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Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J .
Sternberg
Chapter 6
Chapter 6:
Memory Processes
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J . Sternberg
Chapter 6
Some Questions of Interest
What have cognitive psychologists
discovered regarding how we
encode information for storing it in
memory?
What affects our ability to retrieve
information from memory?
Chapter 6
Some Questions of Interest
How does what we know or what
we learn affect what we remember?
How does memory develop with
age?
Chapter 6
Memory Processes
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Chapter 6
Encoding Processes
Creating an acoustic code
What it sounds like
Creating a semantic code
What it means
Creating a visual code
What it looks like
Chapter 6
Encoding Types and STM
Type of code may rely on type of
task
STM refers to memory that is held
temporarily
Encoding in STM is primarily
acoustic, although semantic and
visual encoding can occur
Chapter 6
Evidence for Acoustic
Encoding in STM
Conrad (1964)
Visually present a series of letters
briefly
Immediately write the letters viewed
once series is complete (try it; starts
on next click)
Chapter 6
Conrad (1964)
You viewed: B C F M N P N S T V
What errors did you make?
F for S
B for V
P for B
Not visual errors
e.g., E for F, O for Q, R for P
Thus, we encode items acoustically even
when presented visually
Chapter 6
Shulman (1970)
Evidence for semantic encoding in STM
Participants viewed 10-word lists
Given a recognition test using visually
represented probe words, which were
homonyms - e.g., bawl for ball;
synonyms - e.g., talk for speak; or
identical to the original word
Chapter 6
Shulman (1970) Results
The homonym and synonym probes
produced similar error rates, suggesting
that an equal amount of acoustic and
semantic processing must be taking
place
Homonyms - e.g., bawl for ball
Synonyms - e.g., talk for speak
Identical to the original word
Chapter 6
Posner & Keele (1967)
Evidence for visual encoding in STM
Letter-matching task
Two letters separated by brief interval
Participant had to indicate if same letter
A-a = yes
A-A = yes
A-M = no
Measure reaction time
Chapter 6
Posner & Keele (1967) Results
If letters were the same visually (a-a),
participants were faster than if the
letters were not the same visually (A-a)
Results indicate that visual code was
also present for STM
Chapter 6
Encoding Types and LTM
Type of code may rely on type of
task
LTM refers to memory that may be
held permanently
Encoding in LTM is primarily
semantic, although other types of
encoding can occur
Chapter 6
Semantic Encoding in LTM
Grossman & Eagle (1970)
Study 41 different words
Given recognition test after delay
9 of the distractors were semantically
related to words on list
9 of the distractors were not
False alarms for each type: 1.83 of
synonyms, but only 1.05 of unrelated
Chapter 6
Visual Encoding in LTM
Frost (1972)
Participants studied 16 drawings
Manipulated visual orientation and semantic
category
After a delay, participants were asked if they
had studied an object with the same name as
the test object
Reaction time was measured
Participants responded faster to identical
drawings than drawings in a different
orientation
Chapter 6
Acoustic Encoding in LTM
Evidence of very long-term memory
for songs
Rubin (1977)
Participants recall more of the text
when provided with the melody of a
well-learned song (Star Spangled
Banner) than when given no cue
Chapter 6
Transfer from STM to LTM
Consolidation
Integrating new information into stored
information
Disruption of consolidation is studied
in amnesiacs
ECT patients (Squire)
Chapter 6
Metamemory
Knowing what you know
Knowing how your memory works
Being able to assess your own
memory
Young children lack metamemory
skills
Chapter 6
Principles to Strengthen Memory
Elaborative rehearsal is better than
maintenance rehearsal
Distributed practice is better than
massed practice
Spacing effect
Organizing information enhances
memory
Chapter 6
What Causes the Spacing
Effect?
One idea: REM theory
The more REM sessions following study
sessions, the more consolidation that
occurs
Chapter 6
Sleep and Memory Consolidation
Chapter 6
Mnemonic Devices to Aid
Memory
Categorical clustering
Interactive images
Pegword system
Method of loci
Acronyms
Acrostics
Keyword system
Chapter 6
Which Mnemonic Is the Best?
Roediger (1980)
Chapter 6
Prospective Memory
The ability to remember a future
intention
Buying bread on your way home from
work
Going to the dentist on Wednesday
Retrospective memory is memory
of the past
Chapter 6
Retrieval Processes
Getting information back out
Multiple processes can be used to
enhance retrieval
Different strategies are used for short-
term storage and long-term storage
Matching the type of processes done
during encoding with the type of
processes done at retrieval increases
success
Chapter 6
Retrieval from STM
Is the search serial or parallel?
Serial indicates one-by-one search
Parallel means all items are processed at
once
Is the search exhaustive or self-
terminating?
Exhaustive indicates that all items in the
set are examined
Self-terminating means that after target is
found, the search stops
Chapter 6
Studying Searching in STM
Saul Sternberg (1967)
Memorize a set of
numbers (6,3,8,2,7)
Shown a probe digit
Participant must
indicate if the probe
was in the set
Time to respond is
measured
6,5,8,2,7
2
Yes
Chapter 6
Sternberg (1967)
Three critical factors manipulated
How many items were in the set the
participants had to memorize
Whether the probe was in the list
The probes location in the set
Chapter 6
Sternberg (1967)
Possible result patterns
A represents parallel
processing
B illustrates serial
processing
C illustrates exhaustive
serial processing
D illustrates self-
terminating serial
processing
Chapter 6
Sternbergs Conclusion
A serial exhaustive model
But.
Corcoran (1971) proposed that a parallel
model could also explain the pattern found
Townsend (1971) stated it was
mathematically impossible to distinguish
parallel from serial
Thus, both models still exist
Chapter 6
Retrieval from LTM
The types of cues you use to
retrieve may affect what you can
retrieve
Free recall vs. categorized recall
Study random list or an organized list
What is the impact on memory?
Chapter 6
Bower, Clark, Lesgold, and
Winzenz (1969)
Randomized list:
Naples World Italy Americas
Montreal Bristol Washington Ottawa
Orlando England Europe Dallas
Liverpool Winnipeg Rome USA
London Florence Canada
Organized list:
World
Europe Americas
England Italy USA Canada
London Rome Washington Ottawa
Liverpool Florence Dallas Montreal
Bristol Naples Orlando Winnipeg
Chapter 6
Bower et al. (1969)
Participants remembered 65% of
the organized list, only 19% of the
random list
Thus, organization helps memory
retrieval
Chapter 6
Khader et al. (2005)
Same cortical
areas are
activated during
perception and
long-term
memory recall
Chapter 6
If You Cannot Retrieve from
LTM
Has the memory disappeared?
Is the memory available but not
accessible?
Chapter 6
Theories about Forgetting
Interference theory
Proactive: old memories interfere with
recall of new information
Retroactive: new memories interfere
with recall of old information
Decay theory
Memory is weakened with disuse
Simply passage of time
Chapter 6
Interference vs. Decay in STM
Brown-Peterson paradigm
Participants were given 3 consonants to
try to remember (e.g., FRL)
Participants were then given a 3-digit
number (294) and asked to count
backward by threes (e.g., 291, 288, 285)
After varying delays (3-18 seconds),
participants were asked to recall the 3
letters
Chapter 6
Brown-Peterson Results (1959)
Trigrams were
forgotten by 18
seconds due to
retroactive
interference of
counting
backward
Chapter 6
Keppel & Underwood (1962)
Replicated the Peterson & Peterson task,
varying the time delay to recall
Analysis was done by trial number (1st trial,
2nd trial, 3rd trial, etc.)
Found support for proactive interference
Proactive Interference in STM
Chapter 6
Proactive Interference from
LTM
Experimental
group
Learn List A Learn List B Delay Test for Memory B
Control
group
No study Learn List B Delay Test for Memory B
The experimental group remembers less material
from the tested List B than the control group
Information previously learned (List A) interferes with
retrieval of List B
Chapter 6
Retroactive Interference from
LTM
Experimental
group
Learn List A Learn List
B
Delay Test for
Memory A
Control
group
Learn List A ------------ Delay Test for
Memory A
The experimental group will remember less material
from the tested List A compared to the control group
Information learned afterward interferes with
retrieval of List A
Chapter 6
Bartlett (1932)
Memory for prose
Read stories about Native Americans
Subjects were good at recalling gist
information
Omission of detail was systematic
Tended to omit information that did not
make sense to the participants
Chapter 6
Prior experience influences how we
recall information
Having retrieval cues can help us
recall more information, but cues
can also lead to errors
Bartlett (1932)
Chapter 6
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Serial Position Curve
Chapter 6
Decay Theory
Tested by recent-probes task
Participants are shown four target
words
Participants then presented with a
probe word
Participants decide whether or not the
probe word is identical to one of the
four target words
Chapter 6
Recent-Probes Task
Decay only had a relatively small
effect on forgetting in short-term
memory
Interference accounted for most of
the forgetting
Chapter 6
The procedure is actually quite simple. First you
arrange things into different groups. Of course,
one pile may be sufficient depending on how
much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere
else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step;
otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is important
not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too
few things at once than too many. In the short
run, this may not seem important, but
complications can easily arise. It is difficult to
foresee any end to the necessity for this task in
the immediate future, but then one never can tell.
After the procedure is completed, one arranges
the materials into different groups again. They
can be put into their appropriate places.
Eventually, they will be used once more and the
whole cycle will then have to be repeated.
Chapter 6
Bransford & Johnson (1972)
Gave people passages to read,
with or without a title
Washing Clothes
Chapter 6
Bransford & Johnson (1972)
Results
Passage was difficult to understand
without a title, and recall was poor
Much better recall with title
Illustrates constructive nature of
memory
Prior experience affects how we recall
things and what we actually recall from
memory
Chapter 6
Nancy arrived at the cocktail party. She looked around the room to see
who was there. She went to talk with her professor. She felt she had to
talk to him but was a little nervous about just what to say. A group of
people started to play charades. Nancy went over and had some
refreshments. The hors doevres were good, but she was interested in
talking to the rest of the people at the party. After a while, she decided
shed had enough and left the party.
Some participants also heard that passage but w/this theme:
Nancy woke up feeling sick, and she wondered if she really were
pregnant. How could she tell the professor she had been seeing? And
the money was another problem.
Participants were then asked to recall as much about the
story as they could
Owens, Bower, & Black (1979)
Chapter 6
Owens, Bower, & Black (1979)
Results
Theme No Theme
Studied
Propositions
29.2 20.3
Inferred
Propositions
15.2 3.7
The theme offered some background information
and some retrieval cues, which increased recall.
However, the background info also led to more
intrusions (memory for information not present),
such as, The professor got Nancy pregnant.
Chapter 6
Autobiographical Memory
Memory of personal history
Constructive in nature
Chapter 6
Flashbulb Memories
Some researchers propose that
events that are particularly
surprising or arousing will yield
flashbulb memories
Where were you when the
Challenger explosion occurred?
OJ verdict was read?
JFK was assassinated?
Bombing of the World Trade Center?
Chapter 6
Flashbulb Memories
Some research proposes good
memory for
Place where you learned of information
What you were doing when you heard it
Where you got the information
Emotions in self and others
The aftermath
Chapter 6
Emotion and Memory
There is a strong relationship (.90)
between the emotionality and
vividness of memory
This does not mean that the memory is
accurate
Emotional events seem to be less
resistant to forgetting over time
Perhaps they are perceived better
Perhaps we think about them more
Chapter 6
Flashbulb Memory Results
Neisser & Harsch (1992)
Tested immediate memory for
Challenger disaster and then again 3
years later
There was little agreement with the
two memories, despite the
confidence of the participants
Chapter 6
Extraordinary
Autobiographical Memory
A Woman Remembers What She
Did Every Day for Decades
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/st
ory.php?storyId=5352811
Chapter 6
Memory Distortions
Simply recalling may distort your
memory
Simple suggestion may distort your
memory
Memory is constructive in nature
Chapter 6
Schacters Seven Sins of
Memory
1. Memories are transient (fade with time)
2. We do not remember what we do not pay
attention to
3. Our memories can be temporarily blocked
4. We can misattribute the source of memory
5. We are suggestible in our memories
6. We can show memory distortion (bias)
7. We often fail to forget the things we would
like not to recall (persistence of memory)
Chapter 6
Eyewitness Memory
The single greatest cause of
wrongful convictions nationwide,
playing a role in more than 75% of
convictions overturned through
DNA testing
http://www.innocenceproject.org/
Chapter 6
Factors that Influence
Eyewitness Testimony
Suggestive questions
Lineups
Confessions
Feedback to eyewitnesses
Chapter 6
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
Participants were all shown the
same video of an accident between
two cars
Some subjects asked, How fast were
the cars going when they smashed
into each other?
Others were asked, How fast were
the cars going when they hit each
other?
Chapter 6
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
Word Used
Average Speed
Estimated
Smashed 41 m.p.h.
Collided 39 m.p.h.
Bumped 38 m.p.h.
Hit 34 m.p.h.
Contacted 32 m.p.h.
How fast were the cars going when they ________
into each other?
Chapter 6
Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978)
Showed slides of a red car hitting a
pedestrian
There was a stop sign in the slides
Later asked questions, one of which
referred to a stop sign (consistent) or yield
sign (inconsistent)
Asked to recognize which slides had been
seen (one with a yield sign, one with a
stop sign)
Chapter 6
Loftus et al. (1978)
Results
Participants who had received the
consistent info were 34% more accurate
than those who received inconsistent info
in identifying the stop sign slide as the
one seen previously
Chapter 6
Childrens Eyewitness Memory
Childrens recollections are
particularly susceptible to distortion
Leading questions may distort
memory
The younger the child, the less
reliable the testimony
Susceptible to pressure
May believe that they recall things
that others have said they observed
Chapter 6
Problems with Lineups
Assumption that
perpetrator is in
lineup
Distractor
selection is also
important
Police behavior
may also influence
Chapter 6
Improving Identification
Accuracy in Lineups
Presenting only one suspect per
lineup
Making sure that all people in the
lineup are reasonably similar to
each other
Cautioning witnesses that the
suspect may not be in the lineup
Chapter 6
Repressed or Recovered
Memories of Abuse
A person remembers now that 20 years
ago, someone sexually abused him/her
Traumatic memory was previously
repressed, but was recovered (often)
under hypnosis in therapy
Validity of recovered memories?
Empirical evidence for Freudian
repression?
Chapter 6
Can Painful Abuse Memories
Be Repressed?
Skeptics argue that repression (or in
some cases, dissociation) of sexual
memories is a concept without any
scientific merit
If repression does not exist, there can be
no such thing as a recovered repressed
memory; rather, a recovered memory of
abuse can only be a false memory
Chapter 6
Lets Test Your LTM!
You will see several words, one at a
time
Do whatever you can to try and
remember as many of the words as you
can
At the end of the list, try to recall as
many words as you can
Chapter 6
BED
Chapter 6
CLOCK
Chapter 6
DREAM
Chapter 6
NIGHT
Chapter 6
TURN
Chapter 6
MATTRESS
Chapter 6
SNOOZE
Chapter 6
NOD
Chapter 6
TIRED
Chapter 6
NIGHT
Chapter 6
ARTICHOKE
Chapter 6
INSOMNIA
Chapter 6
REST
Chapter 6
TOSS
Chapter 6
NIGHT
Chapter 6
ALARM
Chapter 6
NAP
Chapter 6
SNORE
Chapter 6
PILLOW
Chapter 6
Write down the words you saw
Chapter 6
Here Are the Words in the
Order Viewed
BED
CLOCK
DREAM
NIGHT
TURN
MATTRESS
SNOOZE
NOD
TIRED
NIGHT
ARTICHOKE
INSOMNIA
REST
TOSS
NIGHT
ALARM
NAP
SNORE
PILLOW
Did you recall? Explanation
Bed? Clock? Primacy effect
Snore? Pillow? Recency effect
Spacing effect Night?
Artichoke? Distinctiveness
Toss? Toss &
Turn?
Clustering
Sleep? False Memory
Chapter 6
False Memories/Memory
Illusions
Roediger & McDermott (1995)
Present a list of associated words, missing
one target word (e.g., tired, bed, night,
dream, etc., but not SLEEP)
With immediate recall, participants tend to
recall the non-presented target item
More importantly, when asked whether
they remember or know the word was
on the list, they report an actual memory
for the item
Chapter 6
False Memory
Garry, Manning, Loftus, & Sherman
(1996)
Participants complete life events inventory
(LEI)
Then are led through imagination exercises
Fill out LEI again
The results show that when participants
imagine events that they said did not
happen to them, they are more likely to
say they did happen to them
Chapter 6
False Memory vs. Repressed
Memory Issue
Evidence for suggested false
memory is not automatically
evidence against repressed-
recovered memories, and vice
versa
Chapter 6
No Consensus on the Issue
Results vary dependent upon characteristics
sample (volunteers, children, child services, adult
recall, etc.)
Some abuse memories are not traumatic, and thus are
presumably not repressed (rather, they may be
forgotten)
Posttraumatic stress syndrome may also occur
One symptom is recurrent, intrusive thoughts about the
traumatic incidentthis is the opposite of repression
Some may handle memory of sexual abuse by
blocking out of mind; repression or dissociation
Chapter 6
Encoding Specificity
Memory is improved when
information available at encoding is
also available at retrieval
Chapter 6
Tulving & Thompson (1973)
1
st
study list: learn target words in capital letters
Cue Target
head LIGHT
grasp BABY
2
nd
free association: generate 6 words for each word
presented
Word Possible generations
dark light, black, room.
infant sleeping, bottle, baby.
Chapter 6
3
rd
recognition test: circle any generated words
that were in the study list in capital letters
dark light, black, room.
infant sleeping, bottle, baby.
4th recall: recall the words from the study list in
capital letters, using these cues that they were
studied with
grasp ________
head ________
Chapter 6
Free Association
Recognition Test
Study List
Recall Test
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

W
o
r
d
s

R
e
c
a
l
l
e
d

/

R
e
c
o
g
n
i
z
e
d
0
100
50
Tulving & Thompson (1973)
Results
They recalled
more than they
recognized!
Chapter 6
Amabile & Rovee-Collier (1991)
The match between encoding
and test for babies is very
important
3- and 6-month-old infants were
taught in crib with a particular
bumper background to kick to
move the mobile
Chapter 6
Amabile & Rovee-Collier (1991)
Infants kicked more strongly in the
same context
However, you can teach infants in
multiple contexts to weaken the
encoding specificity
Chapter 6
Tulving (1983)
People encode the context with the
target material
Physical match (class, diving, smell)
Emotional match (happy, depressed)
Understanding match (childhood
amnesia, under the influence of drugs
match)

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Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J .

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