6 - Operation and Maintenance of Gravity Filters

Operation and Maintenance of
Gravity Filters
Water Treatment Practices Committee MI-AWWA
Prepared by: Grant
Gartrell, PE, BCEE
Water Treatment Practices
Committee, Michigan
Section AWWA
Gravity Granular Media Filtration
Solids separation process
driven by the force of gravity
that uses granular media to
remove:
Suspended solids (particles)
Floc carryover particles
Fe & Mn precipitates
Protozoa
Bacteria
Viruses
Dissolved Organics (w/GAC)

Operation and Maintenance of Gravity Filters

The Filtration Cycle
One complete filtration cycle:
Starting a clean filter
Operating the filter to remove particles
Ending the run
Backwashing so a new run can be started
Termination of a filter run on:
Reaching maximum headloss
Reaching maximum effluent turbidity
Reaching maximum filter run time (arbitrary set point by utility)
Decrease in demand for filtered water

REGULATIONS
History of Filtration Regulations and Turbidity Levels
Year Agency/Regulation Filter Effluent Limit (steady-state)
1942 US Public Health Department < 10 JTU
1962 US Public Health Department < 5 JTU
1974 Federal SDWA 1 NTU
1989 Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) 0.5 NTU in 95% of monthly CFE
Max of 5 NTU
1998 Interim Enhanced SWTR
(plants serving > 10,000)
0.3 NTU in 95% of monthly CFE
Max of 1 NTU
2002 Long Term 1 Enhanced SWTR
(plants serving <10,000 population)
0.3 NTU in 95% of monthly CFE
Max of 1 NTU
Partnership for Safe Water Goals for Filter Effluent Turbidity:
Combined Effluent: <0.1 NTU
Individual Filter Effluent: <0.3 NTU during filter ripening
Others Requirements for IESWTR and LT1ESWTR
Required Conventional and
Direct Filtration Plants to
monitor turbidity
continuously at each
individual filter effluent

Record turbidity every
15 minutes
Exceedance of trigger
levels requires follow-
up actions

Filter Backwash Recycling Rule (FBRR) - 2001
All recycled waste streams
must flow through all
treatment processes
Return prior to Rapid
Mix/Coagulation
Includes
Filter backwash water
Thickener supernatants
Dewater liquids

Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water
Treatment Rule (LT2ESWTR) - 2006
Requires plants with high
levels of Cryptosporidium
to provide additional
treatment
Large plants sample raw
water for Crypto
Small plants sample raw
water for E-coli
Not a big issue for MI
plants
Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts
Photo Credit: H.D.A Lindquist, U.S. EPA
TYPES OF FILTERS
Broad Categories of Filters
Filter Type Inception Applications
Slow Sand Filters 1830s Small, rural communities
Rapid Sand Filters 1880s Small towns to major cities
High-Rate Filters 1970s Small towns to major cities
Diatomaceous Earth Filters WWII Swimming pools (originally developed to
treat water for forward troops in the
Pacific)
Pressure Filters 1920s Small communities usually groundwater
Fe & Mn removal

Types of Granular Media Filters
Rapid Granular Media
Filtration
Multi-media
Configuration
High-Rate Granular Media
Filtration
Dual-media
Configuration
Mono-media
Configuration
Anthracite
Media
Anthracite
Media
Anthracite
Media
Sand
Media
Sand
Media
High Density Stone
Support
Gravel
Support
Gravel
Under Drain
6-8"
24"
3"
10-12" 10-12"
12"
18"
48-72"
Under Drain Under Drain
MEDIA AND PARTICLE REMOVAL
Particle vs. Media Sizes
Media/Particle Type Approx. Dia. Source
Anthracite Media Grain 900 1500 m
Sand Media Grain 400 600 m
Diatoms 30 m Edzwald, et. al., 1998
Silica particle 20 m Edzwald, et. al., 1998
Al or Fe floc particle 10 m Edzwald, et. al., 1998
Giardia Lamblia 7 - 12 m Logsdon, 2008
Cryptosporidium parvum 3 6 m Logsdon, 2008
Bacillus bacterium 1 - 2 m Edzwald, et. al., 1998

Cryptosporidium oocysts have been shown to slip through filters with pore
sizes < 4 6 m, Source: U.S. EPA
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Typ. Granular filter w/ 0.5 mm sand would not strain out particles < 75 m,
Source: AWWA Filter Maintenance & Operations Guidance Manual, 2002
Particle vs. Media Size

Source: Edzwald et al. 1998
Attachment Removal Mechanisms
Impingement & Bridging
Capture Mechanisms
Coagulated and Settled Water
Filtered Water
Adsorption Capture
Mechanism
Coagulated and Settled Water
Filtered Water
What Drives Particle Removal?
Well coagulated water applied to the filters helps to capture
the fine particles (clay, bacteria, protozoa) as these adhere to
media grains
Particles will also attach to previously filtered particles stuck
on media grains
Media size
Media depth
Particles are captured and stored versus removed because
they can become detached
Operation practices control particle detachment


Effective Size and Uniformity Coefficient
Effective Size (ES) the size opening that will pass 10% by dry
weight of a representative sample of filter material
Uniformity Coefficient (UC) ratio of the size opening that
passes 60% (D
60
) divided by the D
10
of the same sample

UC = the more uniform the media size distribution
UC = the more uniform the pore spaces = less chance for
pockets of large pore spaces which can change of particle
breakthrough


UC = D
60
/D
10
Granular Media Filters Store Particles
Filter Media Bed Design
Smaller media grains provide surface area per unit volume of
filter media for attachment by impingement, interception and
adsorption
Surface area with depth of media
Depth of media does not particle size capture
media depth for a given grain size = chance particle
attachment
media depth = particle storage capacity

Granular media filters store particles, they do not
permanently remove them!
Particle Detachment
Breakthrough occurs when
pores are filled and shear
forces exceed attachment
forces
Clean media does not have as
much surface area for
attachment to occur =
breakthrough probability


L/D Ratio
L/D ratio is a relative measure of the storage capacity of a filter
L/D does not account for s in coagulants chemistry or polymer use

Model A
Media Configuration
L = 60 mm
D = d
10
= 8.731 mm
60 mm
L/D = = 6.87
8.731 mm
L = 16.36 mm
16.36 mm
L/D = = 6.87
2.381 mm
D = d
10
= 2.381 mm
Model B
Media Configuration
Scaled Model
Illustration
of L/D Ratio
Present Day
Dual Media
L/D = 1,117
L/D = 508
L/D Ratios of Full-Scale Gravity Filters
18 Anthracite
ES = 0.9 mm
12 Sand
ES = 0.5 mm
L/D = 609
1950s Rapid
Sand Media
20 Sand
ES = 0.45 mm
L/D = 1,128
Typical Present
Day Mono-
Media
60 Anthracite
ES = 1.2 mm
L/D = 1,270
FACTORS AFFECTING FILTRATION
Factors Affecting Filtration
(outside the filter process)
Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation effectiveness
Antiquated water plant designs
Design and/or installation errors
Mechanical failures
Human error
Filters need to be designed, operated, and maintained so that
they can handle varying loads and conditions to continue to
meet effluent water quality requirements


Factors Affecting Filtration
(within the filter process)
Water temperature
Colder water is heavier = shear forces
Colder water = reactivity for adsorption
Particle Load: size, quantity & quality of particles
Filtration rate: rates = shear forces
Headloss: headloss = shear forces
cleaner media = surface area for attachment
Air binding = short circuiting, higher filtration rates in localized
areas of the bed, greater head losses = detachment
potential

Effects of Rate Changes on Filtered Water Quality
At Base Rate of 2 gpm/ft
2
Instant rate change
5-min rate change
10-min rate change
Source: Cleasby et al. 1963
Changing Rate from
2 to 2.4 gpm/ft
2
over
10 min period vs. 5
min period results in
over 4X more iron in
filter effluent, and
28.5X more when
the rate change is
instantaneous
Effects of Floc Strength on Filtered Water Quality

Source: Cleasby et al. 1963
Strong Floc
Weak Floc
Quantity of solids that
breakthrough depends on:
Magnitude of the rate
change
Speed of rate change
Character of solids lodged in
filter media
Quantity of solids that
breakthrough is not very
dependent on the duration of
the rate disturbance

Minimizing Effects of Rate Increases
Operational Strategies
Create strong flocs
Control filter rates
AwwaRF Filter Maintenance
and Operations Guidance
Manual suggests keeping
rate increases to:
1. <3%/min for typical flocs
2. <5%/min for strong flocs
3. <1%/min for weak flocs


Design Features
Flexible raw water
pumping
Adequate finished water
storage
Sed basins that can
handle water level s
Adequate number of
filters in the plant
Rate control method
Declining rate or
constant rate

EFFLUENT TURBIDITY CONTROL
Idealized Filter Run Characteristic Curve

Individual Filter Turbidity Spike Minimization
0 30 60 90
0
0.5
1.0
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(
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)

TECHNIQUE 2
Allow filter to rest for 2 to 24 hours and
Clamp hydraulic loading rate at minimum
value (1-2 gpm/ft
2
) during ripening
TECHNIQUE 1
Clamp hydraulic loading rate at minimum
value (1-2 gpm/ft
2
) during ripening
Unmitigated and characteristic
turbidity ripening spike
TECHNIQUE 3
Add an additional non-fluidizing backwash
step (2-4 gpm/ft
2
) for 5 to 10 minutes
following the high rate backwash step
ELAPSED TIME (MINUTES)
S
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:

C
D
M

S
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BACKWASHING
Filter Backwashing
Fluidize (expand) filter media
to dislodge particles and carry
them away from the filter
Three types of filter
backwashing approaches:
1. Fluidized bed backwash
with surface wash scour
2. Sequential air scouring
backwash
3. Concurrent air scouring
backwash

Filter Backwashing Goals
Filter Backwashing Goals:
1. Fluidize (expand) media to
dislodge particles and floc,
and convey it out of the
filter tank
2. Insufficient fluidization over
time leads to mudball
accumulation and
penetration into media
3. Over fluidization can reduce
scrubbing action and
consequently reduce particle
and floc removal
4. Over fluidization can also cause
media loss through the wash
troughs


Filter Backwashing and Media Expansion
10 States Standards:
1. Requirement: 15 gpm/ft
2

min. consistent with water
temp. and media specific
gravity.
2. Recommended: 20 gpm/ft
2

or a rate necessary to
provide 50% expansion
3. Backwash capacity > 15
min. wash on 1 filter at
design rate of wash
112,500 gallons for 500 ft
2

filter at 15 gpm/ft
2

Selecting Proper Backwash Rates
Backwash rates should be
based on media:
Set backwash rate to remove
particles from media without
over fluidizing bed
Flow rate needs to be
adjustable to account for
varying water temperatures
High-rate needs to be
selected to backwash the
warmest water temperature

Adjusting Backwash Rates

Source: CDM Smith
Anthracite: d
10
= 1.0 mm; s.g. =1.6
-
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

B
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R
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(
g
p
m
)

Water Temperature C
Effect of Temperature and Media Uniformity Coefficient on
Theoretical High Backwash Rates
Coal UC 1.65
Coal UC 1.4
Sand UC 1.65
Sand UC 1.4
Sand: d
10
= 0.5 mm; s.g. = 2.65
Sequential Backwashing with Surface Wash

Sequential Backwashing with Air Scour

Media Freeboard
Water Backwash
Media
Typical Wash Trough
Media
Freeboard

Media Freeboard
Water Backwash
Media
Media
Freeboard
Typical Wash Trough
Measuring Bed Expansion
Bed Expansion = expanded media total media depth
Conditions: water temperature 34F - High-rate backwash: 20,700 gpm
Expansion: 8"/26" ~ 31%
Circular Tube Measuring Device Measuring Bed Expansion
January 2011
DWSD Northeast Filters
Conditions: water temperature 55F - High-rate backwash: 18,000 gpm
Expansion: 7"/20" ~ 35%
Graduated Measuring
Stick Method
DWSD Springwells 1958 Filters
On-Line Monitoring of Bed Expansion
Spent Filter Backwash Turbidity Analysis
This analysis helps answer the
question: How clean is
clean?
Filters that are over-
backwashed will require
longer ripening periods
A small amount of particles
left in the filters will buffer the
startup turbidity spikes
Filter backwashes should be
ended once spent backwash
turbidity reaches 10-15 NTU
Backwash rate = 18 gpm/ft
2
at 2
minutes into high-rate wash cycle
Spent BWW Turbidity ~ 140 NTU
Spent Filter Backwash Turbidity Analysis
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 2 4 6 8 10
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Minutes of Backwash
Filter Backwash Turbidity
Filter #30
Filter #31
Filter #40
EVALUATING FILTERS
Evaluating Filters
There are many observations and tests that can be done to
evaluate filtration performance and troubleshoot filter
problems
A few excellent resources for evaluation methods include:
Nix, Daniel K., and Taylor, John Scott, AWWA, 2003. Filter
Evaluation Procedures for Granular Media
AwwaRF and AWWA, 2002. Filter Maintenance and Operations
Guidance Manual, Project #2511
Kawamura, Susumu, 2000. Integrated Design and Operation of
Water Treatment Facilities, 2
nd
edition
Logsdon, Gary S., AWWA, 2008. Water Filtration Practices,
including Slow Sand Filters and Precoat Filtration, 1
st
edition

Solids Retention Profiling
Solids Retention Profile is a measure of the amount of
particles (as measured by turbidity) in a filter media bed
Solids Retention Profile is also referred to as mud deposition
profile, floc or sludge retention profile and turbidity profile
Properly backwashed and adequately ripened filters should
have 30 to 60 NTU retained solids in all levels of the media

Starting Guidance on Interpretation of Results
Turbidity Filter Media Condition
0-30 ntu Clean, un-ripened filter
30-60 ntu Cleaned and ripened filter (target)
60-120 ntu Slightly dirty but should perform okay (consider adjustments in
operations, check spent backwash turbidities, run times, etc.)
>120 ntu Dirty media (re-evaluate backwashing procedures)
>300 ntu Indicative of mudball problems and excessive flocculant stuck in
media
Source: Kawamura, Susumu. Integrated Design of Water Treatment Facilities, 1991
Solids Retention Profile Examples
Source: Wolfe & Pizzi. Optimizing Filter Performance, Journal NEWWA.
March 1999
18 anthracite ES = 1.0 mm
12 sand ES = 0.5 mm
Filter rate = 4.0 gpm/ft
2
March 1999
Spent backwash water turbidity
analysis yielded 2 NTU at the end
of the wash cycle on this filter
March 1999
BACKWASH OBSERVATIONS
Media Boils During Backwashing

Observing Filter Backwashes
Noting Wash Trough Capacity
Inspecting Filter Media Surfaces
Media Hole
Noting Uncontrolled Air in Backwash
Noting Air Scour Distribution
The End

6 - Operation and Maintenance of Gravity Filters

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