132 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS

where
(3.28)
Simplifying Equation 3.27 further, we get the downstream temperature of the
pipe segment of length L as
(3.29)
It can be seen from Equation 3.29 that as the pipe length increases, the term
approaches zero and the temperature, T
2
, becomes equal to soil temperature, T
s
.
Therefore, in a long gas pipeline, the gas temperature ultimately equals the sur-
rounding soil temperature. This is illustrated in Figure 3.14.
In the preceding analysis, we made several simplifying assumptions. We assumed
that the soil temperature and the overall heat transfer coefcient remained constant
and ignored the Joule-Thompson effect as gas expands through a pipeline. In a long
pipeline, the soil temperature can actually vary along the pipeline and, therefore, must
be taken into account in these calculations. One approach would be to subdivide the
pipeline into segments that have constant soil temperatures and perform calculations
for each segment separately. The Joule-Thompson effect causes the gas to cool slightly
due to expansion. Therefore, in a long pipeline, the gas temperature at the delivery
point may fall below that of the ground or soil temperature, as indicated in Figure 3.16.
3.12 LINE PACK
As gas ows through a pipeline from point A to point B, the pressures and temper-
atures vary along the pipeline length. The volume of gas contained in a given length
of pipeline is simply the physical volume of the pipe segment. For example, a 1-mile
Figure 3.16 Joule-Thompson effect in gas pipeline.
Ground temperature
Distance
G
a
s

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
T
s

=
UD L
mCp

T T T T e
s s 2 1
= +

( )

e

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

PRESSURE REQUIRED TO TRANSPORT 133
section of NPS 16 pipe can have a physical volume of 7000 ft
3
. Therefore, this volume
represents the volume of the gas in this 1-mile section at the actual gas temperature
and pressure. The quantity of gas contained within the pipeline under pressure,
measured at standard conditions (generally 14.7 psia and 60F), is termed the line
pack volume. Consider a segment of pipe, of length L, with upstream pressure and
temperature of P
1
and T
1
and downstream values of P
2
and T
2
, respectively. We can
calculate the line pack using the gas laws discussed in Chapter 1. Suppose the inside
diameter of the pipe is D; then the physical volume of the pipe section is
(3.30)
This volume is the gas volume at pressures and temperatures ranging from P
1
,
T
1
at the upstream end to P
2
, T
2
at the downstream end of the pipe length L. In order
to convert this volume to standard conditions of pressure, P
b
, and temperature, T
b
,
we apply the gas law Equation 1.16 as follows:
(3.31)
where
P
avg
= average gas pressure in pipe segment
T
avg
= average gas temperature in pipe segment
Z
avg
= average gas compressibility factor at T
avg
and P
avg
Z
b
= compressibility factor at base conditions = 1.00, approximately
The average pressure, P
avg
,

is calculated from the upstream and downstream pres-
sures P
1
and P
2
using Equation 2.14. The average temperature can be taken as the
arithmetic mean of the upstream and downstream temperatures T
1
and T
2
. This approach
for average temperature will be accurate only if we consider short segments of pipe.
From Equation 3.31, solving for line pack V
b
at standard conditions, we get
(3.32)
Substituting the value of V
p
from Equation 3.30 and simplifying, we get
(3.33)
where
V
b
= line pack in pipe segment, standard ft
3
D = pipe inside diameter, ft
L = pipe segment length, ft
Other symbols are as dened before.
V
p
V D L
p
=

4
2
PV
Z T
P V
Z T
b b
b b
p
=
avg
avg avg
V
T
P
P V
Z T
b
b
b
p
=

avg
avg avg
V
T
P
P
Z T
D L
b
b
b
=

0 7854
2
. ( )
avg
avg avg
Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
134 GAS PIPELINE HYDRAULICS
Equation 3.33 is modied in terms of commonly used pipeline units as follows:
(USCS units) (3.34)
where
V
b
= line pack in pipe segment, standard ft
3
D = pipe inside diameter, in.
L = pipe segment length, mi
Other symbols are as dened before.
The corresponding equation in SI units is
(SI units) (3.35)
where
V
b
= line pack in pipe segment, standard m
3
D = pipe inside diameter, mm
L = pipe segment length, km
Other symbols are as dened before.
Since the pressure and temperature in a gas pipeline vary along the length, to
improve the accuracy of calculations, the line pack volume V
b
is calculated for short
segments of pipe and summed to obtain the line pack of the entire pipeline.
Example 10
A natural gas pipeline is 10 mi long and has an inlet pressure of 1000 psig and outlet
pressure of 900 psig when transporting 100 MMSCFD. The base pressure and base
temperature are 14.7 psia and 60F, respectively. If the pipe is NPS 16, 0.250 in. wall
thickness, calculate the line pack assuming an average gas temperature of 78F. Use
an average compressibility factor of 0.90.
Solution
Pipe inside diameter = 16 2 0.250 = 15.5 in.
The average pressure is calculated from Equation 2.14 as follows:
= 965.56 psia
V
T
P
P
Z T
D L
b
b
b
=

28 798
2
. ( )
avg
avg avg
V
T
P
P
Z T
D
b
b
b
=

7 855 10
4
. (
avg
avg avg
22
L)
P
avg
= +

+
2
3
1014 7 914 7
1014 7 914 7
1014 7 914
. .
. .
. .77

Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

PRESSURE REQUIRED TO TRANSPORT 135
Using Equation 3.34, we calculate the line pack as follows:
= 4,880,521 standard ft
3
Therefore, the line pack is 4,880,521 standard ft
3
.
Example 11
A natural gas pipeline is 20 km long and has an inlet pressure of 8000 kPa (gauge)
and outlet pressure of 5000 kPa (gauge) when transporting 5 Mm
3
/day. The base
pressure and base temperature are 101 kPa and 15C, respectively. If the pipe is
DN 500, 12 mm wall thickness, calculate the line pack assuming an average gas
temperature of 20C. Use an average compressibility factor of 0.90.
Solution
Pipe inside diameter = 500 2 12 = 476 mm
The average pressure is calculated from Equation 2.14 as follows:
= 6714.62 kPa (absolute)
Using Equation 3.35, we calculate the line pack as follows:
= 258,448 standard m
3
Therefore, the line pack is 258,448 standard m
3
.
3.13 SUMMARY
In this chapter we continued to look at the application of the pressure drop
equations introduced in Chapter 2. Several piping congurations, such as pipes in
series, pipes in parallel, and gas pipelines with injections and deliveries, were
analyzed to determine pressures required and pipe size needed to satisfy certain
requirements. The concepts of equivalent length in series piping and equivalent
diameter in pipe loops were explained and illustrated using example problems. The
hydraulic pressure gradient and the need for intermediate compressor stations to
transport given volumes of gas without exceeding allowable pipeline pressures were
also covered. The importance of temperature variation in gas pipelines and how it
is taken into account in calculating pipeline pressures were introduced with reference
to commercial hydraulic simulation models. The method of calculating the line pack
volume in a gas pipeline was also explained. In the next chapter, we will discuss
compressor stations, compressor performance, and horsepower requirements.
V
b
=
+

28 798
60 460
14 7
965 56
78 460
.
.
. 115 5 10
0 90
2
.
.

P
avg
= +

+

2
3
8101 5101
8101 5101
8101 5101
V
b
=
+

7 855 10
15 273
101
6714 62
20 273
4
.
.

476 20
0 9
2
.
Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC