CONTENT

Page







9.1 Sulphuric acid

9.1.1 Properties of sulphuric acid
9.1.2 The uses of sulphuric acid
9.1.3 The industrial process in manufacture of sulphuric acid
9.1.4 Environmental pollution by sulphuric acid

9.2 Ammonia and its salt

9.2.1 Properties of ammonia
9.2.2 The uses of ammonia
9.2.3 The industrial process in manufacture of ammonia

9.3 Alloys

9.3.1 Arrangement of Atoms in Metals
9.3.2 What are Alloys
9.3.3 Composition, Properties, Uses of Alloys

9.4 Synthetic polymers

9.4.1 What are Polymer, Properties of Polymers
9.4.2 Monomers in synthetic Polymers
9.4.3 Examples of Synthetic Polymers & Their Uses

9.5 Glass and ceramics

9.5.1 Glass
9.5.2 Ceramics
9.6 Composite material

Conclusion of Topic













9.1 SULPHURIC ACID

9.1.1 Properties of sulphuric acid

1. Sulphuric acid is a strong mineral acid.
2. Its molecular formula is H2SO4.
3. It is soluble in water.
4. Sulphuric acid is a non-volatile diprotic acid.
5. It is a highly corrosive, dense and oily liquid.
6. Concentrated sulphuric acid is a viscous colourless liquid.


















9.1.2 The uses of sulphuric acid


1) To manufacture fertilizers
There are many fertilizers that can be made of sulphuric acid. Some of them
are:
a) Calcium dihydrogen phosphate (superphosphate)

2 H2SO4 + Ca3(PO4) 2 Ca(H2 PO4) 2 + 2CaSO4

sulphuric acid + tricalcium phosphate calcium dihydrogen phosphate

b) Ammonium sulphate

H2SO4 +2NH3 (NH4) 2SO4
sulphuric acid + aqueous ammonia ammonium sulphate

c) Potassium sulphate

H2SO4 +2NH3 (NH4) 2SO4
sulphuric acid + aqueous ammonia ammonium sulphate

2) To manufacture detergents
Sulphuric acid reacts with hydrocarbon to produce sulphonic acid.
Sulphonic acid is then neutralized with sodium hydroxide to produce
detergents. Examples of hydrocarbon



3) To manufacture synthetic fibres
Synthetic fibres are polymers ( long chain molecules). Rayon is an
example of a synthetic fibre that is produced from the action of sulphuric
acid on cellulose.
4) To manufacture paint pigments
The white pigment in paint is usually barium sulphate, BaSO4. The
neutralization of sulphuric acid and barium hydroxide produces barium
sulphate.

5) As an electrolyte in lead-acid accumulators
6) To remove metal oxides from metal surfaces before electroplating
7) To manufacture pesticides
8) The uses of sulphuric acid in school laboratories are:

a. As a strong acid
b. As a drying or dehydrating agent
c. As an oxidizing agent
d. As a sulphonating agent
e. As a catalyst










9.1.2 The industrial process in manufacture sulphuric acid

1. Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the Contact process.
2. Sulphuric acid is produced from sulfur, oxygen and water via the contact
process.
3. The Contact process involves three stages.
Sulphur Sulphur dioxide Sulphur trioxide Sulphuric

4. Stage I: Production of sulphur dioxide gas, SO2.
This can be done by two methods,
a) Burning of sulphur in dry air.

S + O2 SO2

b) Burning of metal sulphide such as zinc sulphide in dry air.

2ZnS + 3O2 2SO2 + 2ZnO

5. Stage II: Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide SO3.
This is then oxidised to sulfur trioxide under the following conditions:
a) The presence of a vanadium(V) oxide as a catalyst.
b) A temperature of between 450C to 550C.
c) A pressure of one atmosphere
2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3



6. Stage III: Production of sulphuric acid
a) Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4 to
produce oleum, H2S2O7

H2SO4+ SO3 H2S2O7

b) Oleum is reacted with water to form concentrated H2SO4.

H2S2O7+ H2O 2 H2SO4

7. In stage II, sulphur dioxide is dried first before being added to dry air to
produce sulphur trioxide. This is:
a) To remove water vapour
b) To remove contaminants

8. In stage III, sulphur trioxide is not dissolved directly in water to produce
sulphuric acid. This is because:
a) sulphur trioxide has low solubility in water
b) sulphur trioxide reacts violently and mists are formed instead of a liquid

























Outline Of Contact process





Figure 9.5 Flowchart of Contact process




9.1.3 Environmental pollution by sulphuric acid

1. Sulphur dioxide is the main byproduct produced when sulfur-containing
fuels such as coal or oil are burned.
2. Sulphuric acid is formed by atmospheric oxidation of sulphur dioxide in
the presence of water. It also produces sulphurous acid.
3. Sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid are constituents of acid rain.
4. Acid rain can cause many effects such as:
i. Corrodes concrete buildings and metal structure
ii. Destroys trees and plants
iii. Decrease the pH of th soil and make it become acidic Acid rain flows
into the rivers and increases the acidity of water and kill aquatic living
things.
5. Hence, we must reduce the sulphur dioxide from the atmosphere by:
i. Use low sulphur fuels to reduce the emission of sulphur dioxide in
exhaust gases
ii. Remove sulphur dioxide from waste air by treating it with calcium














9.2 AMMONIA AND ITS SALT
9.2.1 Properties of ammonia
1. A colorless, pungent gas.
2. Its molecular formula is NH3
3. It is extremely soluble in water.
4. It is a weak alkali.

6. It reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to produce
white fumes of ammonium chloride.
NH 3 + HCl NH4C
7. Ammonia is alkaline in property and reacts with dilute acids in
neutralization to produce salts. For examples:
NH3 + HNO 3 NH4NO 3
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4) 2SO4

8. Aqueous solutions of ammonia produces OH ions (except Na+ ion, K+
ion, and Ca 2+ ion) forming metal hydroxides precipitate.
Fe3+ + 3OH Fe(OH) 3
Brown precipitate
Mg2+ + 2OH Mg(OH) 2
White precipitate


9. Some metal hydroxides such as zinc hydroxide and copper (II) hydroxide
dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia to form complexes.

Zn(OH) 2 + 4NH3 *Zn(NH3)4+ 2++ 2OH
Cu(OH)2 + 4NH3 *Cu(NH3)4+ 2+ + 2OH













USES OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY:

Examples are ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate and urea. The first two
are prepare through neuralisation but urea is produced by the reaction of
ammonia with carbon dioxide. The reaction involved are as the following: a)
2NH3 (g) + H2SO4 (aq) (NH4)2SO4 (s) ammonium sulphate b) NH3 (g) + HNO3
(aq) NH4NO3 (aq) ammonium nitrate c) 2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) (NH2)2CO (s) +
H2O (l) urea
Having a low melting point, liquefied ammonia makes a good cooling agent in
refrigerators and air conditioners.

It neutralizes the organic acids formed by microorganisms in latex, thereby
preventing coagulation and preserving the latex in liquid form.

Ammonia is converted to nitric acid in the Ostwald process:

1) ammonia is first oxidised to nitrogen monoxide, NO, by oxygen in the
presence of platinum as catalyst at 900C.

4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) Pt/900C 4NO (aq) + 6H2O (l)
2) nitrogen monoxide is further oxidised to nitrogen dioxide.

2NO (g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)

3) Nitrogen dioxide and oxygen are dissolved in water to produced nitric
acid.

4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + H2O (l) 4HNO3 (aq)

a) Nitric acid is manufactured from ammonia before being used to make
explosive like trinitrotoluene (TNT).

b) Nitric acid, in this case, is reacted with organic substances like toluene.
















9.2.3 The industrial process in manufacture of ammonia

1. Haber process is the industrial method of producing ammonia.
2. It needs direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen under high
pressure in the presence of a catalyst, often iron.
3. Nitrogen gas used in Haber process is obtained from the frictional
distillation of liquid air.
4. Hydrogen gas used in Haber process can be obtained by two methods:
a) The reaction between steam and heated coke (carbon)
C + H2O CO + H2
b) The reaction between steam and natural gas

( consisting mainly of methane)
CH4 + 2H2O CO2 +
5. In the Haber process:
a) A mixture consisting of one volume of nitrogen gas and three
volume of hydrogen gas is compressed to a pressure between 200
500 atmospheres.
B) The gas mixture is passed through a catalyst of powdered iron at a
temperature of 450 - 550C.
c) At this optimum temperature and pressure, ammonia gas is
produced.

N2+ 3H2 2NH3







9.3 ALLOYS

9.3.1 ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN METALS

1. The atom of pure metals are packed together closely. This causes the
metal to have a hight density
2. The forces of attraction between atoms (metallic bonds) are strong.
More heat energy is needed to overcome the metallic bond so that the
atoms are further apart during the melting. This is why metals usually
have hight melting point.
3. Heat energy can be transferred easily from one atom to the next by
vibration. This make metal good conduct of heat.
4. The freely moving outermost electrons within the metals structure are
able to conduct electricity. Metal are, therefore, good electrical
conductors.
5. Since atoms of pure metal are of the same size, they are arranged orderly
in a regular layered pattern. When a force is applied to metal, layer of
atom slide easily over one another. This make pure metals soft,
malleable and ductile.
















9.3.2 WHAT ARE ALLOYS

1. Pure metal are usually too soft for most uses. They also have a low
resistance to corrosion. They rush and tarnish easily.
2. To improve the physical properties of metal, a small amount of another
element (usually
metal) is added to form another an alloy.
3. An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals (something non-metal) in a
specific proportion. For example:
a. Bronze (90% of copper and 10% of tin)
b. Steel (99% of iron and 1% of carbon)
4. The purposes of making alloys include the following:
a) Increase the strength
i. Pure iron is soft and vary malleable. When a small amount of carbon is
added to iron, an alloy, steal is formed. The more carbon is added, the
stronger the steel becomes.
ii. Pure aluminium is light but not strong. With a small amount of copper
and magnesium are added to aluminium, a strong, light and durable alloy
call duralumin is produced.
b) Improving the resistance to corrosion
i. Iron rust easily but stainless steel which contains 80.6% of iron, 0.4% of
carbon, 18% of chromium and 1% of nickel does not rush. These
properties make stainless steel suitable for making surgical instrument
and cutlery.
ii. Pure copper tarnish easily. When zinc (30%) is added, the yellow alloy
which is known as brass develops a high resistance to corrosion.




c) Enhancing the appearance
i. Pewter, an alloy of tin (97%), antimony and copper is not only hard but
also has a more beautiful white silvery appearance.
ii. When copper is mixed with nickel to form cupronickel, an alloy that has
an attractive silvery, bright appearance is formed which is suitable for
making coins.










9.4 SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
9.4.1 WHAT ARE POLYMER

1. Molecule that consist of a large number of small identical or similar units
joined together repeatedly are called polymer.
2. The smaller molecules that make up the repeating unit in polymer are
caller monomer.
3. The process of joining together a large number of monomers to form a
long chain polymer is called polymerisation.
4. Polymer can be naturally occurring or man-made (synthetic). Natural
polymer are found in plant and in animals for example of natural
polymers are starch cellulose, protein and rubber.
5. Two type of polymerisation in producing synthetic polymer are additional
polymerisation.














9.4.2 Monomers and repeat units
The identity of the monomer residues (repeat units) comprising a
polymer is its first and most important attribute.
Polymer nomenclature is generally based upon the type of monomer
residues comprising the polymer.
Polymers that contain only a single type of repeat unit are known as
homopolymers, while polymers containing a mixture of repeat units are
known as copolymers.
Poly(styrene), for example, is composed only of styrene monomer
residues, and is therefore classified as a homopolymer.
Ethylene-vinyl acetate, on the other hand, contains more than one
variety of repeat unit and is thus a copolymer.
Some biological polymers are composed of a variety of different but
structurally related monomer residues;
for example, polynucleotides such as DNA are composed of a variety of
nucleotide subunits.
A polymer molecule containing ionizable subunits is known as a
polyelectrolyte or ionomer










9.5 GLASS AND CERAMICS
1. The main component of both glass and ceramic is silica or silicon dioxide,
SiO2.
2. Both glass and ceramic have the same properties as follow
a) Hard and brittle
b) Inert to chemical reactions
c) Insulators or poor conductors of heat and electricity
d) Withstand compression but not stretching
e) Can be easily cleaned
f) Low cost of production
3. Differences between glass and cerement are, glass is transparent, while
ceramic is opaque. Ceramic can withstand a higher temperature than
normal glass.
4. Types of glass are
a) Fused glass
It is consist mainly of silica or silicon dioxide
It has high heat resistance
b) Soda lime glass
It cannot withstand high temperatures
c) Borosilicate glass
It can withstand high temperature
d) Lead glass
High refractive index




5. Uses of improved glass for specific purpose
a) Photochromic glass
It is sensitive to light intensity
b) Conducting glass
It conducts electricity
6. Ceramic is a manufactured substances made from clay, with the main
constituent of aluminosilicate with small quantity of sand and feldspar.
7. Superconductor is one improved ceramics for specific purposes.






















GLASS


Glass:-
The major component of glass is silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2 which
found in sand.











CERAMICS

Ceramics:-
Ceramic is manufactured substances made from clay that is dried, and
heated in a kiln at a very high temperature
The main component of clay is aluminosilicate (aluminum oxide and
silicon dioxide) with small quantities of sand and feldspar. Unlike glass,
ceramic cannot be recycled.
Kaolinite is a high quality white clay that contains hydrated
aluminosilicate, Al2O32SiO22H2O.

THE DIFFERENT CLASES OF CERAMIC

GROUP COMPOSITION
Mineral Quartz SiO2 Calcite CaCO3
Cement material Mixture of CaSiO3 and ammonium silicate
Oxide of ceramic Aluminium oxide Al2O3 Silicon dioxide SiO2
Magnesium oxide MgO
Non-oxides of ceramic Silicon nitride Si3N4 Silicon carbide SiC
Boron nitride BN
Boron carbide B4C3





THE USES OF IMPROVED GLASS AND CERAMICS FOR
SPECIFIC PURPOSES














9.6 COMPOSITE MATERIAL

9.6.1 WHAT ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS

1. A composite materials (or composite) is a structure of materials that is
formed by two or more different substances such as metal, glass,
ceramic and polymer.
2. Some common composite materials are:
a. Reinforces concrete
b. Superconductor
c. Fibre optic
d. Fibre glass
e. Photochromic glass










CONCLUSION OF TOPIC

We must appreciate these various synthetic industrial materials. One of the
way is by doing continuous research and development ( R & D ) to produce
better materials used to improve our standard of living. As we live in a changing
world, our society is getting more complex. New materials are required to
overcome new challenges and problems we face in our daily lives. Synthetic
material are developed constantly due to the limitation and shortage of natural
materials. New technological developments are used by scientists to make new
discoveries.

New materials for clothing, shelter, tools and communication to improve our
daily life are developed continuously for the well-being of mankind. New needs
and new problem will stimulate the development of new synthetic materials.
For example, the new use of plastic composite material will replace metal in
the making of a stronger and lighter car body. This will save fuel and improve
speed. Plastic composite materials may one day used to make organs for organ
transplant in human bodies. This will become necessity with the shortage of
human organ donors.

The understanding of the interaction between different chemicals is
important for both the development of new synthetic materials and the
disposal of such synthetic materials as waste. A responsible and systemic
method of handling the waste of synthetic materials and their by-product is
important to prevent environmental pollution. The recycling and development
of environmental friendly synthetic material should be enforced.









PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF
MANUFACTURED CHEMICALS


NAME MOHAMMAD AMIR HAKIMI BIN ABDUL RAHIM
CLASS 5 ARIF
SUBJECT CHEMISTRY
TEACHER PUAN FARIDATUL