Transformers and Tapchangers Version E

Version B2
Continuing Professional Development

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Course Co-ordinator Dr. M. Sadeghzadeh
Accredited by through the copyright holder
Power Transformers and Tapchangers
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Version E 2
INDEX
1. Overview
1.1 Transformer Standards
2. Transformer Basics
2.1 Ideal Transformer
2.2 Practical Transformer
2.3 Practical Transformer under Unity PF Load
2.4 Practical Transformer under Lagging Load
2.5 Practical Transformer under Leading Load
2.6 Transformer Equivalent Circuit
3. The Magnetic Circuit
3.1 Core Materials
3.2 Core Construction
4. Coil Construction
5. Core Type and Shell Type Transformer Construction
5.1 Core Clamping
6. Transformer Rating, Impedance, Resistance and Reactance
6.1 Rating
6.2 Maximum Fault Current
6.3 Regulation when Power Factor <1
6.4 The Effect of Regulation on Transformer Ratio
6.5 Inrush Current
7. Implementing Transformer Tappings
8. Parallel Operation
8.1 Transformer Vector Group and Vector Group Notation
8.2 Polarity and Phase Rotation
9. Earthing Transformers
10. Basic Insulation Level (BIL)
11. Transformer Cooling and Transformer Life
11.1 Cooling of Distribution Transformers
11.2 Oil Thermal Expansion
11.3 Cooling of Larger Power Transformers
11.4 Transformer Operation on Overload
12. The Economics of Transformer Losses
12.1 Transformer Efficiency
12.2 Transformer Economic Appraisal
12.3 Transformer Guaranteed Losses
13. Transformer Noise
14. Transformer Ancillaries
14.1 Buchholz and Vane Transformer and OLTC Protection Relays
14.2 Transformer Temperature Alarms/Indicators
15. Transformer Testing
16. On Load Tapchangers
16.1 Reactor and Resistor Transition
16.2 OLTC Mechanical Design
16.3 Precautions against OLTC Failure
16.4 OLTC Testing
16.5 OLTC Voltage Regulating Relays
16.6 Parallel Operation
16.7 Transformer and OLTC Oil
16.8 OLTC Intermittent Oil Filtration
16.9. OLTC Protection
16.10 OLTCs using Vacuum Interrupters
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1. Overview
Because they allow voltage to be stepped up and stepped down economically, transformers make AC
power transmission and distribution a practical possibility. In a complete supply network from generator
to customer, voltage is stepped up and down many times hence the total transformer capacity along the
supply route can be as much as 10 x the supplied load.
Transformers are costly items with an expected lifetime of 40 or more years, so correct specification,
good design and careful manufacture are essential. Together with underground cables and overhead
lines, transformers are the active components of the network, in that they are continuously in use
whenever electrical energy is delivered. This contrasts with the switchgear that is embedded within the
network, whose use is only occasional. Because they are continuously energised, transformer
performance is very important to utilities in terms of the overall efficiency of their networks especially
considering transformer losses, which can be divided into two parts:
1. Iron or No-Load Losses, which are constant and incurred the whole time that a
transformer is energised.
2. Copper or Load Losses, which vary with the square of the load current and occur only
when the transformer is on load.
From the transformer manufacturers point of view, there is little that can be done economically to
reduce Copper losses but quite a lot can and has been done to reduce Iron losses in terms of improved
quality of steel. This has been the focus of research and development over the past three decades,
resulting in major loss reduction and important energy savings. Other than the improvement in core
steels, the physical design of transformers changed very little during the 20
th
century.
From the distribution utility engineers point of view, power transformers divide into three types:
1. Distribution transformers both ground and pole mounted where the mineral oil filled
version at least is so standardised that they may be considered a commodity item. This
type of transformer is fitted with a simple off circuit tapchanger of limited range. The
IEC definition of a distribution transformer is a power transformer of maximum 2500kVA
rating (three phase) or 833kVA (single phase).
2. System or medium power transformers mainly 33/11kV but sometimes 132/33kV that
are specified and manufactured for particular applications. This type is normally fitted
with an on load tapchanger (OLTC) and a complex control system. The IEC definition
of a medium power transformer is a power transformer of maximum 100MVA rating
(three phase) or 33.3MVA (single phase).
3. Large power transformers, which exceed the limits of 2 (IEC definition).
Transformers contain no moving parts and are constructed using large amounts of Copper, Iron and
mineral oil. The lack of moving parts makes them generally very reliable and the mass of materials
makes them resistant to the effects of short term overload, especially if they are sited outdoors, which is
customary for distribution transformers and almost universal for system transformers. Distribution
transformers in particular are very tolerant of overload; 150% of nameplate rating for 8 hours can easily
be carried and will cause only a modest temperature rise this could occur for example when
supporting the load of an adjacent substation whilst it is maintained.
However the mineral oil filled transformer is a major fire hazard it can catch fire and it can also leak
and spread burning oil into its immediate surroundings. There is little that can be done to directly reduce
this hazard in system transformers, where fire risk management largely comprises indirect measures
such as siting at a safe distance from adjacent buildings and water spray extinguishers.
In distribution transformers non flammable but still liquid fillings such as ester based fluids or slicone oil
can be used in which case the basic design differs little, if at all, from a mineral oil filled unit. But the
favoured solution, especially where a transformer is installed within or close to an occupied building is
Version E 4
to install solid resin insulated units especially in those buildings where the release of a large quantity of
fluid, even a non flammable fluid, would create a major hazard. Solid resin insulated transformers are a
useful if more costly alternative to mineral oil, but they have their own problems and limitations notably
that they are intolerant of overload, which tends to crack the resin leading to flashover and failure after
a period of time. This effect means that they are protected by circuit breakers offering close protection
rather than a fuse switch.
1.1 Transformer Standards
The course appendix lists the relevant standards for power transformers, however outside the USA
where ANSI, IEEE and UL documents apply, IEC 60076 can be considered the master standard and a
copy is essential for any engineer involved with the specification and purchase of transformers. IEC
60076 is divided into 15 parts, as follows:
1. General: Scope and Service Conditions
2. Temperature Rise for Liquid Filled Transformers
3. Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external clearances in air.
4. Guide to the lightning impulse and switching impulse testing power transformers and reactors
5. Ability to withstand short circuit.
6. Reactors
7. Loading guide for oil-immersed power transformers
8. Loading Guide
9. Repeated dielectric tests
10. Determination of Sound Levels
11. Dry-type transformers
12. Loading guide for dry-type power transformers
13. Self-protected liquid-filled transformers
14. Design and application of liquid-immersed power transformers using high-temperature insulation
15. Gas-filled power transformers
IEC 60076 specifies a number of transformer parameters, some of the more important of these are:
Normal service conditions
Normal service conditions are defined as an altitude not exceeding 1,000 m (3,300 ft) above sea level
and a temperature of ambient air and cooling medium not below 25 C or above + 40 C. The
manufacturer must be informed if the proposed service location has an altitude or expected
temperature outside these limits. Other factors that should be advised to the manufacturer are tropical
humidity, seismic activity, severe airborne contamination, unusual voltage or load current wave shapes
and intermittent loading.
Rated voltage of a winding (U
r
)
This is the applied or assigned voltage imposed or developed at no-load between the terminals of an
untapped winding, or of a tapped winding connected on the principal tapping. For a three-phase
winding it is the voltage between line terminals.
Rated voltage ratio
This is the ratio of the higher rated voltage of a winding to the rated voltage of another winding
associated with a lower or equal rated voltage.
Rated frequency (f
r
)
This is defined as the frequency at which the transformer is designed to operate (50 or 60Hz).
Rated current (I
r
)
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The rated current is defined as the current flowing through a line terminal of a winding which is derived
from rated power S
r
and rated voltage U
r
for the winding.
Rated power (S
r
)
This is a value of apparent power (VA) assigned to a winding which, together with the rated voltage of
the winding, determines its rated current. For transformers below 10MVA, IEC 60076 recommends that
the rating should be selected from the Renard R10 series, which is:
1.00 1.25 1.60 2.00 2.50 3.15 4.00 5.00 6.30 8.00.
Rated power is always defined in terms of VA, kVA or MVA, never in watts. This is because the load
related loss is the I
2
R Copper loss, which is proportional to the current supplied, whatever the power
factor. IEC 60076 defines the rated power of a transformer as that which applies to continuous loading
and where alternative methods of cooling are provided, it is the rating with the most effective cooling
method (for example fans and pumps running). Mathematically it is product of no load voltage at the
prime tapping and rated LV side current. So for a 100kVA rated three phase distribution transformer
with 433/237.8V LV side output, the maximum LV side current is:
100/3 = 33kVA per phase and the maximum current = 33,000/237.8V = 138A
Where a transformer is subject to cyclic loading, guidance on an appropriate rating is given in IEC
60076 - 7.
2. Transformer Basics
2.1 Ideal Transformer
The section describes the basics of transformer operation. Consider Figure 1, which shows an idealised
transformer - that is, a magnetic core and a pair of coils n
1
and n
2
linked by flux N.
In the vector diagram current I
m
lags the voltage by 90, as does the magnetic flux
m
- in effect, the
transformer is a perfect inductor.
If the flux N is changing, a voltage will be induced in the coils equal to the rate of change of flux, that
is
N
t
c
c
. The voltage induced in coil n
1
is equal to:
1
N
n
t
c
c
And the voltage in coil n
2
is:
Fig. 1
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2
N
n
t
c
c
If the flux N results from a current in coil 1 then with no resistance in the circuit the source voltage must
exactly equal to voltage in the coil.
This condition is defined by:
1 1
N
E n
T
c
=
c
Hence the voltage induced in coil n
2
is:
1 2
2 1 2 1
1 1
E n N
E n n E
T n n
c
= = =
c
In effect, the ratio of turns in coils n
1
and n
2
has transformed the applied AC voltage E
1
into another
voltage E
2
that differs from it by the ratio of the number of turns in each coil
2
1
n
n
.
This simple concept holds true only for an idealised transformer under open circuit conditions - no
energy is needed to create magnetic flux in the core and there is no current in the secondary coil n
2
.
The expression connecting the sine wave winding voltage in a transformer to the core magnetic flux
density is given by the so called Universal Voltage Formula which is:
V = 4.44 x f x n x a x Bx10
-4
..(1)
Where V is the RMS voltage in the winding, B is the flux density in the core in tesla (1 tesla = 1
weber/m
2
), a is the core cross sectional area in cm
2
, n is the number of turns and f is the frequency in
Hertz (50 or 60). (The tesla, symbol T, is the SI unit of magnetic flux density, commonly denoted as B,
which is also known as magnetic field. One tesla is equal to one weber per square meter, where the
weber is the SI unit of magnetic flux. A typical design flux density for a power transformer is
between1.2 and 1.3 Tesla; this keeps the flux below the maximum value at which saturation occurs.
From (1) the following equations may be derived:
4
10
4.44
Vx
n
xfxBxa
= or as
4
10
4.44
Vx
B
xfxnxa
= or as
4
10
4.44
Vx
a
xfxnxB
=
Note that the above equations may be modified by K, the stacking factor which allows for the proportion
of core area actually occupied by Iron. Typically the stacking factor for laminated Iron construction is in
the range 0.8 to 0.98. From equation (1) above:
V = 4.44 x f x n x a x Bx10
-4
x K hence V/n = 4.44 x f x a x Bx10
-4
x K
Example of V/n
Determine the volts per turn for a 50Hz transformer with B = 1.2 tesla, 320cm
2
core cross sectional
area, stacking factor 0.8.
Substituting values,
4
4.44 1.2 320 0.8 50 10
V
x x x x x
n

= = 6.8 volts per turn
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2.2 Practical Transformer
In a practical transformer there is always a no load current I
0
which comprises the transformer
magnetizing current I
m
plus the core loss component I
c
. Normally I
m
is much larger than I
c
and their
resultant I
o
is approximately 1.5% of full load current (FLC) for small distribution transformers and
0.75% of FLC for system transformers.
Core loss current I
c
which is in phase with the voltage can be subdivided into eddy current losses,
hysteresis loss in the Iron core and various stray losses due to induced currents in the tank, frame,
clamp bolts, etc. Core loss I
c
causes a volt drop I
o
R
L
so that the applied voltage V
applied
is greater than
the voltage in the primary winding V
w1.
Under no load conditions, a transformer acts as an inductive
reactor with a power factor of approximately 0.15.
Figure 2 shows the vector diagram for this situation where the vectors are rotating (conventionally)
anticlockwise for simplicity, this illustration and those immediately following describe a 1:1
transformer.
2.3 Practical Transformer under Unity PF Load
Under load, the voltage induced in coil n
2
circulates a current I
2
in the secondary circuit which creates
its own magnetic flux proportional to I
2
amperes x n
2
turns, tending to oppose (and therefore reduce)
primary flux N in the core. This reduction in flux allows more primary side current I
1
to flow until a new
balance of amperes x turns is attained; flux N in the core remains constant and neglecting the no load
primary side current I
0
then:
1 1 2 2
n I n I =
at all times.
Hence primary current I
1
increases or decreases in direct proportion to the secondary side load current
I
2
, taking into account the turns ratio. Magnetic flux in the core though varying over the AC cycle has a
constant maximum value; this is an important feature of transformer operation and contrary perhaps
Fig. 2
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to what might be expected. Hence the energy loss in the core is also constant, even when the
transformer is energised but off load. It is still constant even under short circuit current conditions.
Figure 3 shows a vector diagram of this more complex situation allowing for a unity power factor load
current in the secondary circuit. No load current I
0
representing the energy loss in the core remains
unchanged, but now there is a load current I
2
in the secondary winding, in the example in phase with
the secondary winding voltage V
2
(because the load is unity PF). This current would produce a new flux
in the core in phase with I
2
, if it were not immediately balanced by a reduction in the core flux due to
current I
L
now flowing in the primary side winding.
The total current in the primary side winding I
total
is the vector sum of the primary side load current I
L
and
the no load current I
0
. Cos is the primary side power factor.
2.4 Practical Transformer under Lagging Load
Figure 4 shows a more typical situation, where the transformer supplies a secondary side load with
lagging power factor 0.8.
Fig. 3 Vectors for a unity pf load on the secondary
side
Fig. 4 Vectors for a secondary load with pf = 0.8
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Load current in the secondary side now causes volt drop I
2
Z
2
the vector resultant of I
2
R
2
and I
2
X
2
, where
I
2
R
2
is the resistance drop due to current in the secondary winding and I
2
X
2
is the reactive drop due to
what is referred to as the Leakage Reactance caused by that part of the flux generated by the primary
side ampere turns that does not link with the secondary side winding. Hence voltage in the secondary
side winding V
w2
is greater than the output voltage V
1
, due to the vector addition of volt drop I
1
Z
1
.
Similarly, load current in the primary side now results in volt drop I
1
Z
1
due to I
1
R
1
and I
1
X
1
where I
1
R
1
is
the resistance drop due to current in the primary winding and I
1
X
1
is the reactive drop, due to the same
leakage reactance. Therefore in a similar manner to the secondary side volt drop, voltage in the primary
side winding V
w1
is less than the input voltage V
1
, due to the vector addition of volt drop I
1
Z
1
.
Leakage reactance is a single effect within any single transformer therefore X
1
and X
2
, are considered
conventionally as half the total, with one half allocated to each winding. This makes no difference to
calculation because what is important is the secondary output voltage in relation to the primary input
voltage. Note that although the primary and secondary side Cos values differ, the output current is
always 180 from the input current whatever the secondary side power factor; this is a very important
feature of transformer operation allowing parallel operation. In early transformers, leakage reactance
was considered an adverse factor due to its effect of increasing the voltage drop however in modern
power transformers it is put to a practical use in controlling the secondary side short circuit level
reducing this allows cheaper switchgear with lower rated short circuit current to be installed.
2.5 Practical Transformer under Leading Load
To complete the coverage of transformer basics, Figure 5 shows the vectors for a leading power factor
load. A leading power factor is seldom if ever experienced in distribution networks, but is possible in an
industrial situation if a capacitor bank is installed.
In Figure 5, the leakage reactance X
c
has been allocated entirely to the secondary side, as has the
combined effects of the two winding resistances R
c
. These add vectorially to produce Z
c
and it will be
noted that the effect of I
2
Z
c
is to INCREASE the secondary terminal voltage V
2
in comparison with the
voltage in the secondary winding V
w2
. This increase in terminal voltage is restricted to leading power
factor loads.
All of the preceding diagrams refer to a single phase transformer, but will equally apply to a three phase
transformer, with the three sets of vectors displaced by 120 providing that the transformer is star
Fig. 5 Vectors for a leading secondary load
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connected on both windings. If the winding connection is other than star on both windings the
secondary side phase shift will be different, as described in a later section.
2.6 Transformer Equivalent Circuit
Whilst voltage and current problems may be resolved through the use of phasor diagrams it is also
convenient to construct an equivalent circuit which is shown in Figure 6.
In the diagram,
R
P
= Primary winding resistance. X
P
= Primary winding reactance.
R
S
= Secondary winding resistance. X
S
= Secondary winding reactance.
R
C
= Equivalent core loss resistance. I
C
= Core loss current. X
M
= Magnetising reactance.
I
M
= Magnetising current. I
O
= No load loss current.
E
P
and E
S
are the primary and secondary side EMFs.
The primary and secondary terminal voltages and currents are V
P
, V
S
, I
P
and I
S
.
There are also small values of capacitance both integral to and between the primary and secondary
windings (not indicated) which can in theory create resonance conditions although these are much too
high in frequency to be of interest to the power engineer. In the equivalent circuit diagram the windings
are shown as ideal inductances, with the primary and secondary winding resistances and the leakage
reactances represented separately. The effect of the magnetising current I
M
is represented by the
combination of I
C
the core loss resistance current through R
C
and I
M
the core loss reactance current
through reactance X
M
. It is customary to simplify the equivalent circuit by transferring the secondary
side resistance and leakage reactance to the primary side, allowing for the voltage ratio E
P
to E
S
which
is the same as the turns ratio N
P
to N
S
. Because the voltage is changed by ratio N
P
/N
S
and the current
is also changed by ratio N
P
/N
S
, on transfer to the primary side the secondary side values of R
S
and X
S
must be multiplied by the ratio (N
P
/ N
S
)
2
. This leads to the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 7.
Fig 6 Transformer Equivalent Circuit
Fig 7 Transformer Equivalent Circuit with Secondary Side Resistance and
Reactance Transferred to the Primary Side
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Using the equivalent circuit, the principal parameters of any transformer can be calculated from the
results of the open circuit (or no load) test and the short circuit (or impedance) test which are easily
performed because they do not require the transformer to be fully loaded. These parameters are:
1. Equivalent resistance R
01
as referred to the primary side.
2. Equivalent leakage reactance X
01
as referred to the primary side.
3. Iron loss equivalent resistance R
0
.
4. Magnetising reactance X
0
.
The Open Circuit or No Load Test is carried out to determine the Iron loss and with it the no load
current I
0
which can be used to determine R
0
and X
0
. In this test, one winding (normally the HV side) is
left open circuit and the other winding is connected to a supply of the correct frequency and the rated
voltage V
1
. Using a wattmeter and an ammeter, both power P
0
and current I
0
are measured.
Under these conditions I
0
is very small, typically a few percent of the rated load current so the Copper
loss is also very small in the energised winding and none at all in the non-energised winding. Hence the
wattmeter measures the Iron loss (which is the same at all values of transformer load).
P
0
= the Iron loss, I
0
= the no load current and V
1
= applied voltage.
Hence: P
0
= V
1
I
0
Cos
And Cos =
0
1 0
P
VI
= where Cos is the no load power factor.
Hence the in phase component of the magnetising current I
C
is: I
C
=
0
0
1
P
I Cos
V
| =
And the quadrature component of the magnetising current I
M
is: I
M
=
2 2
0 C
I I
The no load resistance R
0
is: R
0
=
2
1 1
0 C
V V
I P
=
The no load reactance X
0
is: X
0
=
2
1 1
2 2
0
M
C
V V
I
I I
=
The Short Circuit or Impedance Test is carried out with the secondary side terminals short circuited
by a Copper bond of large cross sectional area. The primary side winding is supplied from a variable
voltage source of the correct frequency and again a wattmeter and ammeter are in the primary side
circuit.
In the test, the voltage is adjusted until the primary side current is equivalent to the full load current -
this voltage is again a few percent of the normal primary side voltage. Because the applied voltage is
low the flux in the core and the consequent Iron loss are small enough to be neglected therefore the
wattmeter indicates the Copper loss at full load operation. If:
V
SC
= Primary side voltage required to circulate full load current
I
1
= Primary side ammeter reading
Z
01
= Transformer total impedance referred to the primary side
Then:
Z
01
=
1
SC
V
I
Also P =
2
1 01
I R hence R
01
=
2
1
P
I
and X
01
=
2 2
01 01
Z R
These tests are also described later in this course.
Version E 12
Example
The single phase, 50Hz, 50kVA, 11,000/230V transformer shown has Open Circuit (OC) and Short
Circuit (SC) test results as follows:
OC test: Voltage V = 230V, Current I = 10.5A, Wattmeter W = 520W (which is the Iron or no load loss).
SC test: Voltage V = 450V, Current* I = 5A, Wattmeter W = 500W (which is the Copper loss).
Considering the OC test then:
Primary voltage V
1
= 230V, No load current I
0
= 10.5A and No load loss P
0
= 520W
Hence P
0
= V
1
x I
0
x Cos
0
520 = 230 x 10.5 x Cos
0
Cos
0
= 520/(230 x 10.5) = 0.215
And Sin
0
= 0.976
Therefore the in phase component of the no load current is: I
W
= I
0
x Cos
0
= 10.5 x 0.215 = 2.257A
And the quadrature component of the no load current is: I
M
= I
0
x Sin
0
= 10.5 x 0.976 = 10.25A
The resistance representing the core loss is: R
0
= V
1
/I
W
= 230V/2.257A = 101
And the reactance representing the core loss is: X
0
= V
1
/I
M
= 230V/10.25A = 22.4
Considering the SC test then:
V
SC
= 450V, I
SC
= 5A and Load loss = 500W which is the Copper or load loss
Hence the transformer impedance Z
P
on the primary side is Z
P
= V
SC
/I
SC
= 450/5 = 90
Now P
SC
= I
SC
2
x R
P
hence 500 = 25 x R
P
from which R
P
= 20
The transformation ratio (K) is 11,000/230 = 47.8 and K
2
= 2287
These values referred to the 230V side are:
Z
S
= Z
P
/K
2
= 90/2287 = 0.0393 and R
S
= R
P
/K
2
= 20/2287 = 0.00874
Hence X
S
=
2 2
S S
Z R =
2 2
0.0393 0.00874
S S
= 0.038 .
The secondary side FLC is 50,000kVA/230V = 217A
Hence the impedance voltage drop is 217A x 0.0393 = 8.52V or on 230V = 3.7%.
Version E 13
3. The Magnetic Circuit
The magnetic circuit in a transformer is mainly but not exclusively the Iron core; as mentioned earlier,
some magnetic flux leaks out, crosses the air (or oil) filled gaps and enters the tank, frame, clamps
and other ferrous components. However every flux path is a closed loop, flux leaking from the core at
any point must re - enter it at another. Within the core, flux is created by the Magneto Motive Force
(mmf), which in turn is generated by Ampere Turns - this is analogous to an applied voltage V driving a
current I through an electrical circuit. To extend the comparison further, magnetic Reluctance is similar
to electrical resistance, although it stores energy rather than dissipates energy. The reluctance of a
uniform magnetic circuit can be calculated as:
o r
L
R
a
= in Amperes per Weber (A/Wb)
Where L is the circuit length,
0
is the permeability of free space (4 x 10
-7
Henry per metre),
r
is the
relative permeability of the material and a is the cross sectional area in m
2
. MMF should not be
confused with flux density H, they are different quantities measured by different units. Starting with
mmf, this is generated by Ampere Turns according to the relationship:
mmf = 0.4 x x N x I ..measured in Gilberts
The mmf then creates a magnetic flux H equal to
H = mmf/Magnetic Path Length in cm .measured in Oersted
Finally H divided by the core area gives B:
B = H/Core area in m
2
measured in Tesla
The SI unit Tesla may be converted to the CGS unit Gauss by multiplying by 10,000. In a ferromagnetic
material, the relationship between B and H is not linear because at increasing values of H at some point
B reaches a (more or less) steady value in this condition the magnetic material is described as
Saturated. Hence
r
is not constant but increases rapidly as saturation is approached. Figure 8
illustrates this effect, which is called the Magnetization Curve.
Fig. 8 B-H curve for a ferrous material
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Hysteresis - When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized by force B in one direction, it will not return
to zero magnetization when B field is removed. It must be driven back to zero by another magnetic
force in the opposite direction. If an alternating magnetic field is applied to the material, its
magnetization will trace out a loop called a hysteresis loop. The lack of re-traceability of the
magnetization curve is the property called hysteresis and it is caused by the existence of magnetic
domains (one domain per metal crystal) in the material. Once the magnetic domains are oriented in one
direction, it requires energy to reverse them this represents an energy loss eventually appearing as
heat in the transformer core.
Figure 9 shows the changing magnetic flux B of a ferromagnetic material whilst the magnetizing force is
changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly
demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line shows, the greater the amount
of current applied H the stronger the magnetic field B, up to the saturation limit.
At point 1, which represents full saturation in the original direction, almost all of the magnetic domains in
the material are aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will produce very little
increase in magnetic flux. When H is reduced to zero, the curve will move from point 1 to point 2. At this
point, some magnetic flux remains in the material even though the magnetizing force B is zero. This is
referred to as the Point of Retentivity and indicates the remanence or level of residual magnetism in the
material. At this point some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but others have lost their
alignment.
When the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point 3 where the flux has been reduced to
zero. This is called the Point of Coercivity. (The reversed magnetizing force has reversed enough of the
domains that the net flux within the material is zero.) The force required to remove the residual
magnetism from the material is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material.
The material will again become magnetically saturated as the magnetizing force is increased but in the
opposite negative direction. Reducing H to zero brings the curve to another point equivalent to point 2
in the negative half cycle. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Note that the
curve does not return to the origin of the graph because some force is required to remove the residual
magnetism. The curve will take a different path back to saturation point 1 where it will complete the
loop.
From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be determined.
1. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a
magnetic material. Stated another way, it is a material's ability to retain a residual magnetic field
when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. (The value of B at point 2 on
the hysteresis curve.)
2. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that remains in a material
when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same
when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual
Fig. 9 Hysteresis Loop
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magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the
saturation level.
3. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magnetic
material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point 3 on the hysteresis
curve.)
4. Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the establishment of a
magnetic field. Reluctance is similar to the resistance in an electrical circuit.
The area of the hysteresis loop represents the energy lost according to the expression:
Energy lost per cycle = BH H c
}
watts
Eddy Currents Eddy currents are the second core effect causing energy loss and are usually
combined with the hysteresis loss so that:
Core loss = Hysteresis Loss + Eddy Current Loss
As the magnetic flux changes cyclically, voltages are induced which, because the Iron has a finite
electrical resistivity give rise to currents and therefore I
2
R energy loss which appears as heat. In any
particular transformer the maximum value of magnetic flux is constant, hence the eddy current loss is
also constant or at least very nearly constant; there is some minor increase with load because for
example, current through the winding connection leads also generates a magnetic flux which interacts
with the transformer tank where the leads pass through. These minor losses increase and decrease
with the load current.
To limit the eddy current losses, cores are constructed of laminations with a thickness between 0.2 mm
and 0.35 mm, coated with an insulating material which in the very early days was simply surface rust
but is now either a varnish or a polymer coating. Laminated construction has the effect of increasing the
overall core resistivity. The energy loss due to eddy currents in thin sheets is given by:
2 2 2 2
6
p
B d f
P
D
t
=
where: P - power dissipation (watts/kg), B
p
- peak flux density (tesla), d - thickness of the sheet (m), f -
frequency (Hz), - resistivity (m), D - specific density (kg/m
3
). Lamination thickness d is in the
numerator and squared, therefore from a loss standpoint, the thinner the better. However
manufacturing cost rises with thinner laminations due to the greater number required and very thin
laminations are difficult to keep flat. Also for a constant thickness of the insulating layer, a greater
proportion of the core is non - magnetic varnish or polymer rather than Steel.
Example 1 - A transformer with a core comprising 0.25 mm laminations weighing a total of 7.65 tonnes
operates at 50 Hz, a peak magnetic flux B
max
of 1.2 tesla. Resistivity of Silicon Iron is 47.2 x 10
-8
m
and density is 7650kg/m
3
.
( )
3
2
2 2 2
8
0.25 1 1.2 50
6 47.2 10 7650
0 x x x x
P
x x x
t
= W/kg = 0.1025W/kg
For a 7.65 tonne core this is a loss of 787W.
Eddy current loss varies with the square of the frequency this is a further economic penalty for the
users of 60 Hz networks. In addition the core loss rises rapidly for voltages containing harmonics and
over the past 10 years network harmonics have increased due to the widespread use of switch mode
power supplies. However the hysteresis loss described earlier is directly proportional to frequency.
Hence if a variable frequency supply is available then for any given transformer the two losses may be
separated.
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For example for hysteresis loss (A)
P
h
= A
And for eddy current loss (B)
P
e

2
= B
2
Example 2
A 100kVA single phase transformer has Iron loss of 4000W at 40Hz and 2800W at 30Hz. What are the
eddy current and hysteresis loss at 50Hz?
Total Iron loss P
h
+ P
e
= A + B
2
At 40Hz 4000 = 40A + (40)
2
B
4000 = 40A + 1600B.(1)
At 30Hz 2800 = 30A + (30)
2
B
2800 = 30A + 900B.(2)
Solving these two simultaneous equations gives: A = 73.3 and B = 0.6675
Hence at 50Hz
Hysteresis Loss P
h
= A x 50 = 73.3 x 50 = 3665W
Eddy Current Loss P
e
= 50
2
x B = 1668W
3.1 Core Materials
Magnetic characteristics are not always uniform within any given mass of material; they can vary with
direction especially if it has been cold rolled as a strip, a technique that has been applied to power
transformer Steels since the 1930s. These Steels are referred to as Cold Rolled, Grain Oriented
(CRGO). Cold rolling orients the crystal grains towards the preferred direction of magnetization,
improving the materials magnetic characteristic but only in the direction of rolling and at the expense of
favourable characteristics in the other directions. What is meant by improvement is a reduction in the
area of the B-H loop, which in effect is a reduction in the hysteresis (energy) loss. CRGO Steel is
manufactured to a number of international standards; some ASTM A725 grades are:
M3: Max 0.77 watts/kg at 1.5T and 50Hz
M4: Max 0.89 watts/kg at 1.5T and 50Hz
M5: Max 0.97 watts/kg at 1.5T and 50 Hz
M6: Max 1.10 watts/kg at 1.5T and 50 Hz
And some BS EN 10341:2006 Cold rolled electrical non-alloy and alloy Steel sheet and strip delivered
in the semi-processed state grades are:
35M7: 1.23 watts/kg at 1.5T and 50Hz
An empirical expression for the approximate hysteresis energy loss in a Silicon Iron, cold rolled, grain
oriented transformer core is given by:
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P
h
150.7 x V
c
x Frequency x B
max
watts depending on the particular Steel
Where V
c
is the core volume in metres
3
and B
max
is in tesla.
Example 3 Considering the same moderate sized power transformer as example 1 with 1 m
3
(7.65
tonne) core volume operating at a B
max
of 1.2 tesla will have an approximate no load Iron loss of:
P 150.7 x 1 x 50 x 1.2 = 9042W
or approximately 9kW. Hence the penalty for operation on a 60 Hz system over a 50 Hz system is a
20% greater energy loss again a significant cost penalty for those countries that use 60Hz.
Examples 1 and 2 together give a total core loss in the 7.65 tonne transformer of:
Core loss = Hysteresis Loss (9kW) + Eddy Current Loss (0.7kW) 9.7kW
Hence although the eddy current loss is important, it is an order of magnitude less than the hysteresis
loss. Transformer Steels have a 2.5 to 5.5% Silicon content, which was introduced in the 1920s to
inhibit Magnetic Ageing, an effect in which the core loss slowly increases during service. This is caused
by an interaction of the Steel crystals with carbide grains at the crystal boundaries. A well as reducing
this effect, Silicon also narrows the B-H loop and it increases the electrical resistivity of the Steel by a
factor of approximately 4 and hence reduces the Eddy Current loss, as previously described. However
Silicon Steels are more brittle and therefore more difficult to work. Whereas hot rolled Steel operated at
nominal flux densities of 1.35 tesla, cold-rolled grain-oriented strip cores operate at 1.6 - 1.8 tesla. This
allows a larger rated transformer per unit of active material. In the UK, CRGO Steel is produced in two
qualities with two sub-grades and four thicknesses (.23, 0.27, 0.30 and 0.35mm, giving a choice of
seven different specific loss values. Alternatively Japanese Steel of higher quality is available in three
thicknesses (0.23, 0.27 and 0.3mm). The economic choice of Steel grade and thickness for any given
transformer depends on the impedance and loss characteristics. Use of thinner laminations and higher
quality Steel will increase both the material cost and the labour cost, which must be balanced against
the reduction in energy losses from the reduced Iron loss over the life of the unit.
To reduce eddy current losses, the Steel is coated with a very thin, heat resistant varnish layer. This
layer is thin enough to have a negligible effect on the Stacking Factor, which may be defined as the
proportion of Iron compared with non magnetic materials and spaces within the finished core.
Historically a second coat of varnish was applied after cutting and punching, but improved modern
varnishes have allowed a second coating to be discontinued. Although it is possible to cut (usually
referred to as slit) transformer laminations to the required width from full width roll material, the modern
tendency is to purchase roll material manufactured in the required width, to eliminate wastage. Where
the design includes bolt holes these are normally punched in the same operation as the laminations are
cropped to length. After cutting and punching it was traditional to anneal the laminations at 800C in a
Nitrogen atmosphere continuous furnace to stress relieve them and so restore the reduction in
magnetic properties caused by the residual stress. However modern transformer design allows bolt
holes to be eliminated and better cutting techniques also reduce the residual cutting stress and so post-
cutting annealing has been largely eliminated.
A more recent (1990s) development is Amorphous Steel, in which molten material is sprayed onto a
fast spinning, cooled wheel the rapid temperature drop prevents crystals from forming and the
material retains its non crystalline Amorphous structure. Transformers constructed with this ribbon
material can have up to a 75% reduction in core Iron loss, though 60% is more typical, compared with
cold rolled grain oriented Silicon Steels. But the material is produced as a brittle, difficult to cut ribbon
and it is also very thin (0.03mm) which makes core manufacture more complicated and hence more
expensive. A similar effect can be obtained by scribing the surface of the Steel with a laser, which also
has the effect of breaking up the crystal domains. At the time of writing this course amorphous core
distribution transformers are in limited use in Europe and in rather greater use in the USA. This is due
to the USAs demand for single phase transformers which are easier to fabricate from amorphous
ribbon stock. Table 1 is taken from a paper published in 2002 which compares the 30 year cost of
ownership of standard loss (non CRGO Silicon Steel), low loss and (CRGO Silicon Steel) amorphous
Steel 11kV/415V, 315kVA distribution transformer.
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Standard Low Loss Amorphous
Loss Cost ($) Loss Cost ($) Loss Cost ($)
No load loss
kW
0.735 7754
(11631)
0.38 4009
(6013)
0.145 1530
(2295)
Load loss kW 4.8 10330
(15495)
0.41 8780
(13170)
4.8 10265
(15395)
Manufactured
cost
- 5000
(7500)
- 6690
(10035)
- 7315
(10972)
Total lifetime
cost ($)
- 23084
(34625)
- 19479
(29218)
- 19110
(28665)
3.2 Core Construction
The construction of a transformer core differs according to whether it is single or three phase type.
Single phase transformers are often C type formed from wound strip or strips sliced into two equal
sections after winding, as shown in Figure 10.
The core on the left is wound from a single width of strip, whilst that on the right is wound in three
sections from two widths of strip, improving the amount of Iron within the winding (the Stacking factor).
Because the windings in larger transformers are (normally) circular in cross section the aim is to also
make the core as nearly circular in cross section as possible to match, so that the percentage of core
cross section occupied by air (or oil) is as little as possible (Figure 11).
The greater the number of different width strips that are used, the better the stacking factor typically
up to seven may be used. But the greater the number of strip widths the greater the manufacturing
difficulty and hence cost. It is one of the many compromises that designers must make. Three phase
transformers may also be constructed using C cores, as shown in Figure 12.
Fig. 10 Wound C cores
Fig. 11 Improving the Stacking factor
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However the cores of most three phase power transformers are constructed of cut laminations, of which
there are several types. The E & I arrangement shown on the lower left of Figure 13 is popular for
smaller rated units because it minimises scrap when cut from sheet material. To do this, the proportions
are so arranged that Is are stamped from the inner sections of the E and the centre limb of the E is
twice as wide as the outer limb. Each I must be half as long as the E is high from top to bottom.
Because of the fixed relationship of the dimensions, E & I core laminations are specified by the width in
imperial units of the centre limb of the E (the tongue) for example EI1000 has a 10 inch tongue,
EI1500 a 15 inch tongue and so on.
To reduce butt gaps, E&I laminations may be alternated top to bottom on adjacent layers, so that
overlaps are created. The horizontal members of the core are referred to a yokes whilst the vertical
members are referred to as legs. UK practice is to use the same thickness and width of laminations for
both, so that the cross section of the two parts of the Iron circuit is the same.
Mitred and Notched laminations are shown on the right of Figure 13. These are the most popular type
for larger rated units because the arrangement allows CRGO Steel to be used to its maximum
advantage.
To reduce butt gaps and further improve the magnetic performance, laminations may also be
overlapped at the corners Figure 14 shows the overlaps commonly employed.
Fig. 12C core for a three phase transformer
Fig. 13 Lamination shapes
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Picture 15 shows the laminations and clamp arrangements at the corner of a distribution transformer.
The stacking factor has been improved through the use of a core with six strip widths.
Finally before leaving core types, the 5 limb version shown in Figure 16 should be mentioned. This is
uncommon in power transformers (it is more often used for instrument VTs) but is sometimes used to
reduce the overall height of a unit if the transportation route to site is restricted.
Fig. 14 Lamination overlaps
Pic. 15 Laminations at a corner (courtesy of Bowers Group)
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4. Coil Construction
Transformer coils are normally Copper (Aluminium may also be used) insulated with cellulose fibre
(paper or pressboard) and they are wound over bobbins or formers, which in modern practice are
usually a plastic material. Coils and bobbins must fit inside the core windows whilst at the same time
they must be large enough allow enough free space for the mineral oil coolant to circulate easily. This is
another important design compromise, because a small window economises on core material and it
also improves the magnetic characteristics of the core, reducing core loss which for both hysteresis and
eddy current is related to core volume. Circular wire is used only for lower rated units and then only for
the HV side; rectangular section Copper is favoured for the secondary, heavy current side and in higher
rated units for the HV side as well. To assist in winding and to reduce the Skin effect which causes the
current in conductors carrying AC to flow closer to the outside, larger conductors may be laminated
from two or more wires or strips, with a spirally wound tape insulation overall. Four coil types are used
Crossover, Spiral, Helical and Continuous disk.
Crossover This is illustrated in Figure 17. A single coil comprises a number of turns of insulated wire
or insulated rectangular section wound over a former and covered with a paper wrap, typically each coil
is approximately 50mm deep x 50mm high. Several coils comprise a stack, connected sequentially
innermost turn to outermost turn. In position on the transformer limb, coils are supported by insulated
separators (not shown) these allow for the free circulation of oil. The division of the winding into
separate coils assists in controlling the voltage distribution, which is an important consideration.
Fig. 16 Five limb three phase transformer
Fig. 17 Crossover coil in section (left) and as a stack (right)
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Spiral The spiral form is used for heavy current low voltage windings and comprises a number of
Copper strips wrapped with insulating material, which may be paper or a polymer. For extra rigidity, the
ends are supported by shaped edgeblocks. Figure 18 shows a four strip conductor but more may be
used multiple strips provide flexibility and allow easier fabrication. If required, additional layers of coil
may be added, with pressboard insulation between this is easily applied as it is simply a tubular wrap.
Alternatively spacer bars may be fitted to allow oil circulation in a vertical direction between layers.
Helical - Is similar to the spiral but the turns are separated by an air gap when wound and by coolant oil
in the transformer. The inter-turn distance is controlled by notched spacers made of insulating material,
each notch dimensioned to accept a single paper or polymer wrapped conductor. Again, this may be
multi layer Copper for flexibility. These gaps allow oil to circulate and they also provide inter-turn
insulation. Helical coils are used for transformer windings above low voltage.
Continuous Disc These coils, sometimes called pancake comprise a number of flat discs arranged
in a vertical formation. Each disc is wound on a former, inside to outside using strip Copper insulated by
paper or polymer foil there may be one, two or several Copper strips. Discs are separated by a
Fig. 18 Spiral coil
Fig. 19 Helical coil with 8 spacers some windings may have more
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vertical gap, secured by notched vertical spacer bars in a rather similar manner to the helical coil
design, but each notch now holds a disc rather than an individual conductor.
In larger windings the discs may be horizontally divided by further (short) spacers into sections with a
gap between each section, again to promote the circulation of cooling oil. Inter disc connections are
inner of one to outer of the next adjacent. Figure 20 shows two disc coils; a typical winding may have
15-25 depending upon voltage. Continuous disc coils help control the voltage distribution across a
winding and are used up to highest voltages.
Dry Type/Cast Resin The coils of the original dry type transformers were very similar to those for oil
immersion, but with additional applied tape insulation. Service experience with transformers of this type
was poor, mainly because accumulated dust, dirt and moisture from the circulation of cooling air (either
natural convection or forced) led to flashovers.
In the 1970s cast resin designs were introduced, in which the spiral, helical or disc form windings are
insulated by vacuum casting a substantial thickness of epoxy resin around them, in the form of a
smooth surfaced hard resin cylinder. In spiral or helical designs the windings are individual concentric
cylinders, each cylinder comprising a complete layer of winding, or alternatively several concentric coils
may be cast, with annular cooling ducts moulded in between the winding layers (Fig. 21).
These transformers may also be natural convection or forced air cooled, although it is considered poor
practice to rely on forced air cooling to obtain the declared normal rating of the unit. A particular feature
of cast resin units is that the thermal expansion of the Copper windings is much greater than that of the
resin hence overloading can lead to resin cracking and eventual failure. For this reason, cast resin
transformers are not normally fuse protected but close protected by a circuit breaker.
Fig. 20 Two continuous disc coils, separators not shown
Fig.21Two layer cast resin coil with cooling ducts
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Coil completion Coils for use in oil filled transformers are completed by varnishing or by epoxy resin
coating. Small transformers may be simply varnish dipped, but units for power distribution use are first
subjected to heat and vacuum in a chamber to evaporate off any remaining moisture. Whilst still in the
chamber, hot varnish or liquid epoxy is introduced to impregnate the windings; excess material is
allowed to drain out. The epoxy or varnish used is a hard setting, oil resisting type; it fills any residual
voids reducing the possibility of partial discharge and it also stiffens the coils ready for assembly onto
the cores.
Great care must be taken in completing the Copper connections including the leads to the cable boxes -
these are always brazed or welded, never soft soldered. Large transformers are often not filled in the
makers works; to reduce weight the transformer is transported in a sealed condition with a pressurised
dry gas filling which is removed and replaced by oil on site. The oil filling process tends to trap gas in
the windings, which must be purged by power pumping, usually for 24 hours. Failure to do this can lead
to unwanted tripping of the Buchholz relay.
5. Core Type and Shell Type Transformer Construction
Two basic forms of construction are used, the Core Type and the Shell Type. In the core type, favoured
in the UK for all power transformers, the limbs, yoke and windings are circular in cross section with the
LV winding arranged concentrically inside the HV winding. In the shell type limbs, yoke and windings
are rectangular with the HV and LV windings interleaved.
The shell design is somewhat more favoured for single phase transformers and so finds its largest
application in the United States, where three phase installations are often implemented by three banked
single phase units.
Electrically and magnetically, the major difference between these two designs is that the core type has
longer mean length of iron core and a shorter mean length of coil turn. The shell type has shorter mean
length of iron core and a longer mean length of coil turn. In terms of manufacturing cost, the optimum
choice depends upon the relative costs of Copper and Iron. Increasing cost of Copper favours the core
type and increasing cost of Iron the shell type. However both types have been manufactured over a
very long period of time, which suggests that the economics between the two are well balanced.
By adjusting the winding interleaving arrangements, the reactance of a shell type transformer can be
varied, which makes them particularly suitable for specialist low voltage, heavy current applications
where a high reactance is required to provide current limiting under short circuit conditions - for
example arc furnaces, welding applications and short circuit testing stations. Transformer reactance is
discussed in greater detail later in this course.
5.1 Core Clamping
Because of the coils fitted to the legs, it is possible to clamp the laminations together only at the upper
and lower yokes. Historically core clamping bolts were used fitted into holes punched in the corners of
the laminations, but modern practice is to use external U or I section beams as shown in Figure 22. In
this three phase core type transformer the HV windings are delta connected with leads brought out to
terminations secured to the U beam clamps by insulated bushings.
Fig 22 Core (left) and Shell (right) types of construction (single phase)
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The clamp beams may also connect to straps extending to the transformer side walls at their remote
ends, thereby securing the core in the tank. The lower clamp beam normally rests on the tank base.
Both the supports below the lower clamp beam and the side straps include anti-vibration features to
isolate the transformer proper from the surrounding tank and thereby reduce transmitted noise the
resilient components of these devices must be resistant to immersion in mineral oil.
In the illustration, four clamping bolts are shown but there may be more depending upon the
transformer size. However many bolts are used, they are fitted with insulated washers or some other
insulating feature to prevent the losses that would otherwise occur, because without insulation the two
beams and connecting bolts would form a short circuited turn.
It is important to clamp the laminations securely, or else the free movement however slight allows the
laminations to vibrate, adding to noise.
6. Transformer Rating, Impedance, Resistance and Reactance
6.1 Rating
The power rating of a transformer is the VA it will pass through and is defined as:
VA = Rated voltage x Rated current
Or for three phase units 3 x the rating of a single winding pair.
Clearly size increases with rating and in general larger transformers are more efficient than smaller
transformers, that is, the Iron and Copper losses are a smaller proportion of their power rating. For any
specified power rating, winding voltage and frequency, the product:
Conductor current density x core flux density x core cross sectional area x total conductor
cross sectional area = a constant.
These are the factors that the transformer designer must optimise to create a transformer that is
economic in first cost yet efficient in service. For example the core cross sectional area may be reduced
if the core flux density is allowed to increase at the cost of greater Iron losses but the latter must
always be less than the flux saturation limit of the particular grade of Iron used.
Similarly, the conductor cross sectional area may be decreased in which case the conductor current
density will be increased, at the expense of greater Copper losses. Increasing the applied voltage has
Fig. 23 Core type transformer with U beam clamps
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the effect of increasing the required insulation thickness hence for the same winding resistance and the
same conductor current density a larger window area will be required, implying a longer magnetic flux
path and therefore, for the same magnetic reluctance, a greater core cross sectional area.
For any given power transformer intended to be used on a system of specified voltage, the frequency is
fixed, the insulation by the system voltage, the magnetic flux density by the characteristics of the Iron
grade selected and the conductor current density by the economic limits to losses. In this situation, the
following approximate scaling factors apply to the assembly of core and coils:
1. The linear dimensions vary as the ratio (kVA increased /kVA initial)
0.25
2. The area varies as (kVA increased /kVA initial)
0.5
3. The volume varies as (kVA increased /kVA initial)
0.75
For example, the core + coil assembly ratio changes between a 10MVA unit and a 15MVA unit will be
linear dimensions 1.10, area 1.22 and volume 1.35. The increase in volume leads to use of the term
Scaling Factor.
The following approximate scaling factors describe other important variables.
Parameter Scaling Factor Example 10MVA increase
to15MVA
Cost (kVA increased /kVA initial)
0.75
1.35
Total Losses (kVA increased /kVA initial)
0.75
1.35
No Load Loss (kVA increased /kVA initial)
0.75
1.35
Percentage Total Loss (kVA increased /kVA initial)
-0.25
0.90
Percentage Resistance R (kVA increased /kVA initial)
-0.25
0.90
Percentage Reactance X (kVA increased /kVA initial)
0.25
1.1
Volts per winding turn (kVA increased /kVA initial)
0.5
1.22
6.2 Reactance
The reactance of a transformer arises from imperfect magnetic coupling of the windings; some of the
magnetic flux leaks creating a leakage flux which does not link with all the turns of the windings.
Because this flux stores and releases magnetic energy with each cycle, it effectively acts as an inductor
in series with the primary and secondary windings.
Mathematically, the mutual inductance M of two windings is given by:
1 2
M k L L =
Where L
1
and L
2
are the self inductances and k is a coupling factor representing the leakage flux.
Factor k is always less than 1, though some transformers closely approach it.
Both primary and secondary windings have a leakage reactance and can therefore be considered as
having separate series inductors with separate series reactances. But for any given transformer they
are not separable quantities as far as the network designer is concerned hence they must be treated as
a single entity. Figure 24 illustrates the situation for a single phase transformer.
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Leakage reactance is a property of the design of core and windings and any desired value within limits
may be implemented at the design stage power transformers can have a value between 1% and 10%
but 4% to 6% is more common. Most transformers are manufactured to a recognised standard which
defines the upper and lower limits of impedance; transformers with impedance values above or below
the standard limits may be constructed but they will be specials and subject to greater cost.
A high value of reactance acts to limit the short circuit current on the transformer secondary side and so
may allow the use of switchgear of a lower rating and therefore lower cost; on the other hand a low
value of reactance will provide better voltage regulation as load rises. Hence this is another balance
situation for the network designer to consider. A further consequence of a requirement for low
reactance is that it implies a relatively larger magnetic flux and therefore a relatively larger core size,
increasing both the Iron cost and the Copper cost, because of the increased coil length.
Reactance X combines with resistance R to determine the impedance Z, which is one of the most
important characteristics of a power transformer. Normally only the percentage impedance is quoted on
the nameplate of a power transformer this value is the volt drop on full load due to the impedance
expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage. It is also the percentage of the normal terminal voltage
on one winding side required to circulate full load current under short circuit conditions in the other
winding.
The effective resistance of a transformer may be calculated from the quoted value of full load Copper
loss. For example, consider a 10MVA, 3 phase 33/11kV transformer whose full load Copper loss is
15kW or 5kW per phase.
The phase to neutral voltage is 11,000/3 = 6350V and full load power per phase is 10,000,000W/3 =
3,333,333W. Hence the full load current per phase is:
3,333,333/6350 = 524 A
Now Power = I
2
R
So substituting values:
5000 = (524)
2
R
From which R = 0.018
If the quoted impedance is 4%, the volt drop is 4% on 6350V phase to neutral voltage or 6350 x 0.04 =
254V. The impedance Z is:
Z = 254V/524A = 0.48
The reactance X is found from
2 2
Z R X = + or substituting values
2 2
0.48 0.018 X = +
In this case X = 0.479
Fig. 24 Leakage reactance in a single phase transformer
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In the example the ratio of resistance to reactance is 1 to 27, within the normally expected range for
large power transformers which tend to a ratio of approximately 1 to 30.
Resistance R may also be expressed in percentage terms. At the full load current of 524A, the volt drop
due to resistance will be V = 524 x 0.018 = 9.4V or on 6350V this is 0.15%.
6.3 Maximum Fault Current
To calculate the maximum current that a transformer can deliver under symmetrical fault conditions
consider the same 10 MVA transformer with the same 4% impedance. The maximum fault level
available on the secondary side is:
10MVA x 100/4 = 250 MVA
From this figure the equivalent primary and secondary fault currents can be calculated. On the lower
voltage 11kV side this will be 250/3 = 83.3MVA per phase and at 6350V = 83,333,333/6350V =
13,123A
The value calculated above is a maximum. In practice, the actual fault level will be reduced by the
source impedance, the impedance of cables and/or overhead lines between the transformer and the
fault, and the fault impedance itself.
6.4 Regulation when Power Factor <1
If the resistance and reactance are expressed in percentage terms, it is possible to calculate the full
load percentage transformer regulation when the power factor is less than 1. The expression used is:
Percentage volt drop at full load = ( )
2
2
( ) 100% RxP XxQ +
Where:
R is the winding resistance as a percentage
X is the winding reactance as a percentage
P is the power factor Cos as a percentage
Q is the power factor Sin as a percentage
For example taking the same 10MVA transformer at a power factor of 0.8:
Percentage volt drop at full load = ( )
2
2
0.15 80 (4 60) 100% x x + = 2.4%
6.3 The Effect of Regulation on Transformer Ratio
Although the nominal system voltages on either side of a distribution transformer may be 11kV and
415/230V, this is not necessarily the optimum ratio for a practical application. Transformer impedance,
typically between 4 and 6%, creates a volt drop at the secondary terminals, especially at full load. To
compensate for this it is customary to raise the nominal secondary voltage; in the UK, distribution
transformers with 4% impedance are specified as 11000/433V, giving a 4.3% boost over the nominal
415V secondary voltage. The ratio 11000/433V is known as the Rated Ratio and is the ratio to which
the other transformer parameters, such as the specified impedance, are related.
In UK distribution transformers the 433V output is the centre (principal or prime) tap within a limited
range of five tappings that are selectable off circuit; note that IEC 60076 - 1 specifies that the nominal
impedance of a transformer applies when the principal tap is in use; these are -5%, -2.5%, 0, 2.5% and
5%. Hence the transformer output can be chosen to suit the particular application and location on the
network. For example a distribution transformer located close to a Primary substation where the
nominal 11kV system is operating close to its upper voltage limit may be set to the -5% or -2.5% tap,
whilst a more distant unit operating where the 11kV voltage is affected by cable or overhead line
impedance may be set to the 2.5% or 5% tap. Note that transformers equipped with on load
tapchangers for network voltage control normally have many more taps, as described later in the
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course. Also, IEC 60076-1 specifies that the nominal impedance of a transformer applies when the
principal tap is in use.
IEC 60076-1 also defines the Tapping Factor which is
d
r
U
U
- this may also be expressed as a
percentage by multiplying by 100.
Where U
r
is the rated voltage of the winding and U
d
is the voltage which would be developed at the
terminals of the winding under no load conditions, at the tapping concerned, when normal voltage is
applied to its associated non-tapped winding. For example:
U
r
= 230V U
d
= 210V Here the Tapping Factor is 210/230 = 0.913 or 91.3%.
6.5 Inrush Current
Inrush current refers to a large surge of current when a transformer is first connected to a supply - it is
similar to the inrush current in an electric motor but due to a different cause. The rate of change of
magnetic flux in a transformer core is proportional to the voltage drop across the primary winding.
Stated another way the voltage waveform is the derivative of the flux waveform, and the flux waveform
is the integral of the voltage waveform. All the waveforms are sinusoidal hence in normal operation the
voltage waveform is shifted from the magnetic flux waveform by 90
o
. Similarly the current waveform is
in phase with the magnetic flux in the core and as the flux is proportional to winding current, the current
waveform too will be in-phase with the flux waveform with both lagging the voltage waveform by 90
o
:
Figure 25 shows this normal operation situation.
If the primary winding of a transformer is connected to an AC voltage source at the moment in time
when the applied voltage is at its positive peak value, then for the transformer to create a voltage drop
in opposition to this applied source voltage, a magnetic flux of rapidly increasing value must be
generated. The result is that winding current increases rapidly, but actually no more rapidly than under
normal conditions; the situation with regard to voltage, current and flux waveforms is just the same as
that for normal operation.
Fig. 25 Normal operation waveforms
Fig. 26 Switch on at maximum voltage
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But it is also possible for the transformer to be connected to supply at the moment when the
instantaneous voltage is at zero. If the transformer were in continuous operation both flux and winding
current would be at their negative peaks, with zero rate of - change. But at switch on both must be at
zero. For a rising voltage just started from zero, the magnetic flux will reach approximately twice its
normal peak as it integrates the area under the voltage waveforms first half cycle. This is the basic
cause of transformer inrush current and is illustrated in Figure 27; it can take several seconds before
the magnetic flux and current decline to normal operation values.
The situation shown in the illustration applies to a transformer where there is sufficient margin between
the level of magnetic flux in normal operation and the level of flux to prevent magnetic saturation. But in
most practical transformers this margin is not available; flux in normal operation is already close to the
saturation limit. Therefore under the starting condition described, the core saturates and the current
rises to a very much greater extent than twice its normal level, possibly as high as 10 to 12 times its
value. Further, where core saturation occurs, the resulting current may contain substantial percentages
of third and fifth harmonics. This is a problem that has increased as the properties of core magnetic
materials have improved; reduced losses at high flux densities allow operation at flux densities closer to
saturation.
Clearly the extent of the current inrush problem depends upon the point on the voltage wave at which
the transformer is energised; from no extra current at all when the voltage is a maximum to a very large
inrush when the applied voltage is zero. Because point on wave switching is impractical in power
networks the transformer protection, whether fuses or a circuit breaker, must be designed to
accommodate the maximum expected inrush current.
There is a second complicating factor, which is the residual permanent magnetic flux in the core from a
previous period of transformer operation referred to as the Remanence. This residual flux depends
upon the magnetic properties of the core Iron and the point on wave at which the transformer was last
switched off and can vary through zero to positive and negative maxima. Where the core is partly
magnetized in the opposite direction from the direction shown in Figure 26, the flux value will not start
from zero but from some negative value with even worse consequences for the starting current.
To some extent, the residual magnetism problem may be reduced by switching off the transformer load
before switching off the transformer itself. When operating at no load, the voltage will lead the current
by 70 - 90 in the mainly inductive circuit. If switch off is obtained through a circuit breaker interruption
will naturally occur close to a current zero when the voltage is at a high value and therefore flux in the
transformer is close to a minimum.
However in general the inrush problem relates to transformer design factors outside the control of the
user, for example the grade of core Steel and the normal flux level in comparison with the saturation
value. Therefore the manufacturers advice should be sought as to the expected maximum level of
inrush current and the protection system designed accordingly.
Fig. 27 Magnetic flux when voltage is zero at switch on
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7. Implementing Transformer Tappings
The tappings described in the previous section are implemented as separate connections to the
winding coils. In power transformers, the volts per turn are high and the tapping points tend to be close
together. It is possible to provide tappings on either the HV or the LV windings, but the LV coils are
normally located inside the HV coils and therefore it is more difficult to bring out the connections; also if
the LV windings were tapped the selector switch would require a much heavier current carrying
capacity. Another factor is that due to the physical layout of transformers, tappings can only be made at
integer values of turns and there are more turns on the HV winding this allows more precise control
over the actual percentage of voltage variation. For these reasons, tappings are normally implemented
on the HV winding.
In large transformers, tappings may be implemented on a single winding or on both windings, for
example the HV winding may be equipped with a manually set tapping to match the long term network
requirements whilst the LV winding has tappings to compensate for the minute to minute variations in
load and consequent network volt drop (using an associated on load tapchanger). In star connected
windings, tappings are always close to the neutral point of the windings, because this reduces the
voltages to earth at the tap selector switch and makes its design and that of the connections between
the transformer and tapchanger unit (where they are separate) much easier (Figure 28).
On delta connected windings, the tappings may be centre or corner (Figure 29). Though more
complicated, the centre tap method is preferred, because in the event of an earth fault either in the
tapping connections or the selector switch the resulting earth fault current for the corner method will be
large in comparison with that for the centre method because of the lack of winding impedance.
Fig. 29 Tappings on a delta connected winding Centre (left) and Corner (right)
Fig. 28 Tappings on a star connected winding
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Although providing tappings on the windings is very useful in controlling the output voltage, when the
transformer is operating on most selected tappings there remain sections of windings that are unused
and have no current. This results in a greater leakage flux and a consequent increase in reactance.
Tappings at the winding ends cause the greater increase in reactance, as much as 30%; where the
tappings are at the winding centres the effect is smaller with a maximum 10% increase. Transformer
winding resistance is also affected by the tapping selected, though to a lesser extent than the
reactance. Therefore the nameplate impedance refers to the value at the prime tapping.
Off circuit tap selector switches are normally rotary in design, allowing a single control shaft to be
brought out through the transformer sidewall, fitted with an oil seal (Picture 30).
Externally, the tap selector may or may not be padlockable, but an indication of the tap in use is always
provided.
Pic. 30 Rotary type tapping selector on a distribution transformer
Pic. 31 External view of a tap selector (courtesy of Bowers Group)
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Tapping Notation IEC 60076 -1 suggests tappings be arranged symmetrically around the prime
tapping, which should be in the middle of the tapping range. The so called Short Notation represents
tappings by factors as percentage deviations from a 100 norm. For example the notation for a 36kV
input/11kV output transformer with 21 x 1.5% tappings on the HV side arranged 10 above and 10 below
the prime tapping would be:
(3610x1.5%)/11kV
8. Parallel Operation
It is unusual for distribution transformers to operate in parallel, but considerations of security of supply
mean that many medium and large transformers operate in parallel with a second unit or occasionally, a
third. Successful parallel operation requires that the following characteristics are matched:
1. The vector group
2. The impedance
3. The nominal output voltage
4. The number of tappings and the same voltage at each tap
5. The polarity
6. The phase rotation
These requirements result in many medium and large transformers being specified, ordered and
manufactured in pairs, sometimes handed pairs where the substation is open terminal. When a
transformer fails, it can be difficult to obtain an exactly matching replacement and quite often this
means that a transformer with dissimilar characteristics must be used on a temporary basis, the
transformers operated independently and the Bus Section circuit Breaker locked open.
Faulty power transformers can be rewound but this is a lengthy process requiring a return to works, de
tanking and stripping of the windings. Where a replacement transformer must be manufactured or
perhaps a second or third transformer is needed to match an existing unit or units, it is designed as far
as possible with the same core, impedance, vector group, winding arrangement, tappings and even the
same number of volts per turn as the faulty unit; the necessary data for this exercise can be difficult to
determine if the original maker has gone out of business.
8.1 Transformer Vector Group and Vector Group Notation
Transformer vectors are important when two or more transformers operate in parallel and also when
power networks need to be paralleled. Clearly the secondary side output of a second transformer 2 and
perhaps transformer 3 feeding into the same substation busbar need to be in phase with the secondary
side output of original transformer 1.
Similarly within any given supply utility, all networks of the same nominal voltage need to be in phase,
otherwise severe operational restrictions will be introduced (because paralleling of the same nominal
voltage networks will be impossible) and/or 1:1 phase shifting transformers will be required. In the UK,
phase standardisation was an important and costly activity between 1930 and 1970, as networks that
had been originally independent were amalgamated into an integrated national system.
By selecting between delta, star and interconnected star windings, any phase shift (normally in 30
steps) can be implemented between the primary side and secondary side of a three phase transformer.
Primary and secondary windings are mostly connected in the following ways:
- Delta-Star ( also called Delta Wye) the most common connection
- Star-Star (also called Wye - Wye)
- Star-Delta (also called Wye - Delta)
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- Delta Delta
The IEC notation is A, B, C for HV windings, a, b, c for LV windings and 3A, 3B, 3C for a third winding
(if fitted). Figure 30 shows an example of an interconnected star arrangement with the phases labelled
A, a, B, b, C, c in the IEC notation, which would be replaced by U, u, V, v, W, w in the USA.
Where the winding has tappings these are also subject to the notation, with the suffix numbers
arranged to indicate the direction of the induced EMF at any given instant in time. For example a HV
winding might have end A
1
and taps A
2
, A
3
, A
4
, A
5
, A
6
and end A
7
.
Except in the USA, HV networks do not include a neutral conductor, therefore HV side windings in
general are delta connected. For the LV side windings, star connection is the most common
arrangement because it provides a convenient neutral point for earthing although delta connected
secondary windings are not unknown. Hence most distribution power transformers are delta-star. Other
more exotic connections are used where harmonics are a problem or a multi phase output is needed for
example in providing supplies to rectifiers. Interconnected star (Z) secondary windings are mainly used
where the currents on the LV side are expected to be significantly unbalanced, because the sharing of
load on any single LV phase winding between two HV side windings helps to reduce the voltage drop.
Selection of an appropriate vector group is straightforward where the transformation is, for example,
132 to 33kV, 33 to 11kV and 11kV to LV, because in any given network the required vector group is the
same as that which has been used in the past. But care needs to be taken where the transformation
steps across a voltage level for example directly from 132 to 11kV.
To assist the utility engineer, standard vector notations are defined by ANSI (in the USA) and by the
IEC (elsewhere). These notations are not identical. In the IEC notation the winding connections are
categorised as follows:
- The first two numbers represent the group and input to output phase shift. The four groups are:
11 with phase shift zero Yy0, Dd0, Dz0, Zd0
26 with 180 phase shift Yy6, Dd6, Dz6, Zd6
31 with minus 30 phase shift Dy1, Yd1, Yz1, Zy1
41 with plus 30 phase shift Dy11, Yd11, Yz11, Zy11
- The first letter is an upper case letter which may be Y, D or Z, which stands for HV side star,
delta or interconnected star windings respectively.
- The second letter is a lower case letter which may be y, d or z which stands for low voltage side
star, delta or interconnected star windings respectively.
- The third is a digit or digits which stand for the phase difference between the high voltage and
low voltage sides according to clock face numbers. For example 1 means that the voltage on
Fig. 32 Example of an interconnected star secondary (Dz6)
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output phases lag the voltage on the input phases by 30, 2 means the output phases lag the
input phases by 60, 11 means the output phases lead the input phases by 30 (considering
that the vectors are assumed to rotate anti clockwise).
For example 41Dy11 means a group 4 transformer, plus 30 phase shift input to output, delta
connected primary, a star connected secondary and the output phases lead the input phases by 30 -
this is the standard arrangement used for UK distribution transformers.
Finally, where the star point of a winding is earthed the letter N (for HV side) or n (for the LV side) may
be used.
A point of possible confusion lies in how to use the IEC notation in a step-up transformer. The notation
is HV to LV in sequence, so for example, a step-up transformer with a delta-connected primary and
star-connected secondary is not written as 'dY11', but 'Yd11'. The 11 indicates the LV phase lags 30
degrees behind the HV side. Transformers built to IEC specification always have the vector notation on
the nameplate.
The ANSI notation is as follows:
High Voltage Always upper case letters
Delta - D, Star S, Interconnected star Z, Neutral brought out - N
Low voltage Always lower case letters
Delta d, Star s, Interconnected star z, Neutral brought out - n
Phase displacement - As in the IEC notation, the clock face numbers are used to indicate the phase
displacement angle. Transformers built to ANSI standards usually do not have the vector group shown
on their nameplate instead a vector diagram is given to show the relationship between the primary and
other windings.
8.2 Polarity and Phase Rotation
For single phase power transformers polarity is unimportant, unless three single phase transformers are
used to implement a three phase bank, in which case polarity becomes very important. For three phase
transformers both polarity and phase rotation are important.
Polarity - considering this first, for any given pair of windings, the voltage on one pair of ends will be in
phase and the voltage on the other pair of ends will be 180 out of phase. If a current flows into the dot
end of a winding it creates a positive voltage at the dotted terminal of the associated winding. Figure 33
shows the dot convention for a single phase unit, where the input and output voltages are in phase.
Fig. 33 Dot convention in a single phase unit
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When two transformers are connected for parallel operation, incorrect connection will result in a large
circulating current which will rapidly destroy both units. Figure 34 shows this condition for two single
phase units, but the requirement is equally valid for three phase units.
A further convention, of great importance to the installing engineer, is the terminal markings which were
first introduced by BS171, as illustrated in Figure 35. Looking from the HV side, the cable box
connections are arranged A, B, C with the corresponding LV cable box connections directly opposite
and the LV side neutral connection on the extreme left. The same convention applies if connections are
by bushings and where handed transformers are manufactured, the handing extends only to the
position of the separate radiators, the bushing connections remain the same.
Phase rotation is the sequence in which the voltage peak on each phase occurs and is red yellow
blue or defined in other ways and to other standards:
Brown, Black, Blue to CENELEC wiring colour codes
Yellow, Green, Red (China wiring colours)
Brown, Orange (Y connected) or Violet (Star connected), Yellow (USA wire colours)
U, V, W (USA terminal notation)
A, B, C (IEC transformer notation)
Interchanging any two phases in a three phase network will result in three phase motors running in
reverse and in the case of transformers connected in parallel a short circuit.
Fig. 35 Terminal connections convention
Fig. 34 Correct (left) and incorrect (right) connection showing circulating current from
incorrect connection
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9. Earthing Transformers
Earthing transformers provide a method of earthing a network which would otherwise be unearthed, for
example where the transformer secondary is delta connected. This type of transformer can be
considered an alternative to a star connected secondary and may also be used in combination with a
Neutral Earthing Resistor (NER). It acts to limit earth fault current yet provides enough earth fault
current to allow protection relays to operate.
Large multi-turbine wind farms provide an example of the use of earthing transformers for fault
protection on unearthed circuits. In many wind farms the collection substation transformer provides the
only earthing point for the system. When an earth fault occurs on a collector cable it causes the
collection substation circuit breaker for that cable to open and the wind turbine generator becomes
isolated from the remainder of the network and from earth. The turbine protection systems do not
always detect this fault or the fact that the generator is isolated and unearthed; thus the generator
continues to energize the collector cable and the voltages between the un-faulted phases and earth rise
well above the normal voltage to earth value (the phase to earth voltage is raised by phase to phase
voltage divided by root 3). An earthing transformer placed adjacent to the generator provides a ground
path in the event the generator becomes isolated from system earth and so prevents this voltage rise.
Because the earthing transformer windings are arranged as an interconnected star, the induced
voltages cancel in normal operation and the unit can be physically small, sized mainly by the insulation
requirements and the need to carry earth fault current for a short time, normally seconds. Earthing
transformers are also utilised in transmission voltage substations and in this situation are often fitted
with a third winding to provide the substation auxiliary supply.
A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 36.
10. Basic Insulation Level (BIL)
BIL is a concept found in several IEC standards for example it is also included in IEC 62271 HV
Switchgear and Controlgear and in IEC 60044 Instrument Transformers. It refers to the ability of
electrical equipment to withstand voltage surges, generated either by lightning strikes or by switching
transients. In power transformers, the insulation is a combination of the wrappings applied to the
windings and the mineral oil filling, which is also used for cooling.
BIL is the more important factor determining the amount of insulation applied to the windings, rather
than the power frequency withstand voltage U
r
. Whatever the design BIL, in star connected windings
the insulation is normally tapered, that is, thicker at the line end of the winding and thinner at the neutral
Fig.36 AC auxiliary supply from winding on earthing transformer
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end; in delta connected windings the insulation is uniform. Where the transformer is fitted with bushings
for open terminal connections they must have a value of BIL that at least matches the associated
transformer winding these are specified by IEC 60137 Insulated Bushings for Alternating Voltages
above 1000 V. Bushing connections are unusual on UK distribution transformers but commonplace on
those used overseas. Transformers fitted with bushing connections are often protected by arc gaps or
sometimes by surge arresters (diverters).
IEC 60076 - 3 provides guidance on an appropriate choice of BIL and lists a series of preferred values
for U
m
, which is the highest RMS phase to phase voltage in a three phase system for which the winding
is intended to be used. For each value of U
m
, Table 2 of the standard defines a choice of impulse
withstand voltages and the rated short term RMS voltage withstand value - it is for the user to select an
appropriate impulse value depending upon the network arrangements, the expected level of lighting
activity (the Isokeraunic level) and the required insulation co-ordination for the substation. Table 2 is
reproduced in the transformer testing section of this course (near the end of the transformers section)
based on European practice; there is another table for North American practice.
11. Transformer Cooling and Transformer Life
This section considers the factors affecting transformers cooled by mineral oil, the management of
transformer cooling and the expected life of transformers, factors that are closely connected. The vast
majority of power transformers are mineral oil filled the relevant standards for the oil are BS148:1984,
IEC 296 and in the USA, ASTM D3487. Only where fire risk is important are other liquid fillings used, for
example Silicon oil and synthetic esters, or alternatively where fire risk is combined with a location
where a loss of any fluid cannot be allowed, fully dry type cast resin units.
11.1 Cooling of Distribution Transformers
In power transformers cooling by radiation, conduction and convection from the tank surfaces is
sufficient only for small distribution transformers. Full load losses are approximately 1% of the
nameplate rating and as an approximate guide, the heat dissipated from the surfaces of a transformer
with the internal oil at 50C and a 20C ambient air temperature is 0.03 W/cm
2
under natural open air
convection conditions, disregarding any solar gain.
Consider two transformers, one of 50kVA rating and the other of 200kVA rating the losses at full load
are 0.5kW and 2kW respectively. The table shows the heat dissipation from the walls alone and is
based on the typical physical dimensions for units of this rating.
Rating
kVA
Height m Width m Depth m Internal
Volume
cm
3
Surface
Area cm
2
Surface
dissipation W
@ 0.03W/cm
2
50 0.7 0.6 0.4 168,000 18,800 564
200 1.2 0.9 0.6 648,000 41,400 1242
For the 50kVA unit the energy dissipation will be 564W from its tank walls, which will match the losses.
But for the 200kVA unit dissipation from the walls is 1242 W, around half the expected energy loss at
full load.
The implication is that a 50kVA unit is about the maximum rating that can be cooled by flat tank walls
alone depending to some extent on the expected ambient air temperature, the level of solar radiation
and whether the unit is sited indoors or outdoors. Above this rating, the cooling surface area must be
increased and/or cooling improved by natural or forced circulation of the oil, or forced movement of the
cooling air, or both.
A popular method of improving the cooling especially for distribution transformers is to corrugate the
walls (Picture 37). By folding the sheet metal and welding its upper and lower surfaces closed, the
surface area is greatly increased.
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Another passive method of improving cooling is to fit externally mounted tubes or flat radiators. As
mineral oil heats up, its density decreases and it tends to rise in the tank; as it cools, it descends
through the tubes or radiators. This effect may be utilised to increase the natural circulation and hence
the cooling (Figure 34) a transformer in which both air and mineral oil circulate naturally is referred to
as an ONAN (Oil Natural, Air Natural) unit. Because the thermo - siphon effect depends upon the
temperature difference between the top and bottom of the tubes, they should be sited as close to the top and
base of the tank as possible and the method improves cooling to a greater extent for taller transformers
compared to short, stubby units.
Natural oil and air circulation if improved by transformer mounted tubes or radiators is sufficient to cool
transformers up to a rating of approximately 5MVA naturally cooled transformers of this type are
popular in developing countries because they do not rely on pumps or fans. The welded Steel tubes are
40 - 50 mmin diameter having a wall thickness of about 1.5 mm. For medium sizes of ONAN transformers (2
- 5 MVA) tubes of elliptical cross section are preferred, allowing a greater number to be accommodated on a
given tank. Transformer tubes have been constructed with welded on finned discs in order to augment the
surface but they are difficult to paint and are liable to collect rust-promoting water if used outdoors.
Fig. 38 Natural circulation in a tubed tank
Picture 37 Corrugated wall transformer
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11.2 Oil Thermal Expansion
The volumetric expansion of mineral oil is 6.4 x 10
-4
per C, therefore a transformer having a filling of
1000 litres will experience the significant increase in oil volume between 0C and 60C of approximately
38 litres.
In Figure 38, the expansion of oil as its temperature rises is accommodated by simply venting air from
the gap between the oil surface and the tank lid to atmosphere through a vent tube that is curved
downward at its outer end to prevent the direct ingress of rainwater. This is normal UK practice at least
for distribution transformers and it is accepted that the connection to atmosphere will allow moisture to
be slowly absorbed into the oil over a period of time, degrading its insulating qualities. For medium and
large transformers where the electric stress is greater, this degradation is unacceptable and steps must
be taken to prevent or at least limit moisture ingress. The options for reducing moisture ingress are now
described.
Sealed Unit Popular in the United States for medium and large transformers, the hermetically sealed
unit incorporates a space above oil level filled with a dry inert gas, normally Nitrogen. The volume
increase with temperature results in a large rise in pressure, which the tank must be designed to
withstand. Also used to some extent in Europe.
Auxiliary Positive Pressure Gas Supply To reduce the need for a pressure resistant tank, the dry
Nitrogen cushion is maintained by external gas cylinders. As the volume increases the Nitrogen is
vented to atmosphere through a pressure releasing valve; as the temperature falls and the oil volume
reduces, the gas is replenished from external cylinders through a pressure regulator. In this system the
pressure in the gas cushion is maintained only slightly above atmospheric and it is popular for large
transformers.
Flexible tank Similar to the sealed unit except that it is completely filled with oil, the corrugated tank
design accommodates oil expansion by a bellows like movement of the corrugated walls.
Conservator - Conservators are expansion tanks external to the transformer and have the advantage
that they limit the area of oil exposed to the atmosphere and therefore moisture and oxygen absorption.
Where a conservator is fitted, the transformer itself is completely filled with oil this arrangement is
adopted in the UK only for medium and large transformers but overseas the conservator fitted
distribution transformer is popular.
Picture 39 shows a conservator located above a transformer with the vent pipe leading down to a low
level position. A breather unit is fitted to the pipe end, filled with a Silica Gel desiccant that will need to
be replaced periodically the crystals turn from bright blue to a greyish pink as they become water
saturated. Crystals may be dried in an oven and re-used. In large transformers an electrically operated
de-humidifier may replace the Silica Gel. Usually a Buchholz relay (described later in this course) is
fitted in the large diameter pipe between transformer and conservator.
Pic. 39 Conservator fitted to a distribution transformer
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Diaphragm Seal In this design the external expansion tank does not have an oil/air or oil/gas
interface instead the oil and air are separated by a flexible synthetic rubber diaphragm. The system
gives the advantages of a conservator including the ability to fit a Buchholz relay, but without the
complication of a vent tube and dryer.
11.3 Cooling of Larger Power Transformers
At ratings above 3 - 5MVA separated radiators are customary. Where fans and (possibly) oil pumps are
required to improve cooling, transformers are identified by the following designations:
ONAF Oil natural circulation, Air forced circulation (typical rating increase 15 to 33% over ONAN)
OFAF Oil forced circulation, Air forced circulation (typical rating increase 50% over ONAN)
Transformers of this size typically have two separate rating designations specified by the manufacturer,
for example 12MVA ONAN, 15MVA ONAF (or OFAF). The actuation of fans and (if present) oil pumps
is controlled by the Winding Temperature Indicator (WTI) described later in this course they do not
necessarily switch on or off together, though often they do. If a pump is fitted it is always in the return
pipe from the radiator to provide a cooler operating environment.
Where two transformers operate in parallel, an important design consideration is that the transformers
should normally be loaded within the ONAN rating, with the ONAF rating (or possibly the OFAF rating)
used when one transformer is out of service for maintenance or repair. It is considered poor
engineering practice to rely on an ONAF or OFAF rating under normal loading conditions, because of
the possibility of failure of fans or pumps.
In urban areas, the noise of pumps and particularly fans is another consideration. For these larger
transformers larger radiators are required and a separate radiator bank is normal (Figure 41) which is
the choice of most UK utilities. The table below summarises the advantages and disadvantages of
separate and tank mounted radiators.
Separate Radiator Bank Advantage Tank Mounted Radiators Advantage
Height of bank can be greater than the
transformer height giving a better
thermo siphon effect even under
ONAN conditions
More compact unit takes up less land, smaller
oil bund
No site assembly required
Radiators can be transported Tank Mounted Radiators Disadvantage
Fig. 40 Transformer with conservator, vent pipe and dryer
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separately allowing a smaller envelope
size and reduced weight during
delivery
Difficult to fit oil pumps
Needs fewer fans though of greater
power
Difficult to fit enough radiators especially if side
mounted cable boxes are needed and/or a side
mounted tap changer this option is more
suited to top bushing connections
Relatively easy to fit a single oil pump
Noise enclosure may be easily fitted
around the transformer only
Needs more fans though of lower power
Fewer pipe flanges with less leakage
possibilities
Can be difficult access to the transformer itself
Separate Radiator Bank
Disadvantage
Very difficult to fit a noise enclosure
Needs more space and land and oil
bund
More pipe flanges with more leakage
possibilities
11.4 Transformer Operation on Overload
The table shows the thermal classification of insulation materials according to their temperature
performance as defined by IEC 60085 Electrical Insulation Thermal Classification these are the
materials that are used in transformers and in other electrical equipment for example motors.
Insulation Class to IEC 60085 (Previous
Classification Letter)
Operating Temperature C for Equivalent
Thermal Endurance
70 <90
90 (Y) >90-105
105 (A) >105-120
120 (E) >120-130
130 (B) >130-155
155 (F) >155-180
Fig. 41 Arrangement of transformer with separate radiator, fans and pump
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180 (H) >180-200
200 >200-220
220 >220-250
Class 105 (previously code letter A) materials will provide a standard life endurance if used between
105 and 120C this is the insulation class most commonly selected for oil filled transformers; air
insulated and solid resin insulated transformers typically use class 155 (F) or class 180 (H) materials.
Power transformer losses arise from the Copper loss, which is proportional to the load current squared
and from the Iron loss (hysteresis and eddy current) which are constant the loading capability is
limited by the allowed rise in winding temperature. Temperature rise tests are carried out on all new
large units and are intended to demonstrate that, at full load and rated ambient temperature, the
average winding temperature will not exceed the limits set by industry standards.
But the temperature within the length and depth of the windings varies - the highest temperature,
referred to as the Hot Spot usually occurs at the mid upper part of the transformer where cooling is
least effective (Figure 42). Due to the electrical conditions, the hot spot is not readily accessible for
direct temperature measurement with conventional thermocouples, although optical fibre methods may
be employed for very large and expensive transmission voltage transformers.
Research has shown that in naturally cooled transformers, the hot spot temperature at full load is
approximately 13C above the average temperature of the winding. The hot spot temperature when the
transformer is under full load is then:
Ambient temperature + Average winding temperature rise + Hot spot increase in temperature over the
winding average
IEC practice is to utilise this relationship to determine the maximum permissible winding temperature
rise based on a year round 20C average and a maximum 98C hot spot temperature hence:
98C - 20C - 13C = 65C maximum winding temperature rise
This calculation is easily adjusted for varying ambient temperatures for example if the average year
round is 30C, then the maximum allowable winding temperature rise is :
98C - 30C - 13C = 55C
Fig.42 Illustrating the Hot Spot effect
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The average temperature rise under full load of any winding may be readily determined, albeit
indirectly, by comparing the resistance of the winding at ambient temperature with the resistance of the
same winding after stable temperature conditions are established at full load a comparison that is
routinely performed as part of the temperature rise test. There is also an IEC requirement for a 60C
maximum temperature rise of the mineral oil, to ensure that it does not degrade in service and also that
it effectively cools a winding at 65C.
The solid cellulose (paper) insulation is the critical factor in transformer aging - with temperature and
time it undergoes a de-polymerization process in which the molecular chains shorten, causing a loss of
elasticity and tensile strength. The end of life event for the insulation and consequently the transformer
itself is that the paper becomes brittle and incapable of withstanding short circuit forces or even
crumbles under the vibration of normal operation.
Because transformers are the costliest of distribution assets, extensive research has been undertaken
to monitor the hot spot temperature and to relate it to transformer life as shown in Figure 43 below.
Figure 43 correlates the paper insulation operating temperature to an accelerated ageing factor, for
units insulated with standard paper (blue and green curves) and for units insulated with a thermally
upgraded paper that has been chemically treated to improve the stability of its cellulose molecular
structure (red curve). For transformers insulated with normal paper an increase in the hot spot
temperature to 140C implies an acceleration in ageing by a factor of about 100, that is, one hour at
140C is equivalent to 100 hours at the rated temperature.
The Arrhenius law is frequently quoted in relation to transformer life, which is expressed by:
( )
B
A
T
Life e
+
=
Where A and B are constants derived by experiment for any particular insulation material. For hot spot
temperatures in the range 80 to 140C, the law is more conveniently expressed by the relationship
below, based on work in the 1930s by V M Montsinger:
p
Life e
u
=
Where p is a constant and is the hot spot temperature. Both relationships yield a practical rule that the
life of a transformer is halved for every 6C rise in hot spot temperature but it is also doubled for every
6C reduction in hot spot temperature. Note here that the 6C rule replaces an earlier 8C rule derived
by Montsinger and is based on more recent research. IEC 60076 - 7 offers two expressions for
determining the accelerated aging factor V for normal and thermally improved paper insulation. These
are:
Fig. 43 Hot spot versus transformer life
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For normal paper:
( 98)
6
2
h
V
u
=
For thermally enhanced paper:
15000 15000
110 273 273
2
h
V
u
| |
|
|
+ +
\ .
=
Where
h
is the hot spot temperature.
Example: Determine the accelerated aging factor for normal paper insulation when the hot spot
temperature is 115C,
(115 98)
6
2 6.96 V

= =
It is also possible to determine how many hours at any specified lower hot spot temperature are
required to compensate, in life terms, for transformer operation at a higher hot spot temperature. For
example, operation at 110C hot spot temperature will result in an acceleration factor of
(110 98)
6
2 4 V

= =
Hence four hours of operation at this hot spot temperature will result in 4 x 4 = 16 hours loss of life. If
the compensatory time at a lower hot spot temperature is to be 8 hours, the acceleration factor will
need to be reduced to 0.5. Substituting values:
(110 )
6
0.5 2
u
=
For which the compensating lower hot spot temperature, over the 8 hour period, is 91.5C.
The table below specifies the accelerated aging factor V at various hot spot temperatures:
Hot Spot
Temperature C
Normal Paper V Thermally Enhanced Paper V
80 0.125 0.036
86 0.25 0.073
92 0.5 0.145
98 1.0 (the baseline hot spot
temperature for normal paper)
0.282
104 2 0.536
110 4 1.0 (the baseline hot spot temperature for
thermally enhanced paper)
116 8 1.83
122 16 3.29
128 32 5.8
134 64 10.1
140 128 17.2
Water is produced as a by product of the thermal degradation of paper insulation and where the
insulation has significant water content (more than 2%) there is an increased risk when operating at
high load and therefore high temperature, due to the formation of water vapour bubbles. Bubbles can
be displaced by the oil circulation and ionise, shorting out the insulation if they become trapped in an
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area of high electric stress this is the most common cause of short term failure under overload
conditions. For this reason, transformers should not be operated long term at a winding hot spot
temperature above 140C (effectively, an average winding temperature above 127C). IEC 60076-7
also recommends other overloading criteria that should not be exceeded; the most important of these
are:
Overload Maximum Distribution Tx Medium Tx Large Tx
Normal Cyclic
Current 1.5 FLC 1.5 FLC 1.3 FLC
Winding hot spot in contact with
insulation C
120 120 120
Other metallic hot spot C 140 140 140
Top oil Temperature C 115 115 115
Long Term Emergency
insulation C
140 140 140
Other metallic hot spot C 160 160 160
Top oil Temperature C 115 115 115
Short Term Emergency
insulation C
(a) 160 160
Other metallic hot spot C (a) 180 180
Top oil Temperature C (a) 115 115
(a) Not defined for distribution transformers due to the impracticality of monitoring
IEEE and IEC standards provide guidance on the calculation of the winding hot spot temperature using
data that can be conveniently measured and parameters derived from the temperature rise test or
manufacturer calculations. The basic method uses the measured oil temperature at the top of the
transformer tank (the top-oil temperature) and a calculation of the temperature difference between the
winding hot spot and the top oil temperature. This temperature rise is provided by the manufacturer,
based on the modelling of oil flow and the loss distribution in the winding. Thereafter the hot spot
temperature can be estimated for any load using the standard expression:
2m
HS TO HR
R
I
I
u u u
| |
= + A
|
\ .
Where:
HS
= Hot-spot temperature
TO
= Top-oil temperature
HR
= Rated hot-spot temperature rise above top oil
I = Load current
I
R
= Rated current
m = an exponent derived from the temperature rise test or advised by the manufacturer
12. The Economics of Transformer Losses
12.1 Transformer Efficiency
Transformer efficiency may be defined as the input power P
input
compared with the output power P
output
.
Clearly P
output
is also P
input
minus the total transformer loss hence the percentage efficiency at unity
power factor is given by:
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100
P
input
Efficiency x
P
output
=
If P
NL
is the no load (Iron) loss and P
LL
is the (Copper) load loss this expression becomes:
100
P
output
Efficiency x
P P P
output LL NL
=
+ +
The core Iron and Copper winding sources of losses in transformers have been described earlier in this
course. Core loss is essentially constant irrespective of the load while the Copper loss varies as
the load current squared.
Consider a 100kVA rated transformer where the Iron loss is a constant 200W and the Copper loss is
1kW at full load. The table shows the resulting efficiencies at various percentage loads:
Load Load Loss kW
100
P
output
Efficiency x
P P P
output LL NL
=
+ +
10% 0.01 97.9%
20% 0.04 98.8%
30% 0.09 99.04%
40% 0.16 99.10%
50% 0.25 99.108%
60% 0.36 99.07%
70% 0.49 99.02%
80% 0.64 98.96%
90% 0.81 98.89%
100% 1.0 98.81%
110% 1.21 98.73%
120% 1.44 98.65%
130% 1.69 98.56%
It will be seen that transformer efficiency is maximised when the core loss and the Copper winding loss
are equal; the graph in Figure 44 below illustrates the table.
Fig. 44 Transformer load versus efficiency
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The above example assumes a power factor of 1. If the power factor is lower it will reduce efficiency, in
the case of PF = 0.8, P
output
is reduced to 80kW for a maximum 100kVA rating but P
NL
and P
LL
remain
the same and the efficiency at full load then becomes:
80
100 97.5%
80 1 1
P
output
Efficiency x
P P P
output LL NL
= = =
+ + + +
Compared with the 98.04% obtained when
PF = 1.
Distribution transformers especially those supplying residential areas tend to have relatively low load
factors, that is, their loading is high only during the morning and evening peaks whilst for rest of the day
and night they are lightly loaded. This factor tends to economically favour transformers whose no load
loss is substantially less than the load loss, by as much as a factor of 10. In medium and large
transformers, this ratio is reduced.
A transformer which has equal Iron and Copper losses at full load would be appropriate for a generator
transformer that is either at full load or is de - energised. But for a low loss distribution transformer
where the Iron loss is 20% of the full load Copper loss, the effect is to maximise the efficiency at a lower
percentage loading. In the example the 100kVA unit has Copper loss of 1kW and Iron loss of 200W
hence the losses will be equal at:
200
44.7%
1000
= of full load
This leads to the concept of All Day Efficiency, which may be calculated for any transformer of specified
rating, Iron and Copper losses, given the loading during the periods of the day.
Output in kWh
(for 24 hours)
Input in kWh
allday
q =
For example the same 100kVA unit with 1kW Copper and 200W Iron losses is loaded during the day as
follows: 8 Hours @ 10%, 4 hours @ 20%, 4 hours @ 33%, 4 hours @ 55%, 4 hours @ 80%
Period hours & %
load
Iron loss Wh Copper loss
Wh
Energy supplied
in period kWh
Total Wh loss in
period
8 x 10% 1600 80 80 1680
4 x 20% 800 160 80 960
4 x 33% 800 435 132 1235
4 x 55% 800 1210 220 2010
4 x 80% 800 2560 320 3360
Total losses in day 9.245kWh
Total energy supplied in day 832kWh
832
All day Efficiency 100 100 98.90%
832 9.245
kWh
output
x X
kWh kWh kWh
output LL NL
= = =
+ + +
12.2 Transformer Economic Appraisal
Transformer design involves many compromises most of which balance performance against
manufacturing cost. From the users viewpoint the transformer that is lowest in initial purchase price is
not necessarily the cheapest, because the total cost of ownership is what matters and this must include
the cost of energy due to the losses, both load and non load related. The total lifetime cost, sometimes
called the Total Ownership Cost (TOC) may be expressed as:
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TOC = Capital cost taking into account the money interest rate + Cost of lifetime energy
loss
If the cost of lifetime losses is expanded to separate the load and no load losses, TOC becomes:
TOC = Capital cost taking into account the money interest rate + Cost of load energy loss
over the transformer life + Cost of non load energy loss over the transformer life
Whilst the initial purchase price is known the difficulty in a precise appraisal of TOC is what value to
assign to money interest rate. In practice the TOC expression is unlikely to yield an accurate value for
lifetime cost, but it does provide an effective appraisal tool to compare transformers of different
purchase prices and loss values offered by different manufacturers, or even the same manufacturer, if
he offers a choice between so called standard and low loss designs. This is best done by calculating
the total annual cost, comprising the purchase price on an annual basis depreciated over the lifetime
(a), the annual costs of load losses (b) and no load losses (c). There is also an annual demand charge
(d) to take into account.
(a) Purchase cost on a per annum basis over the transformer lifetime C
c
C
c
=
100
p
C xr
Where C
p
is the purchase price, p is the % money interest rate per annum and n is the depreciation
period in years
q is the interest factor calculated from 1
100
p
+
r is the depreciation factor calculated from
1
n
n
pxq
q
Example of (a) cost on a per annum basis over the transformer lifetime C
c
Purchase cost on a per annum basis when the transformer purchase price is 3200, interest rate is 8%,
depreciated over 20 years.
First calculate the interest factor q = 1
100
p
+ = 1.08
Next calculate the depreciation factor r =
1
n
n
pxq
q
=
20
20
8 1.08
1.08 1
x
= 10.18
Finally calculate the cost per annum C
c
=
100
p
C xr
=
3200 10.18
100
x
= 325 per annum
(b) Annual Cost of No Load Losses
C
NL
= 8760 x Energy cost per kWh x No load loss in kW
Example of (b)
Transformer no load loss 1kW, energy cost 0.06 per kWh
C
NL
= 8760 x Energy cost per kWh x No load loss in kW
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C
NL
= 8760 x 0.06 x 1 = 525 per annum
(c) Annual Cost of Load Losses C
LL
C
LL
= Energy cost per kWh X 8760 x
2
X Load loss in kW at rated load
Where is a loading factor = Constant Operation Load/Rated Load
Example of (c)
1000kVA rated transformer, load loss 6kW at rated full load, energy cost 0.06 per kWh, 60% year
round loading.
First determine
2
, which is (0.6/1.0)
2
= 0.36
C
LL
= 0.06 X 8760 x 0.36 X 6.0 = 1135
In this simplified example, the year round load factor is specified as a constant 0.6. However in practice
the determination of is more complicated and requires the calculation of the Root Mean Square
(RMS) value from daily, weekly and seasonal load curves.
(d) Annual Demand Charge C
D
This cost is the charge for the system capacity needed to supply the load and no load losses. It is given
by:
C
D
= Demand cost per kWh x (Load Loss + No Load loss)
Example of (d)
For the 1000kVA transformer with 2.16kW load loss at 60% of full load, 1kW no load loss and a
demand charge of 42 per annum per kWh.
C
D
= 42 x (1.0 + 2.16) = 132
Hence the total annual cost of ownership = C
C
+ C
NL
+ C
LL
+ C
D
= 325 + 525 + 1135 + 132 = 2117.
12.3 Transformer Guaranteed Losses
The above calculations demonstrate the critical importance of losses to the transformer TOC; on an
annualised basis they comprise (57 + 525 + 189)/1096 = 70% of the TOC. For this reason most
transformer supply contracts include a guaranteed loss clause in which, subject to negotiation, the
agreed load and no load losses are specified. For larger transformers, no load losses must be specified
at a reference temperature and voltage; the load losses should also take account of the cost of
operating fans and pumps if these are required to obtain the assigned rating.
If the finished transformer fails to meet its specification, the purchase price is discounted by an amount
equal to the cost of the additional losses incurred over the lifetime of the transformer, converted to a
Net Present Value (NPV) sum calculated on an agreed rate of money interest. Sometimes the reverse
situation is also covered, that is, where the losses are lower than specification the manufacturer
receives a bonus.
An alternative strategy particularly adopted for distribution transformers is to invite manufacturers to
submit alternative prices for so-called Standard and Low Loss transformers, attempting to optimise
the cost of losses against the cost of manufacturing.
13. Transformer Noise
The main source of noise and vibration in transformers is the magnetostrictive effect; that is, the change
in dimension of the Steel core as it is magnetised. There is a small 100Hz contribution from the
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windings due to electromagnetic forces causing small movement against the restraining insulation but
this is disregarded.
Because the core is magnetized twice in each current cycle, the fundamental frequency is either 100Hz
(50Hz system) or 120Hz (60Hz system). However a transformer core is a non uniform structure that
generates several harmonics notably the third and fifth. This is important, because the human ear is
non linear, responding more to some frequencies than others. Also the perceived level of disturbance to
the human ear is not the same for all frequencies, the medium range of frequencies being the least
annoying.
The original work in this field was carried out by Fletcher and Munson in the 1930s, subsequently
revised by Robinson and Dadson in the 1950s. ISO 226 is the current standard; Figure 45 shows the
equal loudness contours from that standard (red) compared with the original Fletcher Munson contours
(blue). The contours show the increasing level of annoyance with frequency in terms of phon (the
perceived loudness level) from zero to 100 (120 is the pain level).
Selecting the red ISO 20 phon curve as an example, the average human ear will perceive as equal
loudness 70db at 30Hz, 47db at 100Hz, 30db at 120Hz and 20db at 1000Hz. The implication is that in
terms of perceived noise from a transformer, the harmonics are more disturbing than the fundamental
and the higher the harmonic the greater the annoyance. Fortunately in power transformers the sound
intensity of harmonics falls quickly with number; the third is typically 12db less and the fifth 18db less.
As well as varying sensitivity with frequency the human ear also has a logarithmic response to
increasing sound pressure. For these reasons sound meters are calibrated in decibels (db), which is a
logarithmic scale, each 3db corresponding to a doubling in sound pressure and also in db(A), which is a
scale weighted for the variation of ear response with frequency. The standard for sound meters is BS
EN 61672-2:2003. Where national maximum noise level regulations are in existence, they will be
quoted in db(A). In the UK, permitted noise levels vary greatly according to land use and time of day, for
example some of the Environment Agency guidelines are:
Night time residential area 40 db(A)
Daytime commercial area 65 db(A)
Daytime industrial area 70 db(A)
Noise reduces with distance from the source, in free space falling by 6db with each doubling of
distance. In other words, when the distance is doubled, the attenuation is 6db, 3 x distance is 9.5db, 5 x
distance is 14dB and 10 x distance is 20db For example noise at a distance for a transformer with
Fig. 45 Fletcher-Munson and ISO 226 curves
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measured noise at 1 metre distance of 92db will be 86db at 2m, 80db at 4m, 74db at 8m, 68 db at 16m
and so on. These are approximate figures assuming the transformer to be a point source however they
are a reasonable approximation for distances over 12m.
However it is worth noting here that although the measured noise falls by 6db for each doubling of
distance the human ear requires a 10dB fall for the perceived sound intensity to fall by half.
There are two basic possibilities to control the noise problem:
1. Reduce the noise by transformer design.
2. Reduce the noise by measures taken on site.
Regarding 1, Part 10 of IEC standard 60076 defines the method of noise testing and the acceptable
limits, which are defined as a precisely measured sound level above the background sound level,
undertaken with the transformer normally energised but operating at no load (that is, with normal Iron
loss but no load loss). In the USA, the corresponding standards are ANSI Standard C57-12-90 or
NEMA Standard TRI-2-068-1954. The test method involves taking a series of measurements at 1m
intervals at a 0.3m distance from the unit on all sides and averaging the result; this test is difficult to
replicate on site due to the close proximity of reflecting surfaces.
It might be thought that reducing the magnetic flux in the transformer core will reduce the noise and this
is correct; however the relationship is non-linear with a large decrease in flux producing only a small
reduction in noise hence this solution is considered uneconomic. These factors imply that the level of
noise expected from any particular rating of transformer is, as far as the utility engineer is concerned,
fixed. Reducing noise and vibration on site is a more practical possibility and Figure 46 shows some
standard options.
Considering firstly noise, the transformer may be surrounded by an acoustic enclosure comprising a
sandwich of two rigid metal walls with a sound absorbing material between. The enclosure must have at
least one access door, two are better and be large enough to move around inside on all sides a
minimum 1 metre clearance should be allowed.
Panels of this type can also be manufactured, to be placed between the transformer and the location
where noise is to be reduced. Typically, the noise reduction from a complete enclosure is between 15
and 20 db(A), a very worthwhile improvement a 20db improvement means that at any given distance
outside the enclosure, the transformer noise is reduced to what it would be at 10 times that distance.
The radiator must of course be placed outside the enclosure and it is best if the connecting pipes
incorporate flexible couplings (Picture 47).
Fig. 46 Noise attenuating devices
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Vibration may be reduced by supporting both transformer and radiator on flexible mounts; both flexible
mounts and enclosures should be optimised to reduce the lower frequencies associated with
transformers. Many standard commercial units are optimised to reduce higher speech and music
frequencies and will be unsuitable for this application. An advantage of the measures described is that
both can be retrofitted to overcome noise problems arising long after a substation has been
commissioned, for example when an apartment or office building is constructed nearby.
Finally, where noise reduction is achieved by enclosing walls, care should be taken to avoid standing
waves. The velocity of sound in air is 350m/s therefore a wavelength at 100Hz is
350
3.5 metres
100
=
Standing waves cause reverberations (echoes) and an increase in sound level. Therefore this
dimension and its unit multiples should be avoided at the substation design stage. If the critical
dimensions cannot be avoided the surfaces will need to be covered with a sound absorbent material.
14. Transformer Ancillaries
14.1. Buchholz and Vane Transformer and OLTC Protection Relays
As mentioned previously, it is difficult to devise and implement CT/relay based protection schemes which
can reliably detect all possible transformer winding faults, especially winding to earth faults near the earth
end of the winding. However, winding insulation failure will always cause some arcing and arcing will lead
to production of gas as the mineral oil used for cooling is dissociated into lighter molecules. The function of
the Buchholz relay, named after its German inventor, is to detect this gas and provide electrical warning
and trip signals; the relay is also able to collect gas for later analysis.
Pic. 47 Acoustic transformer enclosure using an oil bund wall as foundation (photo
courtesy of db Attenuation Ltd)
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Picture 48 shows a Buchholz relay and a Vane relay relay A (Buchholz) is located in the pipe between
the transformer winding tank and the upper expansion tank (Conservator) whilst relay B (Vane) is located
in the pipe between the on-line tap changer (OLTC) and the conservator. The Vane relay is similar to the
Buchholz, but omits its gas accumulation feature because gas production is an unavoidable consequence
of quenching contact arcs under oil. Both transformer and OLTC are oil filled and both are subject to
possible internal fault. Figure 49 shows the internal arrangement of the Buchholz relay.
Mercury switches within the relay provide warning and trip signals. The upper float switch will close as gas
bubbles into the relay from an incipient fault within the transformer tank as it accumulates in the upper
chamber and causes the float switch to pivot downward. This gas may be removed through the upper
valve for analysis. The upper float switch provides a warning only. The lower mercury switch is attached to
a vane which will pivot to the right and the mercury switch will close if there is any major arcing event within
the transformer causing a gross movement of the oil. This is a trip signal.
Pic. 48 Buchholz (A) and Vane (B) relays
Fig. 49 Buchholz relay internal arrangement
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Buchholz relays are a reliable method of detecting internal transformer faults and have been universally
popular since they were first introduced. However they can give a spurious signal when air is displaced
from windings especially when forced (pumped) oil cooling is in operation. For this reason they are best left
non-operational for 48 hours after a transformer has been first filled with oil or when the oil has been
replaced at maintenance, allowing the pumps time to displace any air, which can then be released from the
valve.
Buchholz Gas Analysis
The gas sampled from the Buchholz relay chamber may be analysed by companies specialising in this
service and can yield very useful information for users. The table below shows the gaseous decomposition
products of mineral oil and cellulose insulation.
Sources of key gases from the decomposition of cellulose and mineral oil
Material Condition and temperature Key gases Symbol
Cellulose Overheated Carbon monoxide CO
>150C Carbon dioxide (+ water as vapour) CO
2
Excessive heat Carbon monoxide CO
>1000C Carbon dioxide (Carbon + tar) CO
2
Oil
Overheated Methane CH
4
>150C Ethane + Ethylene C
2
H
6
+ C
2
H
4
Oil Electric stress Hydrogen H
2
Electric stress (partial
discharge and arcing to
1000C)
Acetylene (Waxes and water) C
2
H
2
14.2 Transformer Temperature Alarms/Indicators
In addition to the Buchholz relay, medium and large transformers are normally also fitted with oil and
winding temperature alarms and often, oil and winding temperature trips. It is not possible to measure
the winding temperature directly and so the arrangement shown below is adopted. Here a small metal
pocket is built into the roof of the transformer, containing a small quantity of oil, together with a
resistance heater connected to a CT, usually in one of the low voltage side phase connections.The
purpose of this device is to create a thermal model of the temperature conditions inside the transformer.
In addition, a temperature probe is fitted that is in direct contact with the transformer oil. Both
temperature measuring instruments are either bi-metallic or capillary types with contacts that may be
set to operate at any desired temperature. Figure 50 shows the arrangement.
Fig. 50 Oil and winding temperature
Version E 56
Where a transformer is fitted with forced air and oil cooling (pumps and fans) this will be under the
automatic control of the oil temperature sensor. The actual settings will be to the transformer
manufacturers recommendation, but the following settings are typical:
Winding temperature alarm 100C
Winding temperature trip 120C
Oil temperature alarm 95C (and forced cooling start)
Oil temperature trip 105C
15. Transformer Testing
Transformer testing is divided into two categories, Type Tests which are carried out on prototypes and
Routine Tests carried out on all units of production. The table below specifies the tests and the
categories.
Routine Type
Ratio and Polarity
*Load Loss
*Short Circuit Impedance
*Dielectric Routine
*Winding Resistance
*No Load Loss
*No Load Current
Voltage Test Separate Source
Voltage Test Induced Over Voltage
*Temperature Rise
*Impulse Voltage
*Routine and type specified in IEC 60076 1, 2 and 3.
Tests specified in black are intended to prove the units suitability for service, those in red may control a
contract price adjustment clause. Temperature Rise and Impulse Voltage, although designated as type
tests may be carried out on production units if the contract so specifies, but will normally be subject to
Pic. 51 WTI relay mounted on a transformer tank (courtesy of
Bowers Group)
Version E 57
extra charge. Before describing each test in detail, it is worth noting that a high standard of
measurement accuracy must be maintained and this will require the use of meters that are certified and
in-date.
Ratio and Polarity
This test is carried out on a phase by phase basis. Although it would be possible to measure the ratio
by simple voltage measurement of the HV and LV sides of the transformer under test, this method is
considered insufficiently accurate, especially for transformers having a large turns ratio.
Figure 49 shows the traditional test arrangement for a transformer ratio test, using a special device
known as a ratiometer. This is essentially a double wound transformer whose output voltage may be
varied by a large number of coarse and fine tappings to balance the output voltage to that of the
transformer under test. The single phase voltage applied to the LV side of the transformer under test
does not exceed 2kV and the ratiometer output is adjusted until the ammeter reads zero the ammeter
is fitted with a number of switched shunts allowing its sensitivity to be adjusted, starting with the least
sensitive setting. The ammeter will read zero when the ratiometer output voltage precisely matches the
output voltage of the transformer under test and the ratio may then be read off from the coarse and fine
settings.
In effect the ratio test is also a polarity test because if the polarity of the transformer under test is
incorrect, an ammeter zero reading and voltage balance cannot be achieved. In addition, this test may
be used to validate that the tapping percentages comply with specification.
Modern test units are available which although working on the ratiometer principle carry out the balance
procedure automatically, giving a direct digital readout.
A quick method of checking polarity on site is to connect the primary terminal of an HV winding to the
secondary terminal of a LV winding and then supply the HV winding with a low voltage three phase
supply. Finally the primary to secondary voltages are measured, these should be the vector sum of the
voltages of the windings under consideration. Figure 53 shows this arrangement and checks for a DY11
delta star connected unit.
Fig. 52 Ratio test by ratiometer
Version E 58
Load Loss and Impedance Voltage Test
The load loss test is carried out on the principal tap from the transformer HV side with the LV side short
circuited heavy gauge Copper must be used to prevent losses in the shunt affecting the measurement
accuracy. Figure 54 shows the commonly used two wattmeter method; other methods are available
including a single wattmeter switched between phases.
In theory the wattmeters could be positioned on the LV side but this would involve measurement of
much larger currents. Because the test voltage is low the core Iron losses are negligible and the
measured power input represents the resistive losses in the windings plus the stray losses.
Explanation of why only two wattmeters are required- In a three phase system with a neutral conductor,
three single phase wattmeters would give a correct indication of the total power, because the voltage coils of
each can be connected to the neutral line. But in a three wire system with no neutral, the voltage coils of the
three wattmeters can be connected only to a selected reference phase, the choice of which out of the three
is completely arbitrary. If three wattmeters were to be used, the voltage coil of one of them would see zero
voltage. Therefore this third wattmeter may be omitted. The actual power is the ALGEBRAIC sum of the two
meters, that is, they will add arithmetically to indicate the correct power only if the power factor is one (it will
be very close to 1 in this test since the load losses are largely resistive). In all other cases the power factor
angle Cos must be taken into account.
The procedure is to increase the applied three phase voltage from zero to a point at which the primary
side current is equivalent to the primary side current at full load. At this point, the applied voltage is the
Impedance Voltage, that is, the voltage dropped across the transformer at full load.
For example if the secondary side is wound for a nominal 11,000 volts and the impedance is 4%, the
impedance voltage should be 11,000/3 x 0.04 = 254V. IEC 60076 -1 requires the impedance on
principal tap to be within 7.5% of the declared value if the declared impedance is 10% or more and
within 10% of the declared value if it is less than 10%. It is important that this test is carried out quickly,
because the windings will increase in temperature rapidly from the measured ambient temperature.
Fig. 53 Polarity test on DY11 unit
Fig. 54 Load loss and impedance test
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The IEC standard requires the no load current to be within 30% of the declared value, which is defined
at 75C; the value obtained at the test temperature may be converted to that at 75C using these
expressions:
For Copper
Loss at 75C = (Full Load Loss at the Measurement Temperature) x
235 75
235 TestTemp
| | +
|
+
\ .
For Aluminium
Loss at 75C = (Full Load Loss at the Measurement Temperature) x
225 75
225 TestTemp
| | +
|
+
\ .
No Load Loss and No Load Current Test
These tests are carried out together, the no load loss being the Iron loss. To avoid use of high voltage,
the test is carried out from the LV side with the HV side open circuit, although the method would be
equally valid with opposite conditions. Figure 55 shows the test circuit.
Although referred to as the three wattmeter method, in fact a single wattmeter is used sequentially on
each phase. The test procedure is to leave the HV side open circuit whilst applying the rated output
voltage to the LV side. Each phase is measured by opening the phase switch so that the phase current
flows through the current transformer; at the same time the VT is connected to the appropriate phase
with its opposite side permanently connected to the LV side star point. To obtain the load loss the three
indicated wattmeter powers are simply added arithmetically. The no load current is the ammeter
current.
If the LV side voltage rating is above 1000V, then suitably rated CT and VT will be required and
appropriate safety precautions taken. Strictly, the measured value of power loss will include a
contribution from the Copper winding loss, but since the current is small and winding losses vary as I
2
,
this factor may be disregarded.
Fig. 55 Three wattmeter no load test
Version E 60
Insulation Resistance
IEC 60076 3 defines the requirements for transformer dielectric and frames them in terms of power
frequency and impulse voltage withstand, rather than particular M values. Nevertheless insulation
readings are normally measured as part of routine testing and declared on the test certificate, because
they form a very useful benchmark against which future deterioration may be judged. Standard
measurements are winding to winding and windings to core + frame + tank. A frequently quoted rule of
thumb for winding resistance is:
Resistance in M = (V
rated
+ 1000)/1000.
For example for an 11kV winding the resistance should not be less than (11000 + 1000)/1000 = 12M.
Where the insulation resistance is in significant decline this strongly indicates the presence of water in
the oil standard test sets are available using the Karl Fischer titration method. If the water content
exceeds 25 parts per million (ppm) it should be a cause for concern and at 30 ppm the oil will definitely
need attention. Note here that resistances should be checked at ambient temperature because as the
temperature increases, moisture tends to migrate from the solid insulation to the oil, reversing as the
temperature cools.
Voltage Withstand Separate Source
This 50Hz one minute test is intended to prove the HV winding insulation to the LV windings, core and
tank all the HV side windings are connected to one side of the test transformer and the LV windings,
core and tank to the other. The applied voltage will be at least double the service voltage.
In the diagram, the applied voltage is measured by a meter on the LV side of the test transformer;
alternatively a meter + VT or meter + voltage divider may be fitted to the secondary side. Table 2 of IEC
60076 - 3 gives the following testing values (U
m
first) 3.6 -10, 7.2 - 20, 12 28, 17.5 38, 24 50, 36
70, 52 95, 60 115, 72.5 140.
Over Voltage Withstand Induced
This test proves the ability of the insulation between the phase windings, coils, tapping leads and
terminals to withstand the temporary over voltages to which the transformer may be subjected. Test
voltage is applied to the low voltage windings with the HV windings open circuit and the values are the
same as those for the separate source voltage test already described that is, the over voltage is at
least double the normal value of U
m
.
Because the core magnetic flux is proportional to the applied voltage, it is necessary to use a high
frequency supply to avoid flux saturation effects; this means that the test requires specialised
equipment and is therefore difficult to carry out on site, at least for transformers having a high U
m
.
Fig. 56 Separate source voltage test
Version E 61
Induced over voltage testing can be divided into two categories; the short duration test (ACSD)
applicable to transformers of U
m
up to 75kV and the long duration test (ACLD) applied to higher voltage
units. Generally ACSD tests are carried out three phase and ACLD tests single phase and for the latter,
partial discharge measurements are customary. During the test, any winding that has non graded
insulation may be earthed at any convenient point, but where the insulation is graded the winding must
be earthed at the end that is normally at the lowest voltage to earth for example the star point ends of
star connected windings.
The test duration for ACSD is 60 seconds if the frequency is doubled (100 or 120Hz as appropriate)
and may be further reduced for higher test frequencies according to the expression:
Time = 120 x (Rated Frequency)/Test Frequency)
Hence a 50Hz transformer tested at 180Hz the test duration is 33 seconds.
Winding Resistance
Windings resistance is measured using DC and is always phase to phase irrespective of the winding
configuration. Where the winding resistance is low, bridge methods may be required Kelvin bridge for
resistance < 10 and Wheatstone bridge for resistance > 10. Modern practice is to use a digital four
terminal micro-ohm meter; where the measurement is across the phase terminals the resistance per
phase is:
For delta connected windings R
phase
= 1.5 x R
measured
For star connected windings R
phase
= 0.5 x R
measured
Readings should be normalised to a 75C standard temperature using the expression:
R
75
= R
measured
x (75+ F)/(T
measured
+ F)
Where F = 235 for Copper or 225 for Aluminium
The principal reason for resistance tests is not so much to check the resistance of the windings (though
that is important) but to ensure that the connections are satisfactory and that the tapping switch
contacts all have a low ohmic value. For this reason tests are performed on every tapping, not just the
principal tapping.
Measurements are taken at ambient temperature using a current that should not exceed 10% of the
FLC value and because of the very large inductance at least 1 minute should be allowed for readings to
stabilise.
For acceptance, the tests should give results for each phase that are within 1% of the average value.
Finally it is worth noting that the resistances measured using DC test voltages will be lower than the
effective resistance under AC service conditions due to the Skin Effect however because this effect
depends upon the number and arrangement of the individual stranded conductors within a winding
(there may be one, two, four or multiple strands) it is very difficult to calculate.
Temperature Rise (Type) Test
This is the most complicated and expensive of the tests, especially for large transformers due to the
loading, time taken, required equipment and energy consumed. It is performed only once, using the
tapping at which maximum losses occur. IEC 60076 - 2 describes the temperature rise test in detail and
this section is a summary of that document. The standard first defines the temperature rise limits, which
are:
Top oil temperature rise 60K
Average winding temperature rise for ON or OF designated units 65K
Version E 62
Average winding temperature rise for OD designated units * 70K
*(OD refers to Oil Directed, where the pumped oil is directed into the windings by nozzles and baffles)
The top oil temperature is measured by immersing a suitable thermometer (which ideally should have
no metallic components) located a few centimetres below the oil level inside the transformer tank and
the ambient temperature by a number of thermometers spaced a short distance away from the tank
walls these must be shielded from draughts.
It is not possible to measure the average winding temperature directly instead resistance
measurements are taken (off load) immediately after stable thermal conditions are achieved and the
average winding temperature calculated by comparison with a cold resistance measurement at a
defined (lower ambient) temperature.
Essentially the temperature rise test seeks to replicate thermal conditions when the transformer is
subjected to both the load and no load losses. Hence these must be determined by prior tests before
the temperature rise test can be performed. Using the same test arrangement as the load loss test, the
temperature rise test is performed in two steps:
Step 1 Test current is supplied that will create an energy loss equivalent to the load and no load losses
combined. This is continued until the rate of rise in top oil temperature is less than 1C per hour for at
least three hours during the first part of step 1, oil pumps and air fans may be switched off (if the
transformer is so fitted) to increase the rate of temperature rise.
Step 2 After the top oil temperature has stabilised as described, the current is reduced to the rated full
load current for 1 hour effectively only the load related losses are now supplied because the no load
losses are very small at low applied voltage. The supply is then disconnected and the winding
resistances quickly measured. The winding resistance is measured several times again as the
transformer cools over a 2 to 3 hour period, noting the time of each measurement. These readings
allow the construction of a time winding resistance graph which is best plotted on logarithmic (time)
linear (resistance) paper so that a straight line is obtained rather than a curve. The line is extrapolated
back to the origin to obtain the winding resistances at the instant of switch off.
During step 2, the oil temperature falls; to allow for this, the fall in oil temperature during the final hour is
added to the measured winding temperature rise to obtain corrected values, which are the values used
to determine if the temperature rise of the windings is within the defined limits. IEC 60076-2 allows for
measuring the winding resistance whilst the transformer is under test current, using a DC injection
Fig. 57 Thermometer positioning for temperature rise test
Version E 63
method which is imposed onto the AC test current. However this variation will require specialised
equipment.
Impulse (Type) Test
Impulse testing of transformers is designed to prove the ability of the windings to withstand the effects
of lightning surges through the application of high voltage impulses to the transformer terminals.
IEC60076 3 refers to impulse testing, which is a requirement only for transformers with winding
connections brought out through the tank or cover that is, bushing connected.
The impulse waveform used is the full 1/50S wave, although a chopped wave is also available on test
machines, the latter intended to simulate the waveform when a protecting arc gap (for example on a
bushing) flashes over. Impulse testing is always carried out in works due to the complex, large and
expensive equipment that is required. The generator is described as a Marx circuit after its inventor
Erwin Otto Marx. It comprises a number of capacitors that are separately charged in parallel to a given
voltage V, and then connected in series by spark gaps, ideally producing a voltage impulse of V
multiplied by the number n, of capacitors (or stages).
Due to practical constraints, the output voltage is somewhat less than n V. Air insulated, SF
6
gas
insulated and oil insulated variants of the Marx generator are in use and both positive and negative high
voltage impulses may be produced, although IEC 60076 - 3 specifies only negative impulses for oil
immersed transformers.
The number of stages is determined by the required output voltage and stages may be switched in or
out as needed. In Figure 58 only three stages are shown, in a practical installation there will be more,
possibly up to twenty. All of the capacitors are charged in parallel by a variable high voltage power
supply typically capable of a few tens of milliamperes output.
When all the capacitors have been charged to the required voltage level, the first stage gap (only) is
triggered by an external circuit. This trigger pulse causes the dielectric in the first stage to breakdown
and become ionized and conducting. This in turn causes the voltage across the second stage gap to be
twice the charging voltage, which gap also rapidly ionises and begins to conduct.
There follows an extremely rapid cascade effect as each trigger gap in the stage sequence breaks
down and conducts - the potential across each respective gap is the sum of the voltage on the
capacitors of all of the preceding stages. In the diagram, resistors R
F
control the impulse wave front of
the pulse and resistors R
T
control the wave tail (that, is, the rate of decay).
Fig. 58 Marx circuit impulse generator
Version E 64
The impulse wave shape specified by IEC 60076 3 is a standard 1.2S 30% / 50S 20%.
Capacitor C
L
is the load capacitor and the sphere gap on the right hand side is used to produce
chopped impulses, if they are required.
In the wave shape diagram, 0
1
X
1
is the nominal wave front with time = 1 microsecond and 0
1
X
2
is
the nominal wave tail, with time = 50 microseconds.
Figure 60 shows the test connection arrangement; each winding is tested in sequence with all other
terminals earthed, to avoid excessive induced voltages in the non - tested windings. The standard test
sequence is one impulse at a value between 50 and 75% of the full value (this is used for calibration
purposes) followed by three full voltage impulses. Each impulse must be recorded on an oscilloscope.
IEC 60076 3 offers transformer purchasers a choice of lightning impulse withstand voltages, BIL (as
IEC standards do for many items of equipment), as follows:
Rated Voltage U
m
BIL lower option kV BIL higher option(s) kV
3.6 20 40
7.2 40 60
12 60 75
17.5 75 95
24 95 125 or 145
36 145 170
52 250 -
72.5 325 -
Fig. 60 Impulse test arrangement
Fig. 59 Impulse waves
Version E 65
100 325 450
123 450 550
145 450 550 or 650
16. On Load Tapchangers (OLTC)
The form and function of transformer winding tappings and the off circuit tap changers generally fitted to
distribution transformers has been described earlier in this course, this section describes the more
complicated on load tap changers that are used to control voltage levels on HV networks through
medium and large transformers. The relevant standard is IEC 60214 Parts 1 and 2.
Practically there is a limit to the number of taps that may be fitted to a winding due to the number of
connections to the tapchanger unit that are required, the number of through connections from
transformer to tapchanger (which in the UK is almost always a separate unit mounted on the
transformer proper, although in - tank tapchangers are available) and the physical size of the
tapchanger.
These considerations limit the number of taps to approximately 10 to15 per winding for linear tap
arrangements and 20 to 30 for the reversing winding and coarse/fine arrangements described below.
Considerations of visible flicker on the supply limit the maximum voltage change between tappings.
Figure 61 shows the acceptable limits to flicker taken from IEEE standards; with a maximum 8
tapchange operations in each hour the Perception Limit is close to a 1.25% step however a 0.75% to
1.0% step is more typical.
The typical area of operation of an on load tapchanger between 2 and 8 operations per hour is
indicated by magenta shading.
An on load tapchanger does not compensate solely for the voltage drop due to transformer impedance;
normally some additional compensatory range is allowed for variation in the supply voltage and some
additional load voltage drop due to impedance in the supplied network.
Fig.61 Flicker limits
Version E 66
It would be possible to specify an optimum range for each transformer tailored to each particular
substation but in practice and in the interests of being able to move transformers and tapchangers
between substations, most utilities adopt a standard variation range with a standard number of taps,
operated by a standard control system. Standardisation is particularly important where transformers are
required to operate in parallel.
Figure 62 shows three tapping arrangements Linear, Reversing and Coarse/Fine. In the UK, the
simple linear type is most common. The reversing variation uses a second switch to either oppose or
boost a separate tapping winding whilst the coarse/fine variation uses a large section of winding in
combination with a more closely tapped separate section of winding.
16.1 Reactor and Resistor Transition
Clearly with on load tapchangers, an interruption of supply when the tap is being changed is absolutely
unacceptable, whilst a straightforward make before break selector switch arrangement would short
circuit part of the winding during a change operation, which would also be unacceptable. This problem
underlies the complexity of OLTCs. To overcome the short circuited winding problem, either reactors or
resistors may be used OLTCs employing reactors are referred to as Reactor Transition, which are
favoured by some American makers, OLTCs using resistors are referred to as Resistor Transition which
are favoured elsewhere. Commencing with the simplest form of reactor device, this is shown in Figure
63.
Alternate tappings on the transformer winding and associated switches are connected to form two
separate groups connected to the outer terminals of a centre tapped reactor, which is rated for
continuous operation. Assume that initially switch 5 is closed, supplying the load through half the
reactor winding. To change tap, switch number 4 is closed at this point, both tap 5 and tap 4 are
supplying load, each through half the reactor and the output voltage is half the difference between tap 4
Fig. 62 Tapping variants
Fig. 63 Simple reactor tapchange arrangement
Version E 67
and tap 5. For the next tap change, switch 5 is opened and switch 4 supplies the load exclusively
hence there are twice as many possible voltage outputs as there are tapping positions.
The drawback to this simple arrangement is that in a practical situation it requires a large number of
switches, all capable of making and breaking half the load current. Including diverter switches effects a
major improvement, as shown in Figure 64.
In this arrangement, each tap is provided with two selector contacts, which operate off load because a
load making and breaking duty is required only of the two diverter switches. In normal operation both
diverters are closed. To change tap, one diverter is first opened and its associated selector moved up
or down as required. The associated diverter is closed, the opposite diverter is opened and its selector
moved to the same tap as the first selector then finally its associated diverter is closed. Selector and
diverter switches are all mechanically interlocked to operate in the correct sequence.
The inductive value of the reactance is a compromise between a low value to give good transformer
regulation and a high value to prevent circulating current during the brief period that different taps are
bridged.
Figure 65 shows the operating sequence of a resistor transition tapchanger most modern units are of
this type. Stage 1 (top left) shows the arrangement in a normal running position. At stage 2, an
instruction to commence a tap change has been received and the first action is to move the right hand
selector to the new tap position. At stage 3, the diverter switch has begun its clockwise movement and
made a connection to the left hand impedance (shown in red). Stage 4 sees the diverter moving further
clockwise, with the current path through both impedances. At Stage 5 both resistors are in circuit.
Fig. 65 Resistor transition tapchanger
Fig 64 Reactor tapchanger with diverters
Version E 68
Finally at steps 6 and 7 the diverter moves to its final right hand position, with supply now directly from
the new tap. In some modern designs, vacuum contactors are used rather than moving Copper
contacts.
In both resistor and reactor transition tapchangers, the separation of selectors from diverters has the
important operational advantage that only the diverter contacts are required to make or break load
current therefore the heavy contact arcing associated with these operations and the consequent
contamination of the mineral oil by carbon and dissolved gases can be limited to the oil contained in a
separate compartment. Further, only the diverter contacts suffer burning and erosion, because the duty
required of the selector contacts is very light; in fact so light that they may be considered maintenance
free. As well as the two types of OLTC (resistor and reactor) there are also five broad categories as
follows:
Within a common transformer tank but with separate compartments:
1. Separate diverter oil with selector oil common with the windings (2 compartments)
2. Separate diverter oil, separate selector oil, separate windings oil (3 compartments)
Weir type in which a part height metal barrier or weir separates the transformer oil from the OLTC oil
but still within the same tank:
3. Separate diverter oil with selector oil common with the windings (2 compartments separated by the
weir)
Bolt on to transformer with a barrier board:
4. Separate diverter oil and selector oil (2 compartment bolt on)
5. Combined diverter oil and selector oil (single compartment bolt on)
In Figure 66, tapping connections are brought through an insulated barrier board in general the
addition of an OLTC with its motor, springs, moving parts, contacts and electrically stressed barrier
board reduces the overall reliability of a transformer/tapchanger combination unit considerably
compared with the transformer alone.
However with a bolt on unit, the tapchanger can be replaced with a new or refurbished unit more readily
than is possible with in - tank designs and access for servicing is improved. Barrier boards are
Fig. 66 Bolt on OLTC with barrier board and separate lower diverter compartment
Version E 69
particularly vulnerable to failure and difficult to replace, because the tapchanger will probably have to be
removed entirely and the transformer drained of oil.
The manufacturer of the transformer may or may not be the manufacturer of the OLTC; many utilities
prefer to standardise on a relatively few types of tapchanger so as to limit the required spares inventory.
16.2 OLTC Mechanical Design
Motor drive - whether reactor or resistor transition, the diverter switches should complete their action
as quickly as possible; this is especially true for resistor types because the resistors can only be short
time rated. Any stoppage during a tap change with a resistor type OLTC is likely to lead to its
catastrophic failure.
Drive motors may be DC, single phase capacitor start or three phase AC, IEC 60214 - 2 allows all of
these options and specifies the upper and lower limits of supply voltage variation within which they must
still satisfactorily operate. Where DC is used, supply will be from the common substation battery,
normally 110V.
When separate compartments are used for diverters and selectors, it is possible to separate the drives
so that the diverter can be operated very quickly by a motor wound spring device whilst the selector is
driven by the geared down motor shaft - this is the usual arrangement in UK made tapchangers a
typical bolted on OLTC is shown in Figure 67. Some means of manual operation is often provided
although this facility is normally restricted to emergency off circuit use.
A major cause of failure to complete a tapchange is loss of the drive motor supply, so a frequently used
precaution is to arrange for the motor to speed up a flywheel which is then connected by an electrically
operated clutch only when enough rotational energy is stored to guarantee completion. It is important
Fig 67 Bolted on OLTC with separate selector and diverter compartments
Version E 70
that the selector and diverter switches operate in the correct sequence and as precisely as possible to
achieve this, the Geneva mechanism is often employed (Figure 68).
In the drive mechanism shown, one full rotation of the centre shaft moves the shafts on either side by
60 however motion through other angles that are whole number divisions of 360 are also possible.
Contacts IEC 60214 - 1 requires that a tapchanger shall be suitable for a minimum of 500,000
operations. However this does not mean that the diverter contacts will tolerate this length of service,
because the mechanical endurance test is performed under no load conditions. In practice diverter
contacts will need refurbishment or replacement and the oil replaced according to the makers
schedule, at intervals much shorter than 500,000 operations (and possibly the selector contacts as
well).
Nevertheless the 500,000 operations figure is important and it is worth noting that 500,000 operations
over a 40 year lifetime is equivalent to approximately 35 operations a day. This should be used as a
guide when deciding upon an appropriate setting of time delay (later described) on the voltage
regulating relay. That is, with two load peaks per day this equates to 8 taps up and 8 taps down per
peak load period.
Controls Whilst the tapchanger is normally under automatic (relay) control, local raise/lower buttons
are customarily provided together with a digital operation counter, because maintenance will be
scheduled for a defined number of operations, according to the makers recommendations.
16.3 Precautions against OLTC Failure
IEC 60214 - 1 requires that to minimize the risk of fire or explosion resulting from an internal failure, the
OLTC compartment shall be fitted with one of the following protective devices:
- Over-pressure relay
- Pressure relief device
- Liquid - flow controlled relay
The over-pressure relay responds in the event pressure in the oil exceeds a pre-set value, causing the
transformer to be tripped. This is the first option in many transformers.
The pressure relief device opens when a pre-set pressure is exceeded. This system is secondary
because it is slower to trip than the over-pressure relay.
As described earlier in this course, the liquid - flow (Vane) relay is installed in the pipe between the top
of the tap changer and the conservator tank. It responds to a predetermined oil flow to trip the
transformer. Temperature protection is described later.
Fig. 68 Geneva drive mechanism
Version E 71
16.4 OLTC Testing
IEC 60214 1 specifies eight type tests and four routine tests for tapchangers. The type tests are
summarised first.
Temperature rise of contacts Limits are specified for contacts above the surrounding media (which
is at ambient temperature), measured by thermocouples on the contacts and in the surrounding media
not more than 25mm below. The test conditions require (1) a through current 1.2 x maximum rated
through current and (2) a circulating current at least 50% of the circulating current at a 0.8 power factor.
The table specifies the temperature rise limits under stable conditions.
Contact material In Air C In Liquid C
Plain Copper 35 20
Copper Alloy/Silver faced 65 20
Other By agreement between client and manufacturer 20
Switching Test This comprises service duty and breaking capacity tests which are defined for
resistor and reactor types in the tables listed in Annex A of the IEC standard. This annex also specifies
the required test arrangements.
Service Duty Test This test requires 50,000 operations at a voltage not less than the rated step
voltage and a current not less than the rated through current. The standard allows for an alternative
service duty test at less than step voltage if particular conditions are met.
Short Circuit Current Test This test proves the ability of the tapchanger to withstand the
manufacturers declared short circuit rating. It requires that the contacts be subjected to two x 2 second
(5%) duration currents in which the initial peak is 2.5 (5%) x rated short circuit current capacity. After
this test the contacts should be able to function correctly at the rated maximum normal current.
Transition Impedance Test This test is intended to prove the ability of transition resistors to operate
for a defined period of time within defined temperature rise limits. With the resistor in its normal position
and at rated step voltage and 1.5 x normal maximum current, the tapchanger is cycled at normal speed
through the equivalent of one current application to the resistor. The measured temperature rise shall
not be greater than 400C for externally mounted air cooled resistors and not more than 350C for
internally mounted, liquid cooled resistors. Transition reactors are tested in accordance with the same
tests as the transformer to which the tapchanger is attached.
Mechanical Tests
The tests described below are collectively referred to as mechanical tests.
Mechanical/Endurance Test This is 500,000 operations over the full range of taps, with the
transformer de-energised and not passing current. Ten timing oscillograms are required at the start and
finish of the test and 100 operations are required at -25C. For in-air tapchangers the test is conducted
at ambient temperature but for liquid filled units half the total number of operations must be conducted
at a temperature > 75C.
It is worth noting that if one cycle requires 10 seconds, 500,000 operations will require approximately 60
days.
Mechanical/Sequence Test This test records the precise timing sequence of diverter and selector
switch operation, with the unit energised only at the voltage of the recording equipment.
Mechanical/Pressure and Vacuum Tests The manufacturer must subject the tapchanger to vacuum
and pressure tests to prove its withstand values, which must be declared.
Mechanical/Tightness Test This test proves the ability of compartments and bushings to prove
tightness, with declared values.
Version E 72
Mechanical/Tightness during Service Duty Test This test is carried out at the beginning and end of
the service duty test described previously. It ensures that where the diverter or selector switches are in
a separate compartment, contaminated oil does not leak in or out. It is carried out by immersing the
compartment under test inside another compartment whose volume is not more than 10 x that of the
compartment under test. The pressure inside the compartment to be tested must be at least 20kPa
above that of the outer container and the test limit is that dissolved gases from arcing shall not exceed
10ppm (the gases tested by gas in oil analysis are H
2
, CH
4
, C
2
H
4
, C
2
H
2
, C
2
H
6
) at the end of the service
duty test. A procedure is also described in the standard for an equivalent test not carried out with the
service duty test.
Dielectric Test This test is designed to prove the insulation of both the OLTC and also the
connections (including bushings in the barrier board) through to the transformer. The test classifies
OLTCs into those intended to be fitted close to the neutral point of transformer (Class 1) and those
used elsewhere (Class 2). Voltage is applied between phases, between phases and earth and between
specified contacts. A table of voltages both lightning and 50Hz is provided in the IEC standard, varying
with intended highest system voltage U
m
. For the very highest values of U
m
, switching impulse test
values are also listed.
Partial Discharge A PD test is specified for Class 2 transformers of U
m
121kV and above. The
acceptance limit is 50pC.
Routine tests
The routine tests to which every manufactured tapchanger must be subjected are as follows:
Mechanical Test 10 complete cycles
Sequence Test A single operation recorded by oscilloscope.
Auxiliary Circuits Voltage Test - 2kV/1 minute withstand all live terminals to frame.
Pressure and Vacuum Test Tested at the limits declared by the manufacturer.
16.5 OLTC Voltage Regulating Relays
Network Compensation The normal arrangement is for the regulating relay to compensate not only
for the transformer impedance volt drop but also for resistance and reactance in the supplied circuit
that is, the voltage is held constant with varying load at a distance point on the supplied network.
However where several circuits are supplied the compensation R and X values must be compromise,
average figures. Figure 69 shows how the CT voltage is used to oppose the voltage derived from the
VT and compensate for load voltage drop.
Electromechanical - Figure 70 shows the traditional form of electromechanical voltage regulating
relay, powered by the measuring CT and VT. Solenoid S contains a central soft Iron plunger supported
Fig. 69 Resistance and reactance compensation
Version E 73
by twin leaf springs L. The action of the solenoid is to lift the plunger against the combined effects of
spring T and gravity. Permanent magnet M and an internal vane provide system damping. The lower
leaf spring has a clamp facility for locking during transport. Upper contact R is closed if the output
voltage is above the required setting and lower contact I is closed if the output voltage is below the
required setting. Adjustment screw A controls the setting voltage through greater or lesser tension in
the spring. To avoid the tapchanger hunting around the setting voltage and thereby generating an
excessive number of tap change operations, the OLTC is not controlled directly through contacts R and
I. Instead a time delay is imposed by the mechanism at the bottom of the relay, which comprises a
small induction disc motor D driving contacts C through a right angle gearbox. Twin setting screws K
control the time period before a tap change either up or down is initiated, these can be moved by the
user to a selection of time periods within a limited range normally the delay setting would be at least
30 seconds.
Solid State Figure 71 shows the internal arrangement of a modern microprocessor regulating relay.
As the dashed lines indicate, this can be powered by an external supply either AC or DC or from the
measurement VT.
Fig. 70 Electromechanical voltage regulating relay
Fig. 71 Solid state regulating relay
Version E 74
The device may be programmed for any required setting including compensation for the resistance and
reactance of the supplied network, either through the keyboard or through the RS485 data port. The
row of contacts on the lower right provides external alarms or indications for:
- Current greater than a set limit
- Voltage greater than a set limit
- Voltage lower than a set limit
- Up tap change in progress
- Down tap change in progress
A display shows the actual output voltage.
16.6 Parallel Operation
Where two (or more) transformers fitted with OLTC operate in parallel, it is essential that they remain in
step. There are two methods of achieving this requirement, the Master/Follower (sometimes referred to
as Master/Slave) scheme and the Simultaneous. In the simultaneous scheme a single regulating relay
issues instructions to both transformers and the change is carried out by both units at the same time. In
the master/follower type, one relay is designated as the master unit; this completes its tap change and
then issues an instruction to the follower unit (and on if there are three or more). This is the
arrangement favoured in the UK because it offers a smoother voltage transition. In both schemes there
must be a means of detecting an out of step condition and issuing the necessary alarm which may also
include a lockout instruction.
16.7 Transformer and OLTC Oil
Oil used for cooling and insulating transformers is identical to that used for older types of HV switchgear
and is produced to IEC 60296 Fluids for Electrotechnical applications Unused mineral insulating oils
for transformers & switchgear. In the United States, ANSI/ASTM Standard D3487 09 refers. In an
OLTC, oil performs four functions:
(a) It acts as an insulator
(b) It acts to quench contact arcing and
(c) It absorbs and disperses heat
(d) It acts as a lubricant
Transformer oil has a number of measurable characteristics as described below, which degrade with
service and over time. The main cause of deterioration is contamination by carbon particles (the oil
becomes carbonised), the result of arcing which splits the hydrocarbon molecules into gaseous
products and elemental carbon, which is electrically conducting.
When any one of these characteristics falls to an unacceptable value the oil will need to be replaced
in practice the oil in OLTCs needs to be replaced fairly often, whilst oil in the transformer itself may last
the lifetime of the unit.
Oil must be sampled periodically to determine its suitability for further service; care must be taken to
obtain a representative sample. For instance the oil can test well within the specified limits but the
carbon deposits that have adhered to the side walls of the oil vessel can be saturated. Carbon particles
tend to absorb moisture out of the oil; this can lead to a flash over to earth.
Typically tapchangers perform 12 to 15,000 operations each year; service intervals are recommended
by manufacturers for each particular application and take into account the working voltage and whether
the tappings are line end, star point or mid winding. These factors control the number of safe working
operations before a service becomes necessary, however service intervals can be greatly extended by
using an oil filter as later described. Oil can be tested as follows:
Version E 75
Colour This is the most basic test. It is performed by visually comparing the colour of the oil to a
colour chart provided by oil manufacturers. The scale on these charts ranges from 0.5 to 8.0 with new
oil having a colour number of 1.0 or less. New oil will appear to be clear to a light straw while a dark red
to black oil indicates sludge or other contamination.
Dielectric Strength IEC 60156 specifies the test method, which involves taking a sample, allowing
any air bubbles to clear and then applying a specified test voltage (rising at 2kV/second) over a
measured distance of 2.5mm between 12.5 13.0mm diameter spheres until breakdown occurs. The
test is repeated for six samples to obtain an average value. New or properly reconditioned oil should
have a breakdown value in the specified test conditions of >35kV. If it is less than 30kV it is suspect
25kV is considered the lower limit for transformers operating with a highest voltage winding below
250kV. Over time, dielectric strength will reduce due partly to water contamination (water can be
absorbed by mineral oil) but mainly due to carbon contamination, especially in OLTCs hence the
dielectric test is not a test of the oil itself but rather a test of the level of contamination.
Water Content IEC 60814 specifies the test which is based upon the Karl Fischer titration method.
Water is absorbed from the atmosphere, especially in distribution transformers fitted with an open tube
breather. Care must be taken when testing for moisture content because it is known that moisture
migrates from paper insulation to oil with increasing temperature (and vice versa). The defined
temperature is 20C and the correction formula is:
Correction factor = 2.24 x e
(-0.04ts)
Where ts is the oil sampling temperature.
As moisture accumulates in insulating oil it is first dissolved but there is a limit to solubility and above
the limit water will precipitate out as droplets either suspended in the oil or, being denser than oil, on the
tank floor. For very high concentrations emulsification is possible.
Water content is expressed in parts per million (ppm) and a measurement above 30ppm indicates a
need for remedial action. Saturation depends upon temperature but an approximate value is 80ppm.
Acidity Over time and particularly if the transformer has been subjected to thermal overloading, the
oil becomes acidic through contact with air, especially in the presence of metal or metallic catalysts.
High levels of acidity can cause a build up of sludge at the bottom of the tank, in the radiators and in the
windings. IEC 60296 defines a test and acidity limits in terms of the amount of Potassium Hydroxide
(KOH) in milligrams needed to neutralise the acid in 1 gram of oil. New or properly reconditioned oil
should be acid free or at least, give a value not greater than 0.05 - a measured value above 0.2
indicates that remedial action is required. In extreme cases acidity can cause a transformer tank to
corrode through from inside to outside and/or it can corrode through the tank roof causing rapid water
ingress.
Corrosive Sulphur Sulphur in the oil can attack both the insulation and metal of the windings. ISO
5662 refers.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Mineral oil can be contaminated by PCBs which are highly toxic
and persistent in the environment. Contamination is most likely to occur in the recycling process where
oil has been tainted by PCBs used in capacitors. There are UK limits for PCB contamination - liquids
containing over 50mg/kg (or 50 ppm by weight) are classed as injurious substances and disposal must
be by high temperature incineration. Oil suppliers guarantee that reconditioned oil does not contain
more than 10mg/kg (10 ppm); oil removed from equipment and found to contain over the 10mg/kg limit
is expensive to dispose of.
There are other tests but those listed above are the ones of greatest importance. Note that on-site
filtration is possible using transportable equipment and may be cheaper than re-refining in works.
16.8 OLTC Intermittent Oil Filtration
OLTC maintenance intervals may be increased and the possibility of internal flashover due to degraded
oil reduced by use of a permanently fitted, mechanically pumped filtration unit to remove the carbon
particles produced by arcing.
Version E 76
When the OLTC receives a signal to begin a tap change, the oil filter pump starts first because it is
better if the oil is moving in the unit before it starts its operation. The reason for this is that when the
contacts open an arc is created in the oil and in turn carbon is created in the oil. It is these carbon
particles that need to be swept from the tap changer compartment. The filter continues to operate after
completion of a tap change, typically between 15 and 20 minutes depending upon the volume of oil in
the compartment. If oil circulation is stopped prematurely there is a danger that the carbon particles will
either fall to the bottom of the tap changer oil vessel to collect as sludge, adhere electro-statically to the
tap changer components (including the insulation) or adhere to the side walls of the oil compartment,
rather than be trapped by the filter.
Figure 72 shows a typical arrangement, with the filter contained inside a tubular housing and adjacent
single phase motor operated pump. Connection to the OLTC compartment is by flexible pressure tubes.
16.9 OLTC Protection
Over temperature - In some applications especially in tropical regions OLTC oil can become
overheated due to high ambient temperature, high load and frequent operation. In these situations a
protection thermostat may be mounted in a socket on the tap changer lid or in a well immersed in the
oil.
At 110C hot oil alarm sounds and at 115C a lock out relay is activated to inhibit further tap changer
operations. At these temperatures the flash point of the oil is being approached and if left unchecked
there is a possibility explosion and fire. To offset these conditions either heat exchangers may be fitted
or the oil circulated by the oil filtration unit described earlier.
Under Temperature - At the other extreme, ambient temperatures in high latitudes may fall as low as -
40C; around -20C oils insulating properties begin to degrade. For the OLTC this can mean that when
a tap change is begun the arc that is initiated by the breaking of the arcing contacts fails to extinguish,
resulting in an inter turn fault and failure. To prevent this possible mode of failure, heaters are fitted in
the main transformer tank to keep the oil warm; this heat is in turn transferred to the OLTC
compartments by conduction to maintain its oil at a safe temperature.
Fig. 72 OLTC oil filtration unit with isolation valves and sample tap
Version E 77
Surge OLTCs may be fitted with a vane type relay that is responsive to a major movement of oil
within the compartment. This relay is similar to the Buchholz relays fitted to transformers, but it lacks
the gas accumulation warning, which cannot be fitted because as described earlier, gas production is
an unavoidable consequence of quenching arcs under oil.
16.10 OLTCs using Vacuum Interrupters
Some modern OLTCs substitute vacuum interrupters for Copper arcing contacts; this design
improvement though increasing cost eliminates the Carbon contamination problem associated with
Copper contacts breaking load currents in oil.
Transformer oil is still used and favoured as the insulating medium in this new generation of OLTCs, but
they still retain some oil problems. Oil is hydroscopic and absorbs moisture from any exposure to the
atmosphere hence it still needs to be kept dry; however arcing is eliminated so there are no
contaminating carbon deposits or requirement for an oil filter. But a very small amount of gas is still
produced from the transition resistors. When the OLTC is operated the transition resistors become hot
creating gas, especially when rapid, successive tap changes are made. These problems mean that the
OLTC must still retain an oil system that is separate from the oil of the transformer.
Further Reading
Students wishing to extend their reading on these subjects will find the following publications helpful:
1. The J&P Transformer book by Martin Heathcote (thirteenth edition). ISBN 10: 0-7506-8164-0.
Though expensive, this book is considered to be the authoritative reference on transformers.
2. Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering, Bayliss and Hardy, ISBN 978-0-7506-6673-2
contains a useful chapter on power transformers.
Notes on students answers to questions
Marks will be awarded for presentation and answers should be typed in WORD. Students may convert
their WORD .doc into .pdf to reduce the file size if preferred. In the mathematical questions, students
should describe and comment upon the practical implications of their answers.
Mathematical equations should be created using the WORD equation editor. If this is not available on
your PC, go to TOOLS - CUSTOMISE then select INSERT. Scroll down the right hand selection until
you see EQUATION EDITOR then drag and drop the symbol onto any place in the tool bar. You will
then have the necessary mathematical commands available for use. In the monetary questions you
may calculate in or $US.
Question 1 The core of a single phase 6350/400V, 50Hz, 100kVA transformer has a cross sectional
area of 7cm x 7cm. The maximum flux density in the core must not exceed 1.4 Tesla and the stacking
factor is 0.92. Determine the volts per turn and the number of turns on the HV and LV windings.
Question 2 During the load loss and impedance voltage test of a three phase 18MVA 33/11kV
transformer the measured load loss is 20kW, current is 48 A and the impedance voltage is found to be
270V. Determine the effective secondary side R, X and Z for this unit. Assuming zero source
impedance on the 33kV supply and zero impedance for the connecting 11kV cables, what should the
minimum symmetrical short circuit rating of the 11kV switchgear be? What would you specify for the
continuous current rating of the same switchgear?
Question 3 A 50kVA, single phase, 3,300V to 230V, 50Hz transformer has the following test results:
Version E 78
Open Circuit Test (LV side) 230V, 12A, 820W
Short Circuit Test (HV side) 80V, 9.1A, 85W
Calculate and sketch, with values, the equivalent circuit as referred to the 230V side. Calculate the
impedance voltage drop and as a percentage on 230V.
Question 4 A 315kVA distribution transformer has an Iron loss of 12kW at 40Hz and 8.9kW at 30Hz.
What are the eddy current and hysteresis loss at 50Hz?
Question 5 A 2.5 tonne transformer core is to be laminated from CRGO steel to grade 35M7 of BS EN
10341:2006 which has a declared hysteresis loss of 1.23 watts/kg at 1.5T peak flux density and 50Hz.
The manufacturer estimates the cost of the core as 15,500 ($23,250US) if manufactured from 0.3mm
laminations or 24,800 ($37,200US) if manufactured from 0.23mm lamination. Resistivity of Silicon Iron
is 47.2 x 10
-8
m and density is 7650kg/m
3
. Determine the total core loss for the alternative cores,
comprising both hysteresis and eddy current. If the money interest rate is 7%, the cost of energy is
0.06 ($0.09US) per kWh and the annual capacity charge is 46 ($69US) per kW per annum what is
the most economic choice?
Question 6 The graph shows the daily loading on a 315kVA distribution transformer with load loss 3kW
and no load loss 360W. Determine the load at which the efficiency is greatest and the All Day Efficiency
(power factor = 1).
Question 7 Three manufacturers have submitted prices for the supply and delivery to site of a 5MVA
ONAN transformer. Their prices and declared load and no load losses are specified in the table. The
money interest rate is 7%, the cost of energy is 0.06 ($0.09US) per kWh and the annual capacity
charge is 46 ($69US) per kW per annum. The anticipated year round loading is 66% although load will
peak at the rated capacity occasionally. Appraisal is to be carried out over a 20 year expected life.
Determine the TOC and most economic choice of transformer.
Manufacturer Price ($US) Load Loss kW No Load Loss kW
A 15,000 (22,500) 5.5 6.1
B 15,900 (23,850) 5.2 5.8
C 16,500 (24,750) 5.0 5.6
Version E 79
Appendix - Transformer and Tapchanger Standards
The following standards are applicable to transformers and tapchangers:
IEC Standards:
IEC 60076: Power transformers (in 15 parts)
IEC 60354:1991 Loading guide for oil-immersed power transformers
I EC 60722:1982 Guide to the lightning impulse and switching impulse testing of power transformers
and reactors
I EC 60905:1987 Loading guide for dry-type power transformers
UK Standards
ENATS 35-1 Distribution Transformers (from 16kVA to 1000kVA)
ENATS 35-2 Emergency Rated System Transformers 35/11kV delta/star and star/star connected
BS EN 60076 Power Transformers
BS7806 Dry Type Power Transformers
BS EN 60076 - 16 Power Transformers for Wind Turbines
BS 5611:1978, (IEC 60542:1976) Application guide for on - load tap - changers
BS EN 60214-1:2003 Tap - changers - Performance requirements and test methods
American Standards
There are many IEEE and ANSI standards for transformers. Here are the most relevant:
IEEE 62
TM
-1995, Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Electric Power Apparatus Part 1: Oil Filled
Power Transformers, Regulators and Reactors
IEEE 1538
TM
- 2000, Guide for Determination of Maximum Winding Temperature Rise in Liquid - Filled
Transformers
IEEE C57.12.00
TM
- 2006, Standard for Standard General Requirements for Liquid - Immersed
Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers
IEEE C57.12.01
TM
- 2005, Standard General Requirements for Dry - Type Distribution and Power
Transformers Including Those with Solid-Cast and/or Resin-Encapsulated Windings
ANSI C57.12.10 - 1997, American National Standard for Transformers230 kV and Below 833 / 958
through 8333 / 10 417 kVA, Single-Phase, and 750 / 862 through 60 000 / 80 000 /100 000 kVA Three-
Phase Without Load Tap Changing and 3750 / 4687 through 60 000 / 80 000 / 100 000 kVA with Load
Tap Changing - Safety Requirement
IEEE C57.12.20TM - 2005, Standard for Overhead Type Distribution Transformers, 500 kVA and
Smaller: High Voltage, 34500 Volts and Below; Low Voltage, 7970/13800Y V and Below
ANSI C57.12.21 - 1992, American National Standard Requirements for Pad-Mounted, Compartmental -
Type Self-Cooled, Single-Phase Distribution Transformers With High Voltage Bushings; High-Voltage,
34500 GRYD/19920 Volts and Below; Low - Voltage, 240/120 Volts; 167 kVA and Smaller
ANSI C57.12.22 - 1992, American National Standard for Transformers Pad - Mounted, Compartmental
- Type, Self-Cooled, Three-Phase Distribution Transformers with High -Voltage Bushings, 2500 kVA
and Smaller: High-Voltage, 34500 GrdY/19 920 Volts and Below; Low Voltage, 480 Volts and Below
Requirements
IEEE C57.12.23
TM
- 2002, Standard for Underground Type, Self-Cooled, Single - Phase, Distribution
Transformers with Separable Insulated High-Voltage Connectors; High Voltage 25000 V and Below;
Low Voltage 600 V and Below; 167 kVA and Smaller
ANSI C57.12.25 - 1990, American National Standard for Transformers - Pad Mounted, Compartmental
- Type, Self-Cooled, Single-Phase Distribution Transformers with separable Insulated High-Voltage
Connectors; High Voltage, 34 500 GrdY/19 920 Volts and Below; Low Voltage, 240/120 Volts; 167 kVA
and Smaller - Requirements
IEEE C57.12.26 - 1992 Standard for Pad - Mounted, Compartmental - Type, Self - Cooled, Three -
Version E 80
Phase Distribution Transformers for Use With Separable Insulated High-Voltage Connectors (34 500
Grd Y/19 920 V and Below; 2500 kVA and Smaller)
IEEE C57.12.34
TM
- 2004, Standard for Pad - Mounted, Compartmental - Type, Self - Cooled, Three-
Phase Distribution Transformers, (2500 kVA and Smaller): High - Voltage, 34 500GrdY/19 920 Volts
and Below; Low Voltage, 480 Volts and Below
IEEE C57.12.40
TM
- 2006, Standard Requirements for Secondary Network Transformers - Subway and
Vault Types (Liquid Immersed)
ANSI C57.12.50 - 1981, Requirements for Ventilated Dry - Type Distribution Transformers, 1 to 500
kVA, Single - Phase, and 15 to 500 kVA, Three-Phase, with High - Voltage 601 to 34 500 Volts, Low -
Voltage 120 to 600 Volts
ANSI C57.12.51 -1981, Requirements for Ventilated Dry - Type Power Transformers, 501 kVA and
Larger, Three - Phase, with High - Voltage 601 to 34 500 Volts, Low - Voltage 208Y/120 to 4160 Volts
ANSI C57.12.52 - 1981, Requirements for Sealed Dry - Type Power Transformers, 501 kVA and
Larger, Three Phase, with High - Voltage 601 to 34 500 Volts, Low-Voltage 208Y/120 to 4160 Volts
ANSI C57.12.55 -1981, Transformers Used in Unit Installations, Including Unit Substations -
Conformance Standard
ANSI C57.12.57 - 1987, Transformers - Ventilated Dry - Type Network Transformers 2500 kVA
IEEE C57.91
TM
-1995, Guide for Loading Mineral Oil - Immersed Transformers

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