Development of a cost effective probe for the long term monitoring

of straw bale buildings

Jim Carfrae
a,
*
, Pieter De Wilde
a
, John Littlewood
b
, Steve Goodhew
c
, Peter Walker
d
a
School of Architecture, Reynolds Building, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
b
Cardiff School of Art & Design, Department of Architectural Studies, University of Wales Institute Cardiff, UK
c
School of Architecture, Design and the Built Environment, Nottingham Trent University, UK
d
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 17 February 2010
Received in revised form
12 July 2010
Accepted 12 July 2010
Keywords:
Straw bale
Moisture
Isotherm
Monitoring-probe
Dwellings
a b s t r a c t
This paper reviews current methodologies for measuring the moisture content of straw bale walls in
buildings. It discusses the development of an affordable and accurate moisture probe that has been
designed to be easily assembled by the builder or owner of a straw bale building from items readily
available in the United Kingdom (UK). The probe uses a timber block inserted into the wall, relying upon
the measurable moisture variances of the timber and relating this to the surrounding straw. The probes
are designed to be used in pairs of varying length, taking measurements at different depths to give an
estimate of the moisture gradient through the wall. In order to properly calibrate this device, a full set of
sorption and desorption isotherms were established for both Oat and Wheat straw and three different
timber species. The results from an environmental chamber have been compared to readings from
specimens of the new probe installed in a straw bale house in the south west of the UK. The results were
found to be consistent, to within 2%, with the laboratory ndings.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
There is increasing concern and awareness of environmental
issues such as climate change, depletion of fossil fuels, pollution of
natural resources, and damage to eco-systems. There are many
contributory factors to these changes, but as far as this paper is
concerned, two statistics stand out: in 2009 27.5% of nal energy
consumption in the United Kingdom (UK) came from domestic
dwellings [1]; and secondly, 10% of the total energy used in the UK
is embodied in construction materials [2]. Current Government
legislation and initiatives fromwithin the construction industry are
focused on lowering the energy used during the lifetime of newand
more recently existing buildings. To minimise the carbon impact of
energy efcient houses it is also necessary to consider the
embodied energy and origin of construction materials and
components [3]. The increased use of renewable building materials,
utilising the non-food use of crops such as hemp, ax and straw, is
gaining prominence [4]. However, there are concerns regarding the
long term effects of moisture on the durability of these materials in
a temperate maritime climate such as the UK [5].
The origins of straw bale construction date from the late nine-
teenth century in Nebraska, USA, following the introduction of
mechanical baling machines [6,7]. Over the past 120 years straw
bale building has largely remained on the fringes of the mainstream
construction sector. The rst strawbale building in the UK was built
in 1994 and now they number a few hundred projects of varying
size. Straw bale, a low cost co-product of agricultural grain
production, offers many benets but in particular excellent thermal
insulation and low embodied carbon. Straw bale walls have a low
thermal transmittance, typically 0.13e0.19 W/m
2
K for a standard
thickness of 450e500 mm [8]. During their growth plants absorb
atmospheric carbon dioxide through photosynthesis [9]. This
carbon remains stored within the plant fabric until it breaks down,
making straw bales carbon negative.
1.2. Objectives
As with all plant based materials, including timber, there are
concerns about the long term durability of straw, especially when
usedinatemperatemaritimeclimatesuchas foundinmost of theUK.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 44 1803 862369/44 7880 551922.
E-mail address: jim.carfrae@plymouth.ac.uk (J. Carfrae).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Building and Environment
j ournal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ bui l denv
0360-1323/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.07.010
Building and Environment 46 (2011) 156e164
This paper describes work undertaken as part of an on-going
research programme by the partners into the moisture perfor-
mance of strawbale construction [10]. The research aims to develop
and validate an improved timber block moisture probe for the
accurate measurement of the moisture content of the straw bale
walls in existing buildings. This new probe is based on an original
design from Canada [20].
By calibrating samples of timber against samples of straw in the
laboratory, and testing the improved probe in the walls of a straw
bale dwelling, it can be established that the probe, using a piece of
timber embedded in the straw, will reach the same moisture
content as the surrounding straw.
The resulting probe should:
Retain the affordability and ease of construction of the original
probe
Continue to use an off the shelf timber moisture meter
Provide accurate measurements of the moisture content of
straw bale walls.
This paper summarises development of the probe, experiments
to calibrate the probe and present ndings from testing of the
probe in straw bale buildings in the UK.
1.3. Measuring moisture content in straw bale walls
Research has established a reasonable limit for the safe level of
moisture content for timber used in construction at 28% [11].
Straw is physiologically very similar to timber [12], and compa-
rable limits have been proposed [13]. For builders, the suggested
sensible rule is to keep moisture content of straw bales below
20e25% [14].
The importance of accurate measurement is clear, and the
following methods have been developed to measure either directly
or indirectly the moisture content within straw bale walls:
1. Directly by oven drying samples;
2. Indirectly by measuring the relative humidity within the wall;
3. Indirectly by measuring the moisture content of timber
embedded within the straw;
4. Directly by measuring the electrical resistance of the strawand
determining the moisture content.
Oven drying material is the most accurate and reliable method
of measuring the moisture content of straw [5]. The specimen of
moist strawis rst weighed, then dried in an oven at 105

C until no
further weight loss, and then reweighed [15]. This method is well
suited to the laboratory, but is not suitable for on-going in situ
monitoring as it is very intrusive.
Straw moisture content can be indirectly determined by
measuring the surrounding RH using hygro-thermal sensors. The
relationship between RH and straw moisture content, for a given
temperature, is known as an isotherm. The isotherm curve is
particularly sensitive at moisture contents above 20e25% (Fig. 2),
the region of most interest for decay detection. It is therefore
important to ensure sensors are reliable and well calibrated. Indi-
vidual RH and temperature sensors can be installed in batches in
a straw bale wall, and would typically be connected directly or
wirelessly to a data-logging system. A set-up comprising 10e20
sensors and data-logging will typically cost around 2000e3000 to
install, the cost reducing proportionally with the number of sensors.
Electrical resistance measurement is a well-established tech-
nique for determining the moisture content of timber [16]. The
electrical resistance between two pins inserted into the material
varies with moisture and can be directly calibrated for different
timber species to give the moisture content [17].
An extension of this method has been developed for the remote
monitoring of building structures by using small pieces of timber
inserted into the structure with leads connected back to a resis-
tance meter [18].
By placing timber blocks within a straw bale wall it should there-
fore be possible to indirectly determine the moisture content of the
strawbytakingelectrical resistancemeasurements. This is the basis of
the straw bale moisture probe developed originally by the Canadian
Mortgage and Housing Corporation and later developed for use in UK
by Goodhewet al. [19e23]. The method assumes that the embedded
timber will reach some moisture content as the surrounding straw.
Probes can be manufactured for a few pounds only.
Rather than measuring the electrical resistance of timber, it is
possible to directly measure the electrical resistance of the straw
and thereby determine its moisture content. Developed for use in
the agricultural industry, one such probe is the Protimeter Bale-
master [24] shown in Fig. 1. The Balemaster consists of a 600 mm
stainless steel probe attached to a handheld meter. The tip of the
probe is separated fromthe rest of the shaft by a plastic collar and it
is between this tip and the shaft that the resistance is measured.
The probe is easily inserted into the straw, although a small
hole is required in the covering plaster or render. However the
cost of these purpose built straw bale moisture probes (approx.
300) is around twice that of the equivalent timber moisture
meter. The probe is not designed to be left in situ for continuous
monitoring. Calibration of the Balemaster with oven drying for
both Wheat and Oat straw, carried out as part of this research,
conrmed a level of accuracy to within 0.5% for bales of average
density (90e120 kg/m
3
).
2. Moisture behaviour of straw
2.1. Moisture phases
Like other plant based construction materials straw is hygro-
scopic. It releases or adsorbs moisture vapour to or fromthe air that
surrounds it, responding to changing humidity and temperature
conditions. As the local environmental conditions stabilise the
straw moisture content will tend towards equilibrium for a given
relative humidity (RH) and temperature. Moisture within the straw
exists in different phases. At low levels of RH water vapour
Fig. 1. Protimeter Balemaster in use in a building context.
J. Carfrae et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 156e164 157
molecules in the straw cling to the pore walls, in a phase called
molecular adsorption. As the RH increases the water molecules will
clump together and begin to ll the pores and form layers on
the capillaries, starting the phase called capillary condensation. As
the RH approaches 98% the capillaries ll with water eventually
reaching capillary saturation, also known as the bre saturation
point. This is the maximum moisture content of the straw, after
which water condenses out of the air at 100% RH and free water
forms within the straw. These various moisture phases are illus-
trated in Fig. 2 below. All moisture contents in this paper are
expressed as percentage of dry mass of straw.
2.2. Isotherm tests
BS EN ISO 12571 [25] allows two alternative methods to estab-
lish isotherms of materials. The rst method uses saturated salts in
a desiccator to provide the different levels of relative humidity. This
method has the advantage of allowing more than one sample of
straw to be tested in different relative humidities at the same time,
thus shortening the overall time taken to establish the isotherm.
The second method involves the use of an environmental chamber.
As set out in the ISO, three samples of straw are rst dried in
a laboratory oven at 105

C [15] and weighed at intervals until all
the moisture had been driven off, thereby establishing their dry
density. They are then placed in the chamber and again weighed
at intervals until they reach equilibrium at a series of pre-set
humidities. The humidity of the chamber is then incrementally
increased until a new equilibrium is reached. The process can be
reversed and a desorption isothermplotted. The advantage of using
this method is that the same specimens can be kept in the chamber
continually, allowing the complete cycle of adsorption and
desorption to be observed, and this is why it was the chosen for this
research.
Sixsamples werepreparedfor the environmental chamber, three
of Wheat straw, and three of Oat straw. The ISOspecies a minimum
mass of 10 g, and that specimens of materials with a dry density of
less than 300 kg/m
3
shall have an area of at least 100 mm100 mm.
The specimens used for the isotherms measured approximately
100 mm200 mm300 mmeach and had a mass of between 100
and 140 g. The prepared samples had a density of around 15 kg/m
3
compared to a typical bale density of 90e120 kg/m
3
, as a lower
density will reduce the time taken to reach equilibrium. They were
placed in lightweight aluminium trays that were used to transport
thesamples fromthelaboratoryoventothe environmental chamber
and the electronic scales, as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2. Stages of moisture storage in porous hygroscopic material (redrawn after John
Straube [35]).
Fig. 3. Samples of straw in the Environmental Chamber.
J. Carfrae et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 156e164 158
Due to the size of the specimens it was not possible to set-up
a system whereby the samples could be weighed in the chamber
without being moved. Some initial tests were performed to conrm
that the samples were large enough not to be adversely affected by
this relatively short change in their environment during weighing.
The frequent opening of the chamber door did effect the environ-
ment inside the chamber, but it returned to equilibrium within
15 min, and so was considered to have a minimal effect.
In order to establish the isotherm, the sorption process was
started at 30% RH and increased in steps of 10% at a time until 90%
was reached. After this point the nal two steps would be at 95%
and 98%, which was the specied maximum RH that the chamber
could sustain. Following the stipulation of BS EN ISO 12571, the RH
of the chamber was being monitored with two different hygrom-
eters, a TES 1365 and a Solamat MPM4100, both of whom had been
calibrated over saturated salt solutions to conrmtheir accuracy. At
a setting on the chamber of 30% the readings from the two
hygrometers and the chamber were within 1% of each other, but as
the RHlevels increased discrepancies grewuntil, at the point where
the chamber reached its theoretical maximum of 98%, the two
hygrometers agreed that the chamber was under reading by 4.8%
This gave the chamber a practical maximum of only 93.2%. There-
fore, to establish isotherm of the Wheat straw specimens at higher
RH, a specimen was placed in a desiccator over a saturated salt
solution of PotassiumSulphate (K
2
SO
4
); providing an RHof 97.5% at
23

C, Fig. 4.
During the straw isotherm tests, three specimens each of Pine,
European Oak and Ramin, three distinctly different timber species,
were also placed in the environmental chamber alongside the
straw, for direct comparison. Pine was chosen because this was the
timber used in the rst Canadian probes. European Oak was tested
as it was used in the original Goodhew probe. Ramin, a hardwood
from south-east Asia was chosen for two reasons: it is a relatively
light and open pored hardwood (attributes that could help make
the timber more responsive to changes in RH); and secondly Ramin
is widely used in the manufacture of broom handles and dowels
and is therefore widely available in convenient dimensions.
2.3. Sorption isotherms for Wheat and Oat straw
Fig. 5 shows the sorption isotherms for three specimens of
Wheat and Oat strawand the resulting sorption isotherms up to the
highest levels of RH achieved in the chamber (93.2%). Compared to
Wheat the average moisture content for Oat straw was very similar
through the range up to 90% RH with a difference of only 0.3%,
falling slightly at 93.2% RH with a lower value of 22.5% (1.9% lower
than the Wheat).
Fig. 4. Sample of straw in desiccator at 97.42% RH.
Fig. 5. Sorption isotherms for all six samples of Wheat and Oat straw.
J. Carfrae et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 156e164 159
Fig. 6 shows only the averaged results for Wheat and clearly
illustrates hysteresis [26]. The implications of the hysteresis effect
are discussed at more length later in this paper. The complete
process of sorption and desorption took ve months to complete.
Added to the isotherms from the chamber is the result from the
sample of Wheat straw kept over a saturated salt solution of K
2
SO
4
,
whichachieveda moisture content of 37.6%after nearlyfour months
in the desiccator.
3. Development of a low cost probe
3.1. History
The original design of the Canadian probe was modied by
Goodhew[21] toincorporate a small disc of EuropeanOak (diameter
22 mmand thickness of 5 mm) held withina perforated plastic tube.
The arrangement to be inserted into the straw bale wall is shown in
Fig. 7. It is assumed that as the probe stabilises the air in the perfo-
rated tube will be at equilibriumwith the air surrounding the indi-
vidual pieces of straw in the wall and that the relative humidity of
that air will be adsorbedbythetimber disc togive the samemoisture
content as the straw. The timber disc moisture content is indirectly
measured using an electrical resistance meter [27].
A total of 24 probes (12 pairs) were installed into an inll straw
bale domestic dwelling in Totnes, Devon, England. The probes were
used in pairs of one 350 mm long and one shorter at 150 mm,
inserted into a series of locations in the exterior walls of the house.
Placed about 100 mm apart, the probes thus measuring the mois-
ture at two depths through the wall, one at 50 mm from the inside
face of the straw, the other 50 mmfromthe outside therefore giving
an indication of the moisture gradient across the wall. A Protimeter
Timbermaster was used to measure the timber disc moisture
contents. The probes were used to monitor the house over a period
of seven months fromNovember 2006 through to May 2007 during
which time the house was heated, when required, to a nominal
21

C. Throughout this period the probes indicated straw moisture
contents between 10% on the interior side of the wall and 13.7% on
the exterior face. Based on previous work [28], and compared to
published isotherms for straw [5,28e32], these gures were lower
than expected. Therefore, the probes were checked and compared
to moisture contents measured using the Protimeter Balemaster
inserted alongside each of the probes to the same depth through
the wall. Typical examples of these momentary measurements,
taken at seven different locations through the house, are presented
in Fig. 8. The probes underestimate the straw moisture content,
compared against the Balemaster, by between 14% and 24%, the
discrepancy increasing as straw moisture content increased.
Comparison between the calibrated Balemaster and the original
probe conrms that the probes are consistently under-recording
the moisture levels in the walls. Assuming that the basic principle
of using a piece of timber to mimic the moisture content of the
straw is valid, the inaccuracy of the original probes is likely to be
caused by two different factors: awed design of the probe; and/or
inappropriate timber species used for discs. The original probe was
Fig. 6. Complete sorption and desorption isotherm for Wheat straw.
Fig. 7. Section through original probe modied from the Canadian design.
J. Carfrae et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 156e164 160
designed to keep the timber disc physically separate fromthe straw.
Although this remains sound in principle, it is possible that the
perforated tube surrounding the timber disc is affecting the relative
humidity of the air next to the disc. Previous research had selected
European Oak for the discs [33].
3.2. Testing of different probe designs
To explore the inuence of the perforated tube on accuracy,
a series of three different designs of the probe were prepared: two
with different versions of a shroud to keep the timber away from
direct contact with the straw(but each one removing an element of
separation between the timber and straw), and a third that allowed
the timber to have direct contact with the straw. The rst probe has
a simplied version of the original perforated tube, but made
shorter, and with larger holes, so the timber disc is exposed to
a smaller volume of air, and the ratio of closed space to open space
(through the wall of the tube) is greater. The second probe still has
a shroud, but it is simply a short extension of the tube, just enough
to keep a physical separation between the timber and straw whilst
still allowing a minimal separating air space. The third prototype
changes the timber disc into a bullet shaped projection at the end of
the tube that will force the timber into direct contact with the
straw. In constructing all the probes importance was placed on
installing the brass bolts in clear wood, away from knots, splits,
resin pockets, visible variations in grain structure, or pockets of
decay, etc. and parallel to the grain.[34]
The three variations are shown in Fig. 9. There are examples of
timber being placed in a straw wall during the construction phase
to measure the moisture content through direct contact with the
straw [19]. The difference here is that the prototype probe with the
bullet tip can be inserted into a wall at any time, and could also be
removed and re-used without any damage beyond the necessary
hole drilled in the interior nish of the wall prior to insertion.
Fig. 8. Comparison of the original probes with the Balemaster.
Fig. 9. Prototype timber block probes.
J. Carfrae et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 156e164 161
The three prototypes were inserted into a section of the external
strawbale wall of the strawbale house inTotnes. Holes sufcient for
the probes were drilled through the internal render along a hori-
zontal line spaced about 100 mm apart. Alongside them a further
twoholes weredrilledtoallowthe Balemaster anda TES RHmeter to
be inserted. One of the original probes was also added as a reference.
3.3. Testing the design prototypes
The three design prototype probes were kept in the stable
environment of the interior of the house for ten days before being
installed in the wall. Measurements with the Balemaster of the
interior of the wall showed that the moisture content of the straw
was 15%. Following insertion the probe moisture contents were
recorded at 24-h intervals. After 20 days the readings of the probes
had stabilised, suggesting they had reached equilibrium with the
surrounding straw. The stabilised moisture content readings of the
different probes taken over seven days were as follows:
Original probe. 10.9%
First prototype (vented shroud). 13.4%
Second prototype (open shroud). 13.0%
Third prototype (bullet tip). 14.0%
Protimeter Balemaster 15.0%
These tests conrmed that the original probe consistently under-
estimated the straw moisture content. The bullet tipped probe was
within 1% of the Balemaster reading. The other two prototypes are
within 2%. All probes recorded lower moisture contents than the
Balemaster. There are two possible explanations for this. The straw
bale isotherms in Fig. 6 show distinct hysteresis during the
desorptionphase [26]. If the strawinthewall is ina process of drying
then it would indicate a higher moisture content than a probe that
was previously dry even when they have both reached equilibrium
at thesameRH. The probewill thereforegive a different readingthan
the surrounding straw, unless it has also been subjected to exactly
the same moisture history. Taking account of this hysteresis affect
has been a factor in the detailed calibration of the timber block
probes. The other reason for the lower readings could be explained
bycomparing the isotherms for the three different timber species. It
is known that due to their similar physical make up, [12] straw and
timber exhibit similar moisture behaviour, but this needs to be
conrmed in the laboratory by comparing the isotherms.
3.4. Timber isotherms
Fig. 10 compares the three timber species with Wheat straw. The
results of the timber isotherms were similar to the straw isotherms
in Fig. 5 in that the results for all three samples were close to each
other, soonly the averaged results of each of the three samples of
each of the species are shown. Covering the section of the sorption
curves from 45% upward, it omits desorption to make it easier to
compare the different traces.
None of the species has exactly the same development as the
straw. However, as this work is most interested in the behaviour of
the strawat RH values higher than 80%, it can be seen that Ramin is
the closest t to the Wheat. The Pine and Ramin samples showed
similar reaction time to changes in the RH of the chamber to the
straw with Oak lagging slightly behind.
As a result of the above ndings Ramin was chosen for the new
probe design to be tested in the walls of the Totnes house. Forty-
eight pairs of prototype probes were built in short (100 mm) and
long (350 mm) form like the origin also as to measure the moisture
at the inside and outside of the straw in a wall. Each probe was
calibrated at 80% RH in the environmental chamber to conform to
a tolerance of plus or minus 1.5%. The results were interesting in
that all but a small number conformed, but the examples that didnt
all give a lower moisture content of around 5%. All the probes
exhibiting this anomaly were traced to a different batch of the
timber used and were discarded. Future probe manufacture will
have to be aware of potential variations in the timber used.
Fig. 10. Section of averaged sorption isotherms for three species of timber and Wheat straw.
J. Carfrae et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 156e164 162
3.5. In situ testing of new probes
Following the completion of the laboratory isotherms, in
January 2008 the new probes were installed in an exterior wall of
the Totnes house. The rst two examples of the new probes were
constructed with a bullet shaped tip formed from Ramin, tted to
uPVC tubes made up to a length of 350 mm. Fig. 11.
When inserted from the inside into the wall, the length of the
uPVC tube placed the timber in the outside 50 mm of the straw
wall. The probes were inserted at a height of 50 mm from the
bottom of the wall, which was known to be the area with the
highest RH following monitoring with a TES 1365 temperature and
RH meter. Prior to installation, one of the probes was moistened
until it registered a moisture content of 25.6%, and the other was
dried to a moisture content of 10.2%. This was carried out to explore
if the probes would showevidence of the hysteresis effect over time
in the environment of the straw bale wall.
Fig. 12 shows the readings fromthe two probes compared to the
Balemaster and the RH meter during the three months from
January to March 2008. The readings have been corrected according
to the instructions supplied with the Timbermaster meter used
which calls for a correction factor of plus 0.1% for every 1

below
20

C, and minus 0.1

for every 1

above. This broadly accords with

the Nordtest Method [18].
The RH at this location varied between 88% and 90.5%. Referring
to the isotherms this would give an expected moisture content of
between 20% and 22% on the desorption curve, and between 18%
and 20% on the sorption curve. Looking at the readings from the
two probes in the wall, the previously wetted one is reading
between 20% and 20.5%, and previously dried one is reading
between 18.8% and 19.8% (taken from the beginning of March,
allowing a period of a month for them to stabilise). The readings
from the probes are almost exactly within the expected range, but
do not follow the variations in RH as closely as expected.
The long term monitoring of the Totnes house had revealed
an episode where the moisture levels in this wall had reached
26% (measured with the Balemaster) six months before this
experiment, so it was hoped that the probe that had been
previously wetted to the same moisture content would give
similar readings during the period covered in Fig. 12. The
previously wetted probe and the Balemaster are showing almost
exactly the same readings, with the dry probe following the
same variations, but remaining at least 1% lower, which conrms
both the accuracy of the new probes in this situation, and that
hysteresis appears to be continuing to affect the probes. Results
coming in from sets of probes in different case study buildings
tend to conrm these results.
4. Summary, conclusions and further work
This paper summarises work from on-going study on the
moisture monitoring of straw bale walls. Results of laboratory
isotherms demonstrating the relationship between cereal straw
and different timber species, coupled with the in situ testing in the
straw bale walls of the Totnes house, has enabled the development
of an improved moisture probe that: is reliable and easy to produce
Fig. 12. Two new probes compared to the Balemaster.
Fig. 11. New probe with Timbermaster meter.
J. Carfrae et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 156e164 163
at a unit cost of less than 20; can be used with an off the shelf
timber moisture meter.
The improved probe has been calibrated against a new set of
laboratory isotherms, and the timber chosen, Ramin, displayed
a moisture content within1.5%of theWheat strawinthecritical region
of 80e94%. When installed in the strawbale wall and compared to the
calibrated Balemaster, the new probe gave results to within 1% of the
Balemaster. The resulting probe can be left in situ for the continuous
monitoring of the moisture content of straw bale walls.
Although more sophisticated devices such as relative humidity
and temperature probes can be used, these timber block probes can
be produced in large numbers, and in the latest phase of this
research, 48 sets of the long and short probes have been installed in
a range of straw bale buildings that are being used for a variety of
different forms of habitation. The results of one-years monitoring
of these eight case study buildings will be complete by the end of
February 2010.
Acknowledgements
This research gratefully acknowledges support from Great
Western Research, The Ecology Building Society and The National
Non-Food Crop Centre.
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