed algorithm
is presented in Section III, followed by experimental results in
Section IV. Conclusions are given in Section V.
0093-9994/$25.00 2007 IEEE
982 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 43, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2007
II. CURRENT AND VOLTAGE LIMITS
The maximum torque of an induction machine is limited by
the current and voltage ratings of the power inverter. Therefore,
it is useful to analyze the machines performance under the
current and voltage constraints in the synchronous reference
frame. The current constraint of the inverter is shown in the
following expression:
I
2
ds
+I
2
qs
I
2
max
(1)
where I
ds
, I
qs
, and I
max
are the d-axis current, the q-axis
current, and the maximum current magnitude, respectively.
This relationship limits the current magnitude I
s
1
to the circle
dened by I
max
.
The voltage constraint of the inverter is expressed as follows:
V
2
ds
+V
2
qs
V
2
max
(2)
where V
ds
, V
qs
, and V
max
are the d-axis voltage, the q-axis
voltage, and the maximum voltage magnitude, respectively.
V
max
is set by the available voltage, which is a function of the
pulsewidth-modulation strategy and the available bus voltage.
This equation indicates that the voltage magnitude V
s
2
cannot
exceed the ellipse dened by V
max
.
The steady-state stator voltage equations that govern the
behavior of the induction machine are given as follows:
V
ds
=r
s
I
ds

qs
(3)
V
qs
=r
s
I
qs
+
e

ds
(4)
where r
s
,
e
,
e
qs
, and
e
ds
are the stator resistance, the syn-
chronous frequency, the q-axis ux linkage, and the d-axis ux
linkage, respectively. For ideal eld orientation, the equations
can be represented according to
V
ds
=r
s
I
ds

e
L
s
I
qs
(5)
V
qs
=r
s
I
qs
+
e
L
s
I
ds
(6)
where L
s
= L
s
L
2
m
/L
r
is the stator transient inductance,
and L
s
is the stator inductance. The equation for the voltage
limit ellipse can be derived by substituting (5) and (6) into (2)
and rearranging. The result is shown as follows:
_
r
s
I
qs

e
+L
d
I
ds
_
2
+
_
r
s
I
ds

e
L
s
I
qs
_
2

V
2
max

2
e
.
(7)
The center of the ellipse is the origin, which implies that
as the frequency increases or voltage decreases, the voltage
constraint will shrink toward the origin.
The torque equation is expressed as
T =
3
2
P
2
L
2
m
L
r
I
qs
I
ds
(8)
1
I
s
=
_
I
2
qs
+I
2
ds
.
2
V
s
=
_
V
2
qs
+V
2
ds
.
Fig. 1. Current and voltage constraint regions.
where P is the number of poles, L
m
is the mutual inductance
between the rotor and the stator, and L
r
is the rotor inductance.
Fig. 1 shows the current limit circle and the voltage limit
ellipse constraints with several constant torque curves. The
thin line ellipse is the constraint when the stator resistance is
neglected. In contrast, the thick line ellipse is the constraint
when the stator resistance is included. The major effect of stator
resistance is to rotate the ellipse counterclockwise. The stator
resistance is clearly an important consideration for determining
the allowable operating region. Therefore, any strategy that
attempts to optimize performance in the eld-weakened region
must account for the effect of stator resistance.
The machine can only operate in the intersection between the
current limit circle and the voltage limit ellipse, i.e., the overlap
between the current circle limit and the voltage ellipse limit. To
achieve maximum torque capability of the machine in the eld-
weakened region, the operating point must be on the edge of
the voltage ellipse. Furthermore, for relatively low frequencies
in the eld-weakened region, the current limit will also have to
be satised. As the frequency further increases and the voltage
ellipse shrinks inside the current circle, then the voltage ellipse
will solely constrain the operating region of the machine.
Fig. 2(a) shows the region of optimum machine operation
as the frequency is increased. The area inclosed by points
ABCDF is the maximum torque-per-ampere region for
motoring operation. In contrast, the area inclosed by points
AGHIK is the maximum torque-per-ampere region for
generating operation. Fig. 2(b) depicts the torquespeed char-
acteristic and how points C, D, and F relate to the I
q
and I
d
current loci. These regions will be discussed in greater detail in
the subsequent sections.
A. Constant Torque Region
In the constant torque region, the machine is only lim-
ited by the maximum current magnitude that is shown as a
dotted circle.
The machine should be operated with maximum torque per
ampere, which is the minimum current vector that provides a
given torque.
GALLEGOS-LPEZ et al.: CURRENT CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINES IN THE FIELD-WEAKENED REGION 983
Fig. 2. (a) Maximum torque-per-ampere region of machine operation.

e1
<
e2
<
e3
. (b) Torquespeed characteristic.
The maximum torque per ampere in motoring operation
is represented by line ABC. For generating operation, the
maximum torque per ampere is represented by line AGH.
B. Field-Weakened Region I
As the frequency goes up or as the voltage source drops, the
voltage ellipse shrinks. This condition means that the maximum
torque operation at point C cannot be maintained. Therefore,
the machine torque has to decrease, and the current vector
must slide on line CD (generating operation in this region
is represented by the curve HI), which is the intersection
between the current circle limit and the voltage ellipse limit.
In this region, the machines current is limited by current and
voltage limits simultaneously, and therefore, the current vector
is held constant at I
max
. Alternatively, if it is initially assumed
that the current regulator is holding the torque at point B
(constant torque region), and the frequency increases to
e2
,
then the current regulator should slide the current vector from
point B to point E, while maintaining the same torque.
If the frequency increases further to
e3
, the current vectors
should continue to move to point F, which again maintains the
same torque. For this case, the current magnitude is increasing
as the frequency increases (or voltage drops).
The current regulator is able to hold constant torque because
it is not limited by current and the ux linkage is decreasing.
TABLE I
INDUCTION MACHINE OPERATING REGIONS
C. Field-Weakened Region II
As the frequency further increases, the current regulator
enters a second eld-weakened region, where the allowable
torque is only limited by the available voltage. For maximum
torque-per-ux operation, the current magnitude should de-
crease from point D toward point A, along the curve DFA,
as the frequency increases (generating operation in this region
is represented by curve IKA). For instance, if the current
regulator is operating at point D and the frequency increases
to
e3
, then the current magnitude should decrease toward the
lower torque point F.
It was mentioned previously that the current regulators were
able to hold constant torque from point B to point F as
frequency increased to
e3
; however, if frequency increases
further, it is not possible to hold constant torque anymore, and
torque decreases when the current regulator moves from point F
toward point A. Table I summarizes all operating regions.
III. PROPOSED ALGORITHM
The proposed algorithm regulates current in all four quad-
rants and provides protection against the voltage limit regard-
less of how it is imposed. The motivation of the proposed
algorithm is to provide robust and stable current regulation in
the eld-weakened region by making sure that the machine
is operated within the voltage and the current maximum con-
straints. Furthermore, a second motivation is to offer smooth
transition in and out of the eld-weakened region.
It is important to note that the equations using all machine
parameters that dene the boundaries for eld-weakened re-
gions I and II, lines CD, HI and lines DA, IA in Fig. 2(a),
respectively, are very complex as shown in the Appendix. To
solve these equations in real time would be very difcult.
On the other hand, if the stator resistance is assumed to be
zero, the equations are simplied, however, they do not provide
stable operating points in motoring, and they do not provide
maximum torque per ux in generating as can be seen in Fig. 1.
The proposed algorithm solves this problem by naturally
identifying the eld-weakened boundaries with a voltage loop
and clamping the current in the q-axis when the slip frequency
for maximum torque per ux is reached.
The block diagram of the current regulator is shown in
Fig. 3. The d-axis I

ds
and the q-axis I

qs
current references
984 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 43, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2007
Fig. 3. Current regulator block diagram.
Fig. 4. Current command calculation block diagram.
are provided from the blocks called I
ds
current command and
I
qs
current command, respectively. The rest of the diagram is a
proportionalintegral (PI) current regulator in the synchronous
frame. For simplicity, cross coupling is not implemented. Fig. 4
shows in detail the block diagram of the current command
calculation. The PI regulator that is inclosed by the dashed box
inside the I
ds
current command box in Fig. 4 is the voltage loop,
which is used to adjust the d-axis current in the eld-weakened
region.
A. I

ds
Calculation
The corresponding current in the d-axis I
dsLUP
for the
maximum torque-per-ampere curves ABC and AGH can
be obtained using (8), but experimental data were taken to
include magnetic saturation. These data were stored in a lookup
table (block called maximum torque-per-ampere curve) with
the torque command Torque

as index.
I
dsLUP
is added to the output of the voltage loop controller
I
dsT0
. In the constant torque region, the output of the voltage
loop is clamped to zero. Therefore, the current reference I

ds
becomes equal to I
dsLUP
.
B. Voltage Loop
During operation when the current and voltage limits have
not been reached, the voltage loop is not active. The loop is only
used in the eld-weakened regions I and II. To naturally identify
when the current regulator is running out of voltage (saturating),
the zero time vector T0 from the space vector modulator is
used. See [18] for further information regarding space vector
modulation.
T0 is negatively proportional to the voltage magnitude V
s
,
i.e., when V
s
is maximum, T0 is close to zero and vice versa.
T0 is ltered out to remove the sixth harmonic, and then used
as feedback (T0
f
) for the voltage loop.
The low-pass cutoff frequency would require to be dynam-
ically changed as a function of speed to remove the sixth
harmonic, however, it was found that taking the average of
the last four T0 samples at 10 kHz was enough to remove the
GALLEGOS-LPEZ et al.: CURRENT CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINES IN THE FIELD-WEAKENED REGION 985
Fig. 5. Maximum I
qs
and synchronous position block diagram.
sixth harmonic and to make the voltage loop work properly. The
averaging method is not the most elegant, but it is the simplest
to implement and the one that takes the least microprocessors
throughput. This is the reason why it was chosen.
The reference T0

is subtracted from T0
f
to obtain the error
for the PI regulator. The voltage loop provides the adjusting
current in the d-axis I
dsT0
that allows the regulators to avoid
saturation. In other words, the objective of the voltage loop is
to deux the machine by decreasing the current command in the
d-axis. It is important to note that the upper limit of the voltage
loop is clamped to zero. It means that the voltage loop is only
active when current is limited by the voltage ellipse. The nal
d-axis current reference I

ds
is the sum of I
dsT0
and I
dsLUP
.
Using T0 is the simplest way to implement the voltage loop.
However, the addition of the nonzero time vectors (T1 +T2)
can also be used, which is proportional to V
s
but it requires
an extra addition operation. Alternatively, the following voltage
magnitude V
s
can also be used, which requires two square
operations and a square root calculation:
V
s
=
_
V
2
ds
+V
2
qs
. (9)
The square root calculation can be avoided if V
2
s
is used instead.
C. I

qs
Calculation
The initial q-axis current command I

qsInit
can be calcu-
lated by solving (8), however, to take into account magnetic
saturation, experimental data were taken and stored in a 2-D
lookup table (block called initial I
qs
current command in Fig. 4)
with Torque

and feedback d-axis current I

dsf
, as indexes. The
curves stored in this lookup table are similar to the constant
torque curves shown in Fig. 1. I

qsInit
is compared with the
maximum q-axis current I
qsMax
. If I

qsInit
< I
qsMax
, then the
q-axis current command I

qs
is equal to I

qsInit
, otherwise I

qs
is
clamped to I
qsMax
.
D. I

qs
Clamp Calculation
I

qsInit
is only clamped in the eld-weakened region II.
I

qsInit
I
qsMax
indicates that the machine has entered eld-
weakened region II in motoring operating mode. In this case,
the q-axis current command I

qs
is clamped equal to I
qsMax
.
Fig. 6. Maximum slip frequency as a function of speed.
The calculation of the maximum I
qsMax
is shown in the
upper part of Fig. 5.
What denes the eld-weakened region II is the maximum
slip frequency
slMax
. The maximum slip frequency is a func-
tion of the rotor frequency.
To obtain its function with all machine parameters is dif-
cult, therefore the solution was obtained numerically by rst
solving the slip for maximum torque (for generating, the sign is
negative) as shown in the following expression [19]:
S
max
= r
r

r
2
s
+L
2
s

2
e
(L
2
m

2
e
L
s
L
r

2
e
)
2
+r
2
s
L
2
r

2
e
(10)
and then solving for rotor frequency and nding slip frequency
as follows:

r
=(1 S)
e
(11)

sl
=
e

r
. (12)
The result is shown in Fig. 6 with a solid line. If r
s
is
assumed to be zero, (10) is simplied and the slip frequency
for maximum torque (for generating, the sign is negative) is
obtained as follows:

slMax
=
r
r
L
s
L
s
L
r
L
2
m
=
L
s
L

(13)
where is the electric time constant.
Equation (13) is plotted in Fig. 6 with a dashed line. Note that
(13) does not depend on rotor frequency. Fig. 6 also shows that
at high speeds the solution of (10)(12) approaches the value of
(13). For simplicity, the maximum slip frequency as a function
of speed was stored in a lookup table.
I
qsMax
is calculated as shown in the following expression:
I
qsMax
=
slMax
I
dsf
. (14)
It is important to note that in generating operating mode the
condition to clamp I

qsInit
is reversed, i.e., I

qsInit
I
qsMax
,
which indicates that the machine has entered eld-weakened
986 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 43, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2007
Fig. 7. Torque versus speed characteristic.
Fig. 8. I
qs
and I
ds
versus speed in motoring mode.
region II. The lower part of Fig. 5 shows the calculation of the
synchronous position
e
. The slip frequency
sl
is calculated
based on the d-axis and the q-axis current feedbacks. The syn-
chronous frequency is the addition of the rotor frequency plus
the slip frequency. Finally,
e
is calculated by integrating
e
.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The algorithm was implemented in real time in a Motorola
MC68332 microcontroller and tested with a 4-kW induction
machine.
Fig. 7 shows torque versus speed characteristic curves for
both motoring and generating modes. The plots were taken
by applying a specic torque to the motor at low speed. The
dynamometer speed was then gradually increased to reach eld-
weakened region. It is observed that as the motor reached eld-
weakened region the torque curves are all aligned and actually
merged into one curve. The motoring data were taken at 70,
35, 20, and 10 N m up to 9000 r/min, whereas the generating
data were taken at 35, 20, and 10 N m all the way up
to 14 000 r/min. The increase in torque from 3000 r/min to
approximately 5200 r/min for 35 and 20 N m test data are
caused by inaccurate torque lookup table, which can be adjusted
to keep torque constant.
Fig. 8 shows the I
ds
and I
qs
currents as a function of speed
in motoring mode. The torque-component current I
qs
resembles
the torque curve in Fig. 7, except that when the machine enters
eld-weakened region I, I
qs
increases. The I
ds
current follows
the command until the system runs out of voltage and lowers
the I
ds
accordingly. I
qs
is seen to increase in value as I
ds
is
reduced since the current follows a specic hyperbolic constant
Fig. 9. I
qs
and I
ds
versus speed in generating mode.
Fig. 10. DC-link voltage in motoring and generating mode.
torque curve that is shown later in the I
qs
versus I
ds
current loci
of Fig. 11.
Fig. 9 shows the generating mode version of I
qs
and I
ds
as a
function of speed. In contrast to the motoring case, the current
controller enters the eld-weakened region when both I
ds
and
I
qs
start to decrease. Torque is held nearly constant up to the
speed where I
qs
starts to increase.
To hold torque constant will require adjusting the torque
lookup table with more negative I
qs
current. I
ds
and I
qs
for
different torque levels eventually join at high speed.
It is important to note that the speed where the eld-
weakened region starts is different for motoring and generating
as shown in Figs. 8 and 9. This is caused by higher dc-link
voltage in generating than in motoring as shown in Fig. 10.
The dc-link voltage is not constant due to the use of battery as
voltage source. In addition, the stator voltage resistance is seen
by the machine as voltage addition rather than voltage drop for
generating and motoring, respectively.
Fig. 11 shows I
qs
versus I
ds
current loci for different torque
levels in motoring and generating modes. It is observed that the
algorithm follows the maximum torque-per-ampere curve.
However, at maximum current point (I
ds
= 225 A, I
qs
=
500 A) I
ds
is held constant, while I
qs
decreases. The expla-
nation is that I
qs
clamp algorithm limits I
qs
quicker than the
voltage loop for the case of 70 N m but not for lower torque
levels. This has to do with the maximum slip frequency stored
in the lookup table to calculate maximumI
qs
. It is worth noting
that the maximum torque is not reduced signicantly. The I
qs
versus I
ds
current loci plot for generating mode is also depicted
in Fig. 11. Note that I
qs
follows a hyperbolic curve to hold
torque constant. It is important to note that for both motoring
and generating modes the current vector for different torque
GALLEGOS-LPEZ et al.: CURRENT CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINES IN THE FIELD-WEAKENED REGION 987
Fig. 11. I
qs
versus I
ds
loci.
Fig. 12. Starting waveforms at 40 N m. I
ds
, I
qs
feedback, and I
qsMax
in
Ch1, Ch2, and Ch4, respectively, 175 A/div. Phase A current in Ch3, 375 A/div.
commands follows their corresponding current trajectory for
maximum torque per ux (maximum slip frequency).
Fig. 12 depicts the starting waveforms at 40 N m. Transients
are noticed in I
qs
and I
ds
at the beginning. I
ds
and I
qs
then
ramp up to be regulated at 193 and 315 A, respectively.
At 360 ms after the rst current rising, I
ds
is decreased by
the voltage loop, while I
qs
is increased and I
qsMax
becomes
active. It is observed that I
qsMax
increases up to 474 A, and
it decreases as speed increases. However, the I
qs
is regulated
below I
qsMax
until 450 ms. Torque is held at 40 N m until I
qs
is limited by I
qsMax
. When I
qs
and I
qsMax
are equal, torque
decreases as speed (time) further increases.
Fig. 13(a) shows I
qs
versus I
ds
loci at 10 N m motoring
and 10 N m generating. The plots were taken by running
the machine at 1000 r/min and applying a motoring torque of
10 N m. As the speed increases, the current loci follow the
hyperbolic constant torque curve where I
qs
increases and I
ds
decreases.
This 10-N mtorque is held constant up to 3500 r/min, where
the algorithm clamps I
qs
. This point occurs at the peak shown
in the gure. Above this speed, I
qs
is kept clamped. I
qsMax
and
I
qs
start to decrease as speed further increases, and therefore,
torque starts to decrease too. The maximum speed reached is
9000 r/min at 1.4 N m.
Fig. 13. I
qs
and I
ds
current loci at (a) 10 and 10 N m and (b) 20 and
20 N m; 175 A/div.
In generating mode, the machine is run at 1000 r/min and
10 N m. As speed increases, the current regulator moves
along the hyperbolic constant torque curve for 10 N m.
Both I
ds
and I
qs
decrease while torque is held at 10 N m.
I
qs
clamp is activated at the negative valley of the current
loci, which occurs at 8400 r/min. Above this speed, I
ds
keeps
decreasing, while I
qs
starts to increase, and therefore, torque
starts to increase toward zero. The last data point was taken
at 14 000 r/min and 3.2 N m of torque while I
qs
is still
clamped.
Fig. 13(b) depicts similar I
qs
and I
ds
loci at 20 N m
motoring and 20 N m generating. In motoring mode,
20 N m of torque is maintained along the 20 N m con-
stant hyperbolic torque curve. The I
qs
clamp is activated at
2200 r/min, where the peak occurs. Above this speed, I
qs
starts
decreasing. Therefore, torque decreases. Like Fig. 13(a), the
nal speed is reached at 9000 r/min with 1.4 N m of torque. In
generating mode, the 20 N m torque is maintained along its
hyperbolic constant torque curve. The negative valley is reached
at 6800 r/min, where I
qs
clamp is activated. Above this speed,
I
qs
starts to increase as speed further increases causing torque to
increase toward zero. The same 14 000 r/min maximum speed
is reached at 3.2 N m of torque.
V. CONCLUSION
A novel current regulation algorithm for induction machines
that provides maximum torque-per-ampere capability in the
entire eld-weakened region has been presented. The eld-
weakened region was presented based on machine equations.
The effect of stator resistance in the eld-weakened region was
discussed, as well as why it is important to take it into account
for stable current regulation. The eld-weakened region was
subdivided in two regions. The rst region occurs where the
current regulator is limited by current and voltage limits or only
the voltage limit. The second region occurs where the current
regulator is limited by the voltage limit and the maximum slip
frequency.
The new algorithm was described and discussed in detail.
The algorithm provides robust current regulation with near
maximum torque-per-ampere capability while maintaining high
988 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 43, NO. 4, JULY/AUGUST 2007
efciency for induction machines despite signicant changes in
voltage source and machine parameters caused either by mag-
netic saturation or temperature. The algorithm identies when
the current regulator begins to saturate and therefore when the
machine enters the eld-weakened region. The algorithm de-
termines the optimum d-axis current command for the machine
by controlling the zero time vector T0 to a desired value. The
q-axis current command is determined from the torque com-
mand and the d-axis current feedback. However, once the
system starts to saturate (running out of voltage), a maximum
I
qsMax
is determined from the maximum slip frequency and the
q-axis current is limited to I
qsMax
.
Successful experimental results from a machine prototype
tested in a dynamometer showed that the algorithm provides
good overall dynamic response and smooth transitions into
the eld-weakened region with maximum torque-per-ampere
capability in all four quadrants of operation.
APPENDIX
The equations in the eld-weakened region for I
ds
and I
qs
currents as functions of maximum phase voltage, phase current,
and synchronous frequency, taking into account the effect of
stator resistance, are given.
For eld-weakened region I, see equations for motoring, line
CD and generating, line HI, as shown at the bottom of the
page, where
A =
_
L
2

L
2
s
L
4

_

4
e
+
_
L
2
s
L
2

_
r
2
s

2
e
B =2
_
L
2

L
s
L
3

_
r
s

3
e
+ 2(L
s
L

) r
3
s

e
C =
_
r
2
s
+L
2

2
e
_
V
2
max
+
_
r
2
s
+
2
e
L
2

_
2
I
2
max
D =
_
L
2

L
2
s
L
4
s
_

4
e

_
L
2
s
L
2

_
r
2
s

2
e
E =2
_
L
3
s
L

L
2
s
_
r
s

3
e
+ 2 (L
s
L

) r
3
s

e
F =
_
r
2
s
+L
2
s

2
e
_
V
2
max
+
_
r
2
s
+
2
e
L
2
s
_
2
I
2
max
.
Field-weakened region II
Motoring, line DA
I
dsFWII
=

_
4A
2
C
2
+B
2
C
2

_
B
2
+
_
B
2
2
4A
2
_
2(4A
2
2
A
2
B
2
2
)
I
qsFWII
=

_
4A
2
C
3
+B
2
C
3

_
B
2
+
_
B
2
2
4A
2
_
2(4A
2
2
A
2
B
2
2
)
Generating, line IA
I
dsFWIIG
=

_
4A
2
C
2
+B
2
C
2

_
B
2

_
B
2
2
4A
2
_
2(4A
2
2
A
2
B
2
2
)
I
qsFWIIG
=

_
4A
2
C
3
+B
2
C
3

_
B
2

_
B
2
2
4A
2
_
2(4A
2
2
A
2
B
2
2
)
where
A
2
=
_
r
2
s
+L

L
s

2
e
_
2
B
2
=2 (L

L
s
)
e
r
s
C
2
=
_
r
2
s
+L
2

2
e
_
V
2
max
C
3
=
_
r
2
s
+L
2
s

2
e
_
V
2
max
.
If the stator resistance is assumed to be zero, the previous
equations are simplied signicantly as follows.
Field-weakened region I assuming r
s
= 0
Motoring, line CD
I
dsFWlr0
=

_
_
V
max

e
_
2
(L

I
max
)
2
L
2
s
L
2

I
qsFWlr0
=

_
V
max

e
_
2
+ (L
s
I
max
)
2
L
2
s
L
2

.
Motoring, line CD
I
dsFWI
=

2 A C +B
2
I
2
max
B
_
4 C A I
2
max
+I
4
max
B
2
4 C
2
2 (A
2
+B
2
)
I
qsFWI
=

2 D F +E
2
I
2
max
+E
_
E
2
I
4
max
4 F D I
2
max
4 F
2
2 (D
2
+E
2
)
Generating, line HI
I
dsFWIG
=

2 A C +B
2
I
2
max
+B
_
4 C A I
2
max
+I
4
max
B
2
4 C
2
2 (A
2
+B
2
)
I
qsFWIG
=

2 D F +E
2
I
2
max
E
_
E
2
I
4
max
4 F D I
2
max
4 F
2
2 (D
2
+E
2
)
GALLEGOS-LPEZ et al.: CURRENT CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINES IN THE FIELD-WEAKENED REGION 989
Generating, line HI
I
ds
equation is the same as motoring, and I
qs
equation
changes sign.
Field-weakened region II assuming r
s
= 0
Motoring, line DA
I
dsFWIIr0
=
V
max

2
e
L
s
I
qsFWIIr0
=
V
max

2
e
L

.
Generating, line IA
I
ds
equation is the same as motoring, and I
qs
equation
changes sign.
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Gabriel Gallegos-Lpez (S93M97) was born
in Villahermosa, Mexico, in 1971. He received
the Bachelors degree in electronics and commu-
nications engineering from the Universidad de las
Amricas Puebla, Puebla, Mexico, in 1994, and
the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, U.K., in 1998.
In 1999, he joined the Advanced Engineering,
Energenix Center, Delphi Corporation, Kokomo, IN,
as a Machine Control Engineer. In 2005, he joined
Delphi Research Laboratories, Shelby Township,
MI, as a Senior Researcher. In 2006, he joined the Advanced Technology
Center, General Motors Corporation, Torrance, CA, where he is currently a
Senior Project Engineer in the Controls Engineering Group. He is involved
in developing optimum control algorithms for electric powertrains. He is the
holder of ve patents on electric machine drives. His research interests are
power electronics converters, electric drives, sensorless control, and electric,
hybrid, and fuel-cell vehicles and their optimum control.
Fani S. Gunawan received the B.S. and M.S.
degrees in electrical engineering from The Ohio
State University, Columbus, in 1994 and 1997,
respectively.
In 1998, he joined the Energenix Center, Delphi
Corporation, Kokomo, IN, where he has been in-
volved in developing control algorithms and testing
electric machine and is currently a Project Engineer
in the Power Electronics Group.
James E. Walters received the B.S. degree in
electrical engineering from Purdue University, West
Lafayette, IN, in 1994, and the M.S. degree in elec-
trical engineering from the University of Wisconsin,
Madison (UW-Madison), in 1997.
His career with Delphi began at the Delco Remy
Division Technology Development Center in 1990 as
an engineering student working on electric vehicle
applications. He was a GM Fellow at UW-Madison,
where he focused on power electronic and motor
drive applications. Since 1997, he has been the
Competency Leader for Motor Controls with the Energenix Center, Delphi
Corporation, Kokomo, IN. He is the holder of 11 patents, primarily on electric
machine control. His areas of interest include electric machine drives and
engine control.