1. Most of our electricity is generated by turbine generators in large power plants.

To produce electricity, a
turbine generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Mechanical energy is created by moving
steam or gas across the blades of a turbine that can be revolving approximately 3,000 to 3,600 times per
minute.
The spinning turbine is connected to a metal rod/shaft in a generator that turns a large magnet surrounded by
coils of copper wire. The spinning magnet creates a powerful magnetic field around the coils. The magnetic
field lines up the electrons in the copper coils and causes them to move. The movement of these electrons
through a wire is electricity.
2. The energy that heats gas or water and creates steam comes from burning fuels, such as coal, oil or natural
gas. Other turbines can be fueled by nuclear energy, falling water (for hydro generation), solar power, wind
power or even burning garbage and agricultural waste products.
3. Thick wires carry the electric current from the generator to a transformer, which increases the voltage of the
current. The electricity leaves the power plant on the grid at 500,000 volts or higher, traveling many miles
through high voltage transmission lines.
4. When the electricity arrives where it is needed, it passes through a substation where other transformers
decrease the voltage to levels that can be used by factories, shopping malls and schools etc. Distribution lines
on the gridmounted on poles or buried undergroundcarry electricity from the substation to where it is
used.
5. Smaller transformers mounted on poles or concrete pads on the ground in your neighborhood, further reduce
the electrical voltage to 110 220 volts in order to be used safely in your house.
6. Electricity typically enters your house through a meter that measures the amount of electricity you use. It
passes through an electrical control panel which controls its distribution through wires in the walls, and finally
to lights, wall switches and outlets. When you "switch on" or "plug in" an appliance, you complete the circuit
from the power plant, and electricity operates the lights and appliances in your home.
7. Electricity for powering our homes is made in power stations.
8. A power station contains large machines called turbines, which are turned very quickly.
9. Power stations need large amounts of energy to turn the turbines. Most use heat energy produced
from burning coal. Others use wind energy or moving water. The spinning turbine causes large
magnets to turn within wire coils - these are the generators. The moving magnets within the coil of
wire causes the electrons (charged particles) to move within the coil of wire. This is electricity.
10. Steam turbine generators, gas turbine generators, diesel engine generators, alternate energy systems
(except photovoltaics), even nuclear power plants all operate on the same principle - magnets plus
copper wire plus motion equals electric current. The electricity produced is the same, regardless of
source.
11.
12. Electricity generation - whether from fossil fuels, nuclear, renewable fuels, or other sources - is based
on the fact that:
13. Electricity is a basic part of our life and it is one of our most widely used forms of energy. We get
electricity, which is a secondary energy source, from the conversion of other sources of energy, like
coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources.
14.
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from other sources of primary
energy. The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and
early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still used today: electricity
is generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of
a magnet.
[1]
For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. The
other processes, electricity transmission, distribution, and electrical power storage and recovery
using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry. Electricity is
most often generated at a power station by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat
engines fueled by chemical combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as
the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources include
solar photovoltaics and geothermal power. In the early 1800s, Michael Faraday discovered
"electromagnetic induction", which is the scientific way of saying that if he moved a
magnet through a loop of wire, the wire would become electrified.
In 1882, Thomas Edison opened the first full-scale power plant in New York City.
Edison's electric generator was a bigger version of Faraday's basic experiment; a big
magnet rotates around a wire to produce an electric current.
Today's power plants are bigger and controlled by computers, but the basic process is
still the same as it was nearly 120 years ago.
Here's how power plants make electricity:









Coal is dug
up and sent
on trains and
boats.
The coal is
burned to heat
water to
make steam.
Inside
the generator,
the steam spins a
big fan called a
turbine.
The spinning
turbine rotates a
big magnetarou
nd a piece of
wire & that
motion creates a
magnetic field
that electrifies
the wire.
The electric current
flows through the
wire and is pushed
out through high-
voltage transform
ers.

More ways to make electricity:
Instead of using coal, some power plants use other ways to make electricity:


Emery Generating Station
Clear Lake, Iowa


Duane Arnold Nuclear
Center
Palo, Iowa

Bent Tree Wind Farm
Freeborn County,
Minnesota


Prairie du Sac Hydro
Prairie du Sac,
Wisconsin
Some power plants
burn natural
gas instead of coal to
make steam.
A nuclear power
plant splits apart
uranium to release
heat energy.
A wind farm uses
the wind to spin the
blades of the turbine.
A hydro power
plant uses running
or falling water to
spin the turbine.
How electricity is generated
Over the centuries we have harnessed the energy of the wind (for sailing ships), and falling water (flour
mills) and used wood to heat water to generate steam (for trains and cotton mills).
Power in the form of electricity today is mostly sourced from the chemical energy of fuel - whether it's
natural gas, coal or oil. This chemical energy is first converted to heat energy, then to mechanical energy
and finally to electrical energy. The intermediate steps are carried out by means of boilers, turbines and
generators.
There are several different forms of electrical generation - hydroelectric, nuclear, wind and solar. Each
has unique aspects, but they all operate on the similar principle of converting some form of fuel into
heat energy, then mechanical energy and finally electrical energy.
The Boiler
Fuel is burned in a boiler and the heat is used to produce steam under pressure. The steam is collected
in a cylinder at the top of the boiler. From the boiler steam is led through heat-insulated pipes to the
steam turbine.
The Turbine
A turbine is a machine powered by gas or steam. A steam turbine contains a horizontal shaft fitted with
a number of wheels, each carrying many blades. The steam passes through these blades, making the
shaft rotate at high speed, just as the wind turns the blades of a windmill. When the steam has given up
its energy to the turbine shaft, it is condensed back into water in a 'condenser' and returned to the
boiler to repeat the cycle. A gas turbine works much the same way, except hot air replaces the steam.
The Generator
The turbine shaft turns the electromagnet of the generator, changing the mechanical energy from the
turbine into electrical energy. This electric energy takes the form of Alternating Current (AC) and Direct
Current (DC).
Alternating Current
A powerful electromagnet (rotor) is mounted on a shaft which rotates inside a cylindrical iron shell
(stator) containing slots through which the conductors are wound. The current flows momentarily in one
direction through the conductors and then reverses. This is called 'Alternating Current' (AC).
The AC used throughout South Australia flows alternately in each direction 50 times each second. In
technical terms this frequency of change of direction is measured in hertz (Hz).
Direct Current
A current which continuously flows in one direction is called a 'Direct Current' (DC).
Hydro Electric Power
The energy produced by the flow of water can be transformed into electricity by a hydroelectric power
scheme. The Snowy Mountains hydroelectric scheme is the best known Australian example of
hydroelectric generation.
Dams are used to create big reservoirs of water, either by raising the levels of natural lakes or rivers.
Tunnels, canals, channels and pipelines convey the water from the reservoir to the turbines in the power
stations. The power stations are situated where they can take advantage of the greatest fall of water,
such as at the bottom of a deep and steep-sided valley or gorge.
The water flows through a turbine, which drives an electric generator.
Nuclear Power
Nuclear power unlocks the enormous energy contained in every atom. The fuel used in nuclear reactors
is an element called Uranium. The Uranium produces huge quantities of heat in a process called nuclear
fission, which takes place in the nuclear reactor. This heat travels through a heat exchanger, which
serves as a boiler for rapidly heating up water and creating steam. This steam is used to power an
ordinary steam turbine and generator to produce electrical energy.
Wind Power
Wind power has been grinding grain and lifting water for centuries. Now it is also used to generate
electricity by using large wind-powered turbines. A typical 300kw turbine has a large (30 metre
diameter), three-bladed rotor rotating. Turbines generally are grouped together in wind farms.
Solar Energy
While energy from the sun is free, the cost of devices to convert it has been high, and the conversion
from light to electricity has been relatively inefficient, though it is improving. Some methods include:
Solar Cells (sometimes called photovoltaic cells), which are semi-conductors activated by light. Their
power is determined by the intensity of light falling onto the cell. Many cells are joined together to
provide sufficient electricity to do useful work. Photovoltaic panels are seen on remote telephones, the
roofs of solar cars and on the roofs of houses.
Heliostats or sun-tracking mirrors produce high temperatures that can be used to power traditional
steam turbine generators.
Solar Ponds of salt water that use special low-temperature generators.
Solar Collectors that capture heat from the sun and use it to directly heat water for homes.
Australia's Electricity

Appendix to Australian Uranium paper

(updated August 2012)
Australia is heavily dependent on coal for electricity, more so
than any other developed country except Denmark and
Greece. Three quarters is derived from coal.
Australia's electricity has been low-cost by world standards.
Natural gas is increasingly used for electricity, especially in
SA and WA.
After many years of low investment, there is a major
challenge to build more generating capacity.
Electricity consumption in Australia has been growing at nearly double
the rate of energy use overall. In 2008-09 about 11,000 kWh per capita
was used, including that incorporated into exports.
Electricity generation takes 44% of Australia's primary energy, and in
terms of final energy consumption, electricity provides 24% of the total.
test
Energy in Australia
Much of the energy exported from Australia is used for generating
electricity overseas; three times as much black coal is exported as is
used in Australia, and all of the uranium production is exported.
Australia also exports a significant amount of energy in mineral products.
Exports of aluminium metal* alone embed some 25 TWh of electricity
per year, about 9% of the country's total gross production. Some 43 TWh
is used in non-ferrous metals (aluminium smelter production uses 29
TWh/yr), almost half of the industry total.
*Production 1.98 Mt in 2008, export of 1.67 Mt, @ av 15 kWh/kg.
Most of the growth in value-adding manufacturing in the past 20 years
has come from industries which are energy- and particularly electricity-
intensive. The growth has occurred in Australia because of relatively low
electricity prices coupled with high reliability of supply and the proximity
of natural resources such as bauxite/alumina.
Electricity
In 2009 Australia's power stations produced 261 billion kilowatt hours
(TWh) of electricity*, 68% more than the 1990 level and growing at up to
3% pa.
* 254 TWh public supply + 12 TWh for non-grid autoproducers.
Of this gross amount, about 19 TWh is used by the power stations
themselves, leaving 242 TWh actually sent out (net production). Then
about 17 TWh is lost or used in transmission and 11 more in energy
sector consumption, leaving 214 TWh for final consumption (or 189 TWh
apart from aluminium exports).*
* Vencorp suggest that typically net TWh are about 10% less than gross TWh, with transmission and distribution losses often being 10%
In 2008-09 the electricity was produced from 56 gigawatts (GWe)
capacity, of which 30.3 GWe (54%) was coal-fired, 14.7 GWe (26%) gas
or multi-fuel, 1.35 (2.4%) oil, 7.1 GWe (13%) hydro and 2.5 GWe (4.5%)
other renewables.
Most of this is associated with the grid-connected National Electricity
Market (NEM) in the southeast and east of the country, the second grid
being the South West Interconnected Supply area in Western
Australia. A smaller grid is in the Pilbara.
In 2009, 78% of the power was produced from coal, 14% from natural
gas, 4.7% from hydro.
In Victoria the main fuel is brown coal (lignite), in NSW and Queensland
it is high quality black coal, and in WA and SA it is much lower quality
black coal.
Fuels for Electricity
About 78% of Australia's
electricity is produced from
54% of the capacity, reflecting
the predominance of base-
load demand and the fact that
coal provides the main base-
load capacity in Australia. See
also chart below. Note that
electrically, Western Australia
is isolated.

National Electricity
Market (NEM)
In 2012-13 the NEM capacity was 48.4 GWe producing 204.5 TWh, 53%
of this from black coal, 29% from brown coal, 7% from gas CCGT, 10%
from hydro and 4% from wind. There were about 50 large dispatchable
generators (100-750 MWe each), and they provided about 95% of the
capacity.

The system load factor was about 55% and the reserve margin about
28%. In the competitive market the wholesale price averaged about
$55/MWh.

The Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO) produced a National
Transmission Network Development Plan (NTNDP) for 2030 which
showed 251 TWh produced then in NEM, 62% black coal (27 TWh more
than 2012), 17% brown coal (232 TWh less than 2012), 9% gas CCGT,
8% hydro and 17% wind.
Australian Energy Technology Assessment (AETA)
The AETA was undertaken by the Bureau of Resources and Energy
Economics (BREE) in 2012. It evaluated 40 utility-scale generation
technologies, projecting out to 2050, and focusing on estimating the
levelised cost of electricity (LCOE), using AEMOs NTNDP parameters
and those from Treasury. The capital costs of various options excluded
financing and system costs. AETA assessed two nuclear technologies:
large light water reactors and small modular light-water reactors (SMR).
Capital costs used were $4210/kW and $7908/kW respectively for first of
a kind units, and $3470/kW and $4778/kW for Nth of a kind (while noting
that overnight costs in Asia are much lower). These gave almost the
lowest cost ranges of any of the 40 technologies over 2020 to 2050, with
GW-scale nuclear about $100-110/MWh and $115-125/MWh for SMR
over 2020-2050.

This study complemented a CSIRO eFuture model, which shows that
incorporating nuclear into the generation mix from 2025 so that it
contributed about 55% of supply from 2040 would save $130 billion in
greenhouse gas abatement and $18 billion in health cost savings to
2050 compared with the Governments 2012 Energy White Paper
projections, and reduce LCOE from $158 to $125/MWh over 2040-50.
The retail price saving is $86/MWh. Looking at capital costs to 2050, the
White Paper projects $195-225 billion, the eFuture with nuclear $175-
235 billion, including $85-100 billion for nuclear build.
Emissions
Australian coal is mostly very clean by world standards, so electricity is
produced without very much sulfur dioxide being emitted (or requiring
expensive equipment to avoid its emission).
However, power generation contributes 35% of the country's net carbon
dioxide-equivalent emissions (200 out of 580 Mt in 2008). The 2008-09
figure calculated from thermal plants in an ESAA benchmarking study is
204 Mt, about 37% of total. In this, black coal plants in NSW emit
920,000 tonnes CO
2
per TWh, Victorian brown coal plants emit 1.29
million tonnes CO
2
per TWh.
From mid 2012, a carbon tax of $23 per tonne of CO2 applies to many
industries.
The Cost of Electricity
Much electricity in Australia is now traded so that distribution companies
buy at the best price available from hour to hour from competing
generators.
The difficulties matching supply with demand can be judged from the fact
that Victorian demand ranges from 3900 MWe to 10,000 MWe, and that
in NSW from 5800 to 15,000 MWe.
Australian electricity prices were almost the lowest in the world to about
2007, but have risen significantly since then, and international
comparisons are exacerbated by the exchange rate. Hence 2011-12
average Australian household prices are above Japan and EU average
and much higher than USA. By state, WA, Vic, NSW and SA 2011 prices
rank behind only Denmark and Germany.
The earlier low prices created a major problem in attracting investment in new generating plant to cater for retiring old
plant and meeting new demand - a 25% increase by 2020 was projected, and in fact a 40% rise occurred by 2011,
with another 30% projected to 2013.
Victoria Load Curve

Load curve of the Victorian electricity system in two peak days in 2006, showing the relative contributions of base, intermediate and peak-
load plant duty. The shape of such a curve will vary markedly according to the kind of demand. Here, the peaks reflect domestic demand
related to a normal working day, with air conditioner demand evident on the hot summer day.
Note that base-load demand accounts for the majority of electricity supplied. The base-load here is about 5300 MWe, and while total capacity
must allow for nearly double this, most of the difference is normally supplied by large intermediate-load gas-fired plant. The peak loads are
typically supplied by hydro and gas turbines. Under the wholesale electricity market, power stations bid into the market and compete for their
energy to be despatched. Thus the sources of supply at any particular moment are determined by some balance between plant which (once
installed) can be run very cheaply, and that which while costing less to build, uses more expensive fuel. Source: Vencorp.
Eastern Australia's National Electricity Market (NEM) operates the worlds largest interconnected power system that
runs for more than 5,000 kilometres from North Queensland to central South Australia, and supplies some $10 billion
electricity annually to meet the demand of more than 10 million end users. The NEM volume-weighted average price
in 2008-09 ranged from $36/MWh in Queensland to $49/MWh in Victoria and $69/MWh in SA. NEM infrastructure
comprises both state and privately owned assets, and is managed under the overall direction of the Australian Energy
Market Operator (AEMO), which was established by the state and federal governments.
Transmission
Australia has 27,640 km of transmission lines and cable (220 kV and above - 10,300 km 330 kV and above), mostly
state-owned and operated, transporting 209 TWh of electricity per year (2008-09). There is no connection between
the east of SA and WA.
Because most of Australia's electricity is produced near the main load centres there is less high voltage (500, 330,
275, 220 kV) transmission needed than in some countries. There is nearly as much at 132 kV as at those four higher
levels combined. (At 500 kV, transmission losses over 500-1000 km are halved.)
Electricity is a vital part of our lives. It gives us light, cools and warms our homes, heats our
water, and helps us cook our food. But do you really understand how its made and how its
measured?
What is electricity?
Electricity is a vital part of our lives and we rely on it every day. But do you know what
electricity is? Take a look behind the scenes.
Electricity is a vital part of our lives and we rely on it every day. But do you know what electricity
is? Take a look behind the scenes.
Source: Origin Energy
How is electricity made?
Generating electricity requires a fuel source, such as coal, gas, hydropower or wind.
Regardless of the fuel, most generators operate on the same principle, which is to turn
aturbine so that it spins magnets surrounded by copper wire to get the flow of electrons
across atoms and generate electricity.
Traditional fuels, such as coal and natural gas, are used to create the majority of Australias
electricity supply. These fuels are used to heat water which creates steam that turns a
turbine.

Renewable energy sources, such as hydropower and wind, generate electricity similarly by
turning turbines.
Solar photovoltaic panels take a different approach. They generate electrical power by
converting solar radiation into electricity using semiconductor.
Wires conduct electricity
Some atoms have electrons that can flow easily from one atom to another, such as metal.
This is why metal is used in wires that conduct electricity. Other materials, such as rubber,
have atoms that resist the flow of electricity, and thats why rubber is used to insulate
against the flow of electricity.
The world's first electric generator
Ever wondered how magnets and copper coils create electricity? This video shows an
experiment to explain the basic principles.
Ever wondered how magnets and copper coils create electricity? This video shows an
experiment to explain the basic principles.
Source: Veritasium 2012, Worlds first electric generator, YouTube video, posted 6 November 2012
How is electricity measured?
There are a couple of different ways to measure electricity, but the main one is the watt-
hour.
The watt (W) is a measure of electrical power. Light bulbs are marked with a watt rating,
such as 40 W, and so are appliances such as air-blow heaters (around 1,000 W). This gives
an indication of the amount of electrical power they need to work.
Electricity consumption is a combination of the amount of electricity (that is, the watt) and
the period of time for which its used. So a standard measure of electricity consumption is
the amount of watts used over an hour: the watt-hour (Wh). For example, a 40 W light bulb
turned on for one hour will use 40 Wh of electricity.
An electricity bill records the number of kilowatt-hours (kWh) consumed over a period,
which is usually around three months. A kilowatt-hour is simply a thousand watt-hours.

Australias networked grid delivers electricity
Electricity leaves generators and travels along conductor wires via a networked grid to
homes and businesses. Australia has the largest interconnected power system in the world.
Its called the National Electricity Market or the NEM.
Why is electricity nearly always available?
People want electricity to be instantly available at all times: day and night, in all seasons
and weather conditions. Australias National Electricity Market ensures the amount of
electricity produced is equal to demand so all consumers have reliable access to power.
Western Australia, the Northern Territory and Mt Isa have separate grid arrangements.
Two types of power generation are required for a reliable supply:
baseload generation, which provides a steady supply of electricity day and night
peaking generation, which provides extra power when demand is high.
Electricity consumption changes throughout the day
Australians use the most electricity at around 6 pm in the evening when many people are at
home, either cooking dinner or watching television and often using their heating or air-
conditioning too. This is when having adequate peaking generation is critical.
The least amount of electricity is consumed during the night when most people are asleep.
This is when just a steady supply of baseload generation is necessary.
Centralised versus decentralised generators
Centralised large-scale generators, using energy sources such as coal, gas, hydropower
and wind, supply the vast majority (more than 97 per cent) of Australias electricity. They are
often located in rural areas close to their fuel sources. Decentralised (or on-site) energy
simply means energy generated where it will be used (for example, in the home).
Decentralised energy is starting to become more important as an alternative way to supply
electricity. For example, the installation of rooftop solar panels on homes and businesses
has increased in recent years. Another form of decentralised energy technology being used
is cogeneration
The electricity meets the buildings needs. The heat made from generating the electricity is
captured and then used to provide heating or to produce chilled water for cooling through
an absorption chiller. Using gas as a fuel also offers a significant reduction
in carbonemissions when compared with coal-fired power generation.
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AC Motor

As in the DC
motorcase, a current is
passed through the coil,
generating a torque on
the coil. Since the
current is alternating,
the motor will run
smoothly only at the
frequency of the sine
wave. It is called a
synchronous motor.
More common is
the induction motor,
where electric current
isinduced in the
rotating coils rather
than supplied to them
directly.
One of the drawbacks of this kind of AC motor is the high current which must flow through
the rotating contacts. Sparking and heating at those contacts can waste energy and shorten the
lifetime of the motor. In common AC motors the magnetic field is produced by an
electromagnet powered by the same AC voltage as the motor coil. The coils which produce
the magnetic field are sometimes referred to as the "stator", while the coils and the solid core
which rotates is called the "armature". In an AC motor the magnetic field is sinusoidally
Index

DC
Circuits
varying, just as the current in the coil varies.
How does a motor work? AC Generator Generator and Motor DC Motor


HyperPhysics***** Electricity and Magnetism R Nave
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AC Generator
The turning of a coil in a magnetic field produces motional emfs in both sides of the coil
which add. Since the component of the velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field changes
sinusoidally with the rotation, the generated voltage is sinusoidal or AC. This process can be
described in terms ofFaraday's law when you see that the rotation of the coil continually
changes the magnetic flux through the coil and therefore generates a voltage.
Index

DC
Circuits

Voltage generation detail AC Motor Generator and Motor DC Motor


HyperPhysics***** Electricity and Magnetism R Nave
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Generator and Motor
A hand-cranked generator can be used to generate voltage to turn a motor. This is an example of energy
conversion from mechanical to electrical energy and then back to mechanical energy.

As the motor is turning, it also acts as a generator and generates a "back emf". By Lenz's law, the emf generated
by the motor coil will oppose the change that created it. If the motor is not driving a load, then the generated back
emf will almost balance the input voltage and very little current will flow in the coil of the motor. But if the
motor is driving a heavy load, the back emf will be less and more current will flow in the motor coil and that
electric power being used is converted to the mechanical power to drive the load.
AC motors
With AC currents, we can reverse field directions without having to use brushes. This
is good news, because we can avoid the arcing, the ozone production and the ohmic
loss of energy that brushes can entail. Further, because brushes make contact
between moving surfaces, they wear out.
The first thing to do in an AC motor is to create a rotating field. 'Ordinary' AC from a
2 or 3 pin socket is single phase AC--it has a single sinusoidal potential difference
generated between only two wires--the active and neutral. (Note that the Earth wire
doesn't carry a current except in the event of electrical faults.) With single phase AC,
one can produce a rotating field by generating two currents that are out of phase using
for example a capacitor. In the example shown, the two currents are 90 out of phase,
so the vertical component of the magnetic field is sinusoidal, while the horizontal is
cosusoidal, as shown. This gives a field rotating counterclockwise.
(* I've been asked to explain this: from simple AC theory, neither coils nor capacitors
have the voltage in phase with the current. In a capacitor, the voltage is a maximum
when the charge has finished flowing onto the capacitor, and is about to start flowing
off. Thus the voltage is behind the current. In a purely inductive coil, the voltage drop
is greatest when the current is changing most rapidly, which is also when the current
is zero. The voltage (drop) is ahead of the current. In motor coils, the phase angle is
rather less than 90, because electrical energy is being converted to mechanical
energy.)

In this animation, the graphs show the variation in time of the currents in the vertical
and horizontal coils. The plot of the field components B
x
and B
y
shows that the vector
sum of these two fields is a rotating field. The main picture shows the rotating field. It
also shows the polarity of the magnets: as above, blue represents a North pole and red
a South pole.
If we put a permanent magnet in this area of rotating field, or if we put in a coil whose
current always runs in the same direction, then this becomes a synchronous motor.
Under a wide range of conditions, the motor will turn at the speed of the magnetic
field. If we have a lot of stators, instead of just the two pairs shown here, then we
could consider it as a stepper motor: each pulse moves the rotor on to the next pair of
actuated poles. Please remember my warning about the idealised geometry: real
stepper motors have dozens of poles and quite complicated geometries!

Induction motors
Now, since we have a time varying magnetic field, we can use the induced emf in a
coil or even just the eddy currents in a conductor to make the rotor a magnet.
That's right, once you have a rotating magnetic field, you can just put in a conductor
and it turns. This gives several of the advantages of induction motors: no brushes or
commutator means easier manufacture, no wear, no sparks, no ozone production
and none of the energy loss associated with them. Below left is a schematic of an
induction motor. (For photos of real induction motors and more details,
see Induction motors.)

The animation at right represents a squirrel cage motor. The squirrel cage has (in this
simplified geometry, anyhow!) two circular conductors joined by several straight bars.
Any two bars and the arcs that join them form a coil as indicated by the blue dashes
in the animation. (Only two of the many possible circuits have been shown, for
simplicity.)
This schematic suggests why they might be called squirrel cage motors. The reality is
different: for photos and more details, see Induction motors. The problem with the
induction and squirrel cage motors shown in this animation is that capacitors of high
value and high voltage rating are expensive. One solution is the 'shaded pole' motor,
but its rotating field has some directions where the torque is small, and it has a
tendency to run backwards under some conditions. The neatest way to avoid this is to
use multiple phase motors.
The turning of a coil in a magnetic field produces motional emfs in both sides of the coil which add.
Since the component of the velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field changes sinusoidally with the
rotation, the generated voltage is sinusoidal or AC. This process can be described in terms of
Faraday's law when you see that the rotation of the coil continually changes the magnetic flux through
the coil and therefore generates a voltage. Generators
If you've ever moved paper clips around with a magnet or killed time arranging metal shavings into a beard on
a "Wooly Willy" toy, then you've dabbled in the basic principles behind even the most complicated electric
generators. The magnetic field responsible for lining up all those little bits of metal into a proper Mohawk haircut
is due to the movement of electrons. Move a magnet toward a paper clip and you'll force the electrons in the
clip to move. Similarly, if you allow electrons to move through a metal wire, a magnetic field will form around the
wire.
Thanks to Wooly Willy, we can see that there's a definite link between the phenomena of electricity and
magnetism. A generator is simply a device that moves a magnet near a wire to create a steady flow of
electrons. The action that forces this movement varies greatly, ranging from hand cranks and steam engines to
nuclear fission, but the principle remains the same.
One simple way to think about a generator is to imagine it acting like a pump pushing water through a pipe.
Only instead of pushing water, a generator uses a magnet to push electrons along. This is a slight
oversimplification, but it paints a helpful picture of the properties at work in a generator. A water pump moves a
certain number of water molecules and applies a certain amount of pressure to them. In the same way, the
magnet in a generator pushes a certain number of electrons along and applies a certain amount of "pressure"
to the electrons.
In an electrical circuit, the number of electrons in motion is called the amperage or current, and it's measured
in amps. The "pressure" pushing the electrons along is called the voltage and is measured involts. For
instance, a generator spinning at 1,000 rotations per minute might produce 1 amp at 6 volts. The 1 amp is the
number of electrons moving (1 amp physically means that 6.24 x 10
18
electrons move through a wire every
second), and the voltage is the amount of pressure behind those electrons.
Generators form the heart of a modern power station. In the next section, we'll take a look at how one of these
stations works.
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There are two types of generators, one is ac generator and other is dc generator. Whatever may be
the types of generators, it always converts mechanical power to electrical power. An ac generator
produces alternating power. A dc generator produces direct power. Both of these generators
produce electrical power, based on same fundamental principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. According to these law, when an conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts magnetic
lines force, due to which an emf is induced in the conductor. The magnitude of this induced emf
depends upon the rate of change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor. This emf
will cause an electric current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
Hence the most basic tow essential parts of a generator are
a) a magnetic field and
b) conductors which move inside that magnetic field.
Now we will go through working principle of dc generator. As, the working principle of ac generator
is not in scope of our discussion in this section.
Single Loop DC Generator

Single Loop DC Generator
In the figure above, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two opposite
poles of magnet.
Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the magnetic field
about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal position, it cuts
the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD of the loop cut the flux
lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB & BC) of the loop.

Concept of Single Loop Generator
As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating through the loop. The direction of the current
can be determined by Flemming's right hand Rule. This rule says that is you stretch thumb, index
finger and middle finger of your right hand perpendicular to each other, then thumbs indicates the
direction of motion of the conductor, index finger indicates the direction of magnetic field i.e. N - pole
to S - pole, and middle finger indicates the direction of flow of electric current through the conductor.
Now if we apply this right hand rule, we will see at this horizontal position of the loop, electric current
will flow from point A to B and on the other side of the loop current will flow from point C to D.

Now if we allow the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical position, but now upper side
of the loop will be CD and lower side will be AB (just opposite of the previous vertical position). At
this position the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to the flux lines of the field.
Hence there will be no question of flux cutting and consequently there will be no current in the loop.
If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in horizontal position. But now, said AB side of the loop
comes in front of N pole and CD comes in front of S pole, i.e. just opposite to the previous horizontal
position as shown in the figure beside.

Here the tangential motion of the side of the loop is perpendicular to the flux lines, hence rate of flux
cutting is maximum here and according to Flemming's right hand rule, at this position current flows
from B to A and on other side from D to C.
Now if the loop is continued to rotate about its axis, every time the side AB comes in front of S pole,
the current flows from A to B and when it comes in front of N pole, the current flows from B to A.
Similarly, every time the side CD comes in front of S pole the current flows from C to D and when it
comes in front of N pole the current flows from D to C.
If we observe this phenomena in different way, it can be concluded, that each side of the loop comes
in front of N pole, the current will flow through that side in same direction i.e. downward to the
reference plane and similarly each side of the loop comes in front of S pole, electric current through
it flows in same direction i.e. upwards from reference plane. From this, we will come to the topic
of principle of dc generator.
Now the loop is opened and connect it with a split ring as shown in the figure below. Split ring are
made out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two halves or segments insulated from each other.
The external load terminals are connected with two carbon brushes which are rest on these split slip
ring segments.
Working Principle of DC Generator

It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e. brush no 1 in
contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the induced current in
the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a and b are also reversed
which results that brush no 1 comes in touch with that segment b. Hence, the current in the load
resistance again flows from L to M. The wave from of the current through the load circuit is as shown
in the figure. This current is unidirectional.

This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop generator model.
The position of the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the change over of the segments a
and b from one brush to other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at right angle to the
plane of the lines of force. It is so become in that position, the induced emf in the coil is zero.
A D.C. generator works upon the principle of Electromagnetic induction that includes both Faraday's laws and
Lenz's law.
To understand the working of a D.C. Generator,it is logical to get first get a brief idea of its construction part.
The D.C. generator(or any D.C. machine) has the following parts:
Stationary members(Stator)
Stator frame
Stator core
Field windings
Brushes

Rotary members(Rotor):
Armature core
Armature windings
Bearings

Now,the working of the generator can be explained as:
The field windings are provided with a current so as to develop a magnetic field around the armature(rotor) of
the generator.This phenomenon is also known as field Excitation.
When the armature is made to rotate with the help of any prime mover in the magnetic field as generated by
the stator side,an emf is induced in the armature.The magnitude of this generated emf is given by Faraday's
law while the direction is given by Lenz's law.
When the armature windings are connected to any load,an electric current begins to flow.
In this way,a DC generator works. A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical
energy into direct current electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of production
of dynamically induced emf.
Construction:





Above figure shows the constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC generator. A DC generator
consists two basic parts, stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC generator are described
below.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a generator or motor is called as yoke. Yoke is made up of cast iron
or steel. Yoke provides mechanical strength for whole assembly of the generator (or motor). It
also carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
2. Poles: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of screws or welding. Poles are to support
field windings. Field winding is wound on poles and connected in series or parallel with
armature winding or sometimes separately.
3. Pole shoe: Pole shoe is an extended part of the pole which serves two purposes, (i)to
prevent field coils from slipping and (ii)to spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.

Armature core (rotor)
4. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a generator. Armature core is cylindrical in
shape on which slots are provided to carry armature windings.
5. Commutator and brushes: As emf is generated in the armature conductors terminals must
be taken out to make use of generated emf. But if we can't directly solder wires to commutator
conductors as they rotates. Thus commutator is connected to the armature conductors and
mounted on the same shaft as that of armature core. Conducting brushes rest on commutator
and they slides over when rotor (hence commutator) rotates. Thus brushes are physically in
contact with armature conductors hence wires can be connected to brushes.


Commutator

Working principle:

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, when a conductor moves in a magnetic
field (thereby cutting the magnetic flux lines), a dynamically induced emf is produced in the
conductor. The magnitude of generated emf can be given by emf equation of DC generator. If a
closed path is provided to the moving conductor then generated emf causes a current to flow in the
circuit.
Thus in DC generators, as we have studied earlier, when armature is rotated with the help of a
prime mover and field windings are excited (there may be permanent field magnets also), emf is
induced in armature conductors. This induced emf is taken out via commutator-brush arrangement.
How DC generator works?
The commutator rotates with the loop of wire just as the slip rings do with the rotor of an AC
generator. Each half of the commutator ring is called a commutator segment and is insulated from the
other half. Each end of the rotating loop of wire is connected to a commutator segment. Two carbon
brushes connected to the outside circuit rest against the rotating commutator. One brush conducts the
current out of the generator, and the other brush feeds it in. The commutator is designed so that, no
matter how the current in the loop alternates, the commutator segment containing the outward-going
current is always against the "out" brush at the proper time. The armature in a large DC generator has
many coils of wire and commutator segments. Because of the commutator, engineers have found it
necessary to have the armature serve as the rotor(the rotating part of an apparatus) and the field
structure as the stator (a stationary portion enclosing rotating parts)
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Home :: Renewable Energy :: Wind Energy
How a wind turbine works

Wind power involves converting wind energy into electricity by using wind turbines. A wind turbine is
composed of 3 propellers-like blades called a rotor.The rotor is attached to a tall tower. The tower
looks like a very tall pole. On average wind towers are about 20m high. The reason why the tower is
so tall is because winds are stronger higher from the ground.


Vertical and horizontal axis turbines used for residential electricity generation
Buy wind turbines online in our secure store!

Wind comes from atmospheric changes; changes in temperature and pressuremakes the air move
around the surface of the earth; all of which is triggered by the sun. So in a way, wind energy is
another form of solar power. A wind turbine captures the wind to produce energy. The wind makes
the rotor spin; as the rotor spins, the movement of the blades spinning gives power to a generator
which makes energy. The motion of the wind turbine turning is called kinetic energy, this power is
converted into electricity.

The conversion of wind into electricity

Wind power is converted into electricity by magnets moving past stationary coils of wire known as
the stator. As the magnets pass the stator, AC electricity is produced. It is then converted into DC
electricity which can be used to charge batteries which store the electrical energy or can also be fed
into a grid interactive inverter for feeding power into the electricity grid.

The benefits of wind power

Wind power is a clean energy source that can be relied on for the long-term future. A wind
turbine creates reliable, cost-effective, pollution free energy. It is affordable, clean and sustainable.
One wind turbine can be sufficient to generate energy for a household. Because wind is a source of
energy which is non-polluting and renewable, wind turbines create power without using fossil fuels,
without producing greenhouse gases or radioactive or toxic waste. Wind power reduces global
warming.

How are wind turbines installed

Wind turbines can be installed on properties, on boats, or caravans. Getting a wind turbine depends
entirely on the amount of wind generated in your area. The first thing you need to do is to find out the
average speed in your area. While using freely available data gives an indication, the most reliable
method is a reading taken at your site. Once a terribly expensive exercise, this can now be done
economically using the Power Predictor.


NEW! Power Predictor
Before you spend a bundle on a wind turbine; play it safeand test
the wind resources at your location first.

The economical Power Predictor anemometer measures solar and
wind energy at your site. It comes with a data logger and access to
online analysis software that compares the most popular wind
turbines and solar panels on the market!

The average wind speed needs to be above 5m/s (18km per hour) to make installing a wind turbine
worthwhile. Ideal locations for wind turbines are in the country, on farms, or on the coast: basically
anywhere away from built-up areas. The more buildings around the wind turbine, the less wind there
is. Energy Matters can do full installations of hybrid, wind and solar energy systems. Setting up a
wind turbine is a big job that takes time but it can be a very cost effective way of creating power as
long as the average wind speed is high enough.
Hydro-power or water power is power derived from the energy of falling water and running water,
which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Since ancient times, hydro-power has been used
for irrigation and the operation of various mechanical devices, such
as watermills, sawmills, textile mills, dock cranes, domestic lifts, power houses and paint making.
Since the early 20th century, the term has been used almost exclusively in conjunction with the
modern development of hydro-electric power, which allowed use of distant energy sources. Another
method used to transmit energy used a trompe, which produces compressed air from falling water.
Compressed air could then be piped to power other machinery at a distance from the waterfall.
Hydro power is a renewable energy source.
Water's power is manifested in hydrology, by the forces of water on the riverbed and banks of a
river. When a river is in flood, it is at its most powerful, and moves the greatest amount of sediment.
This higher force results in the removal of sediment and other material from the riverbed and banks
of the river, locally causing erosion, transport and, with lower flow, sedimentation downstream.
Sustainable Biomass

Biomass is solar energy stored in organic matter. It is carbon-based and composed of a mixture of
organic molecules such as hydrogen and oxygen. Biomass energy can only be sustainably harvested
when it does not upset the fragile balance of ecosystems.
Sustainable biomass is the conversion of waste biomass to energy. Sustainable biomass resources
include:
Agricultural waste, such as bagasse from sugarcane and waste wood from plantation timber mills.
Household waste that would otherwise go to landfill.
Oil Mallee trees, which can also improve the soil conditions of marginal land by combatting dryland
salinity and soil erosion, enriching soils and sequestering carbon.
Algae, which can grow on salty lakes.
Sewerage plants.
Biomass Technologies
Biomass can be converted into energy through a range of technologies.
Direct combustion is still the most common technology in Australia. In this method, biomass is burnt
to heat water, which in turn generates steam for running a conventional generator.
Gasification is a more advanced technology, where the biomass is combusted in high temperatures
with very little oxygen and the complex molecules separate into a cleaner, hydrogen-rich gas, which
can be used in a fuel cell or gas turbine.
Biological treatments are used extensively for wet organic matter such as pig manure and sewerage.
One such treatment, anaerobic digestion, involves the use of methanogenic bacteria to break up
organics and produce methane.
It is estimated that the technologically sustainable energy potential of biomass is greater than the
world's current electrical generating capacity.[2]
A biofuel is a fuel that contains energy from geologically recent carbon fixation. These fuels are
produced from living organisms. Examples of this carbon fixation occur in plants and microalgae.
These fuels are made by abiomass conversion (biomass refers to recently living organisms, most
often referring to plants or plant-derived materials). This biomass can be converted to convenient
energy containing substances in three different ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and
biochemical conversion. This biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This
new biomass can be used for biofuels. Biofuels have increased in popularity because of rising oil
prices and the need for energy security.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced
in sugar or starch crops such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived
from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for
ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used
as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used
in the USA and in Brazil. Current plant design does not provide for converting the lignin portion of
plant raw materials to fuel components by fermentation.
Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive
to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles.
Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in
Europe.
In 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters (28 billion gallons US), up 17% from
2009,
[1]
and biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's fuels for road transport, a contribution largely
made up of ethanol and biodiesel.
[citation needed]
Global ethanol fuel production reached 86 billion liters
(23 billion gallons US) in 2010, with the United States and Brazil as the world's top producers,
accounting together for 90% of global production. The world's largest biodiesel producer is
the European Union, accounting for 53% of all biodiesel production in 2010.
[1]
As of 2011, mandates
for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states or
provinces.
[2]
The International Energy Agency has a goal for biofuels to meet more than a quarter of
world demand for transportation fuels by 2050 to reduce dependence on petroleum and coal.
[3]

There are various social, economic, environmental and technical issues relating to
biofuels production and use, which have been debated in the popular media and scientific journals.
These include: the effect of moderatingoil prices, the "food vs fuel" debate, poverty
reduction potential, carbon emissions levels, sustainable biofuel production, deforestation and soil
erosion, loss of biodiversity, and impact on water resources.
Geothermal energy is classed as renewable energy. Renewable energy is generally described as energy obtained
from sources that are essentially inexhaustible, in contrast to fossil fuels, of which there is a finite supply.
The term geothermal energy is often used to indicate that part of the earth's heat that may be recovered and utilised.
Heat transferred from the earth's molten core to underground deposits of dry steam (steam with no water droplets),
wet steam (a mixture of steam and water droplets), hot water, or rocks lying fairly close to the earth's surface. It is
also generated locally within the earth's crust from the natural decay of the radiogenic elements that occur in rocks,
and in certain granites they can be concentrated such that there is a marked elevation in the local surface heat flow.
GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS
The characteristics of geothermal systems vary widely, but three components are essential:
a subsurface heat source
fluid to transport the heat
faults, fractures or permeability within sub-surface rocks that allow the heated fluid to flow from the heat
source to the surface
The amount of heat being generated by the earth (heat flow) is one of the key factors that determine the temperature
gradient at any location. The other major factor is the thermal conductivity of the crustal rocks, which controls how
well they trap the generated heat. High heat flow will result in a higher temperature gradient, while an insulating
blanket of sedimentary rocks over the heat source will trap that heat. Some rocks make better insulators than others,
but in general, fine grained sedimentary rocks such as shale are better insulators than sandstone. The highest
thermal gradients are therefore found in regions with both high heat flow and low thermal conductivity.
THE BENEFITS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
When properly developed and managed, geothermal systems are a clean, abundant, and reliable source of
renewable energy. Use of geothermal energy for electricity generation or for direct use conserves non-renewable and
more polluting resources. It is uniquely reliable, with conventional geothermal energy plants typically achieving much
higher load factors compared to typical load factors for hydro and wind power plants. Geothermal energy is effectively
a renewable resource that does not consume any fuel or produce significant carbon dioxide emissions.
MAKING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY VIABLE
Notwithstanding the public policy imperative that is driving renewable energy opportunities, there are three key
elements that must be satisfied before a viable geothermal prospect can move to commerciality. These are:
Quantum of energy: temperature and flow rate
Cost of production: exploration and development drilling
Proximity to markets: transmission grid for geothermal energy, heat drying needs of domestic and industrial
customers etc
TECHNOLOGY
Top 10 Renewable
Energy Sources
JAMIE FRATER MAY 1, 2009
There are many sources of energy that are renewable and considered to be
environmentally friendly and harness natural processes. These sources of
energy provide an alternate cleaner source of energy, helping to negate the
effects of certain forms of pollution. All of these power generation techniques
can be described as renewable since they are not depleting any resource to
create the energy. While there are many large-scale renewable energy
projects and production, renewable technologies are also suited to small off-
grid applications, sometimes in rural and remote areas, where energy is often
crucial in human development.
10
Tidal Power

Tidal energy can be generated in two ways, tidal stream generators or by
barrage generation. The power created though tidal generators is generally
more environmentally friendly and causes less impact on established
ecosystems. Similar to a wind turbine, many tidal stream generators rotate
underwater and is driven by the swiftly moving dense water. Although not yet
widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides
are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Historically, tide mills
have been used, both in Europe and on the Atlantic coast of the USA. The
earliest occurrences date from the Middle Ages, or even from Roman times.
Tidal power is the only form of energy which derives directly from the relative
motions of the EarthMoon system, and to a lesser extent from the EarthSun
system. The tidal forces produced by the Moon and Sun, in combination with
Earths rotation, are responsible for the generation of the tides. British
company Lunar Energy announced that they would be building the worlds first
tidal energy farm off the coast of Pembrokshire in Wales. It will be the worlds
first deep-sea tidal-energy farm and will provide electricity for 5,000 homes.
Eight underwater turbines, each 25 metres long and 15 metres high, are to be
installed on the sea bottom off St Davids peninsula. Construction is due to
start in the summer of 2008 and the proposed tidal energy turbines, described
as a wind farm under the sea, should be operational by 2010.
9
Wave Power

Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean surface waves, and the
capture of that energy to do useful work for example for electricity
generation, water desalination, or the pumping of water (into reservoirs).
Wave energy can be difficult to harness due to the unpredictability of the
ocean and wave direction. Wave farms have been created and are in use in
Europe, using floating Pelamis Wave Energy converters. Most wave power
systems include the use of a floating buoyed device and generate energy
through a snaking motion, or by mechanical movement from the waves peaks
and troughs. Though often co-mingled, wave power is distinct from the diurnal
flux of tidal power and the steady gyre of ocean currents. Wave power
generation is not currently a widely employed commercial technology although
there have been attempts at using it since at least 1890. The worlds first
commercial wave farm is based in Portugal, at the Aguadora Wave Park,
which consists of three 750 kilowatt Pelamis devices. In the United States, the
Pacific Northwest Generating Cooperative is funding the building of a
commercial wave-power park at Reedsport, Oregon. The project will utilize the
PowerBuoy technology Ocean Power Technologies which consists of
modular, ocean-going buoys. The rising and falling of the waves moves the
buoy-like structure creating mechanical energy which is converted into
electricity and transmitted to shore over a submerged transmission line. A 40
kW buoy has a diameter of 12 feet (4 m) and is 52 feet (16 m) long, with
approximately 13 feet of the unit rising above the ocean surface. Using the
three-point mooring system, they are designed to be installed one to five miles
(8 km) offshore in water 100 to 200 feet (60 m) deep.
8
Solar Power

Photovoltaic (PV) Solar power is harnessing the suns energy to produce
electricity. One of the fastest growing energy sources, new technologies are
developing at a rapid pace. Solar cells are becoming more efficient,
transportable and even flexible, allowing for easy installation. PV has mainly
been used to power small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator
powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic
array. The 1973 oil crisis stimulated a rapid rise in the production of PV during
the 1970s and early 1980s. Steadily falling oil prices during the early 1980s,
however, led to a reduction in funding for photovoltaic R&D and a
discontinuation of the tax credits associated with the Energy Tax Act of 1978.
These factors moderated growth to approximately 15% per year from 1984
through 1996. Since the mid-1990s, leadership in the PV sector has shifted
from the US to Japan and Germany. Between 1992 and 1994 Japan
increased R&D funding, established net metering guidelines, and introduced a
subsidy program to encourage the installation of residential PV systems. Solar
installations in recent years have also largely begun to expand into residential
areas, with governments offering incentive programs to make green energy
a more economically viable option. In Canada the government offers the
RESOP (Renewable Energy Standard Offer Program).
7
Wind Power

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy by wind turbines into a useful
form, such as electricity or mechanical energy. Large-scale wind farms are
typically connected to the local power transmission network with small
turbines used to provide electricity to isolated areas. Residential units are
entering production and are are capable of powering large appliances to entire
houses depending on the size. Wind farms installed on agricultural land or
grazing areas, have one of the lowest environmental impacts of all energy
sources. Although wind produces only about 1.5% of worldwide electricity use,
it is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years between 2005 and
2008. In several countries it has achieved relatively high levels of penetration,
accounting for approximately 19% of electricity production in Denmark, 11% in
Spain and Portugal, and 7% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008.
Wind energy has historically been used directly to propel sailing ships or
converted into mechanical energy for pumping water or grinding grain, but the
principal application of wind power today is the generation of electricity. As of
2008, Europe leads the world in development of offshore wind power, due to
strong wind resources and shallow water in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea,
and limitations on suitable locations on land due to dense populations and
existing developments. Denmark installed the first offshore wind farms, and
for years was the world leader in offshore wind power until the United
Kingdom gained the lead in October, 2008. Other large markets for wind
power, including the United States and China focused first on developing their
on-land wind resources where construction costs are lower (such as in the
Great Plains of the U.S., and the similarly wind-swept steppes of Xinjiang and
Inner Mongolia in China), but population centers along coastlines in many
parts of the world are close to offshore wind resources, which would reduce
transmission costs.
6
Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., the production of
power through use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the
most widely used form of renewable energy. Once a hydroelectric complex is
constructed, the project produces no direct waste. Small scale hydro or micro-
hydro power has been an increasingly popular alternative energy source,
especially in remote areas where other power sources are not viable. Small
scale hydro power systems can be installed in small rivers or streams with
little or no discernible environmental effect or disruption to fish migration. Most
small scale hydro power systems make no use of a dam or major water
diversion, but rather use water wheels to generate energy. This was
approximately 19% of the worlds electricity (up from 16% in 2003), and
accounted for over 63% of electricity from renewable sources. While many
hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to
serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often
built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium
electrolytic plants, for example. In the Scottish Highlands there are examples
at Kinlochleven and Lochaber, constructed during the early years of the 20th
century. The Grand Coulee Dam, long the worlds largest, switched to support
Alcoa aluminum in Bellingham, Washington for Americas World War II
airplanes before it was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in
addition to aluminum power) after the war. In Suriname, the Brokopondo
Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium
industry. New Zealands Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply
electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point.
5
Radiant Energy

This natural energy can perform the same wonders as ordinary electricity at
less than 1% of the cost. It does not behave exactly like electricity, however,
which has contributed to the scientific communitys misunderstanding of it.
The Methernitha Community in Switzerland currently has 5 or 6 working
models of fuelless, self-running devices that tap this energy. Nikola Teslas
magnifying transmitter, T. Henry Morays radiant energy device, Edwin Grays
EMA motor, and Paul Baumanns Testatika machine all run on radiant energy.
This natural energy form can be gathered directly from the environment or
extracted from ordinary electricity by the method called fractionation. One of
the earliest wireless telephones to be based on radiant energy was invented
by Nikola Tesla. The device used transmitters and receivers whose
resonances were tuned to the same frequency, allowing communication
between them. In 1916, he recounted an experiment he had done in 1896. He
recalled that Whenever I received the effects of a transmitter, one of the
simplest ways [to detect the wireless transmissions] was to apply a magnetic
field to currents generated in a conductor, and when I did so, the low
frequency gave audible notes.
4
Geothermal Power

Geothermal energy is a very powerful and efficient way to extract a renewable
energy from the earth through natural processes. This can be performed on a
small scale to provide heat for a residential unit (a geothermal heat pump), or
on a very large scale for energy production through a geothermal power plant.
It has been used for space heating and bathing since ancient roman times,
but is now better known for generating electricity. Geothermal power is cost
effective, reliable, and environmentally friendly, but has previously been
geographically limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent
technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of
viable resources, especially for direct applications such as home heating. The
largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The
Geysers, a geothermal field in California, United States. As of 2004, five
countries (El Salvador, Kenya, the Philippines, Iceland, and Costa Rica)
generate more than 15% of their electricity from geothermal sources.
Geothermal power requires no fuel, and is therefore immune to fluctuations in
fuel cost, but capital costs tend to be high. Drilling accounts for most of the
costs of electrical plants, and exploration of deep resources entails very high
financial risks. Geothermal power offers a degree of scalability: a large
geothermal plant can power entire cities while smaller power plants can
supply rural villages or heat individual homes. Geothermal electricity is
generated in 24 countries around the world and a number of potential sites
are being developed or evaluated.
3
Biomass

Biomass, as a renewable energy source, refers to living and recently dead
biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production. In this
context, biomass refers to plant matter grown to generate electricity or
produce for example trash such as dead trees and branches, yard clippings
and wood chips biofuel, and it also includes plant or animal matter used for
production of fibers, chemicals or heat. Biomass may also include
biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. Industrial biomass can be
grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass,
hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, and a variety of tree species,
ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil). The particular plant used is
usually not important to the end products, but it does affect the processing of
the raw material. Production of biomass is a growing industry as interest in
sustainable fuel sources is growing. The existing commercial biomass power
generating industry in the United States produces about 0.5 percent of the
U.S. electricity supply. Currently, the New Hope Power Partnership is the
largest biomass power plant in North America. The facility reduces
dependence on oil by more than one million barrels per year, and by recycling
sugar cane and wood waste, preserves landfill space in urban communities in
Florida.
2
Compressed Natural Gas

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline, diesel,
or propane fuel. Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it
is a more environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much safer
than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is lighter than air, and
disperses quickly when released). CNG is used in traditional gasoline internal
combustion engine cars that have been converted into bi-fuel vehicles
(gasoline/CNG). Natural gas vehicles are increasingly used in Europe and
South America due to rising gasoline prices. In response to high fuel prices
and environmental concerns, CNG is starting to be used also in light-duty
passenger vehicles and pickup trucks, medium-duty delivery trucks, transit
and school buses, and trains. Italy currently has the largest number of CNG
vehicles in Europe and is the 4th country in the world for number of CNG-
powered vehicles in circulation. Canada is a large producer of natural gas, so
it follows that CNG is used in Canada as an economical motor fuel. Canadian
industry has developed CNG-fueled truck and bus engines, CNG-fueled
transit buses, and light trucks and taxis. Both CNG and propane refueling
stations are not difficult to find in major centers. During the 1970s and 1980s,
CNG was commonly used in New Zealand in the wake of the oil crises, but fell
into decline after petrol prices receded.
1
Nuclear Power

Nuclear power is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy
from atomic nuclei via controlled nuclear reactions. The only method in use
today is through nuclear fission, though other methods might one day include
nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. All utility-scale reactors heat water to
produce steam, which is then converted into mechanical work for the purpose
of generating electricity or propulsion. In 2007, 14% of the worlds electricity
came from nuclear power, with the U.S., France, and Japan together
accounting for 56.5% of nuclear generated electricity. There are 439 nuclear
power reactors in operation in the world, operating in 31 countries. According
to the World Nuclear Association, globally during the 1980s one new nuclear
reactor started up every 17 days on average, and by the year 2015 this rate
could increase to one every 5 days. According to a 2007 story broadcast on
60 Minutes, nuclear power gives France the cleanest air of any industrialized
country, and the cheapest electricity in all of Europe. France reprocesses its
nuclear waste to reduce its mass and make more energy. Reprocessing can
potentially recover up to 95% of the remaining uranium and plutonium in spent
nuclear fuel, putting it into new mixed oxide fuel. This produces a reduction in
long term radioactivity within the remaining waste, since this is largely short-
lived fission products, and reduces its volume by over 90%. France is
generally cited as the most successful reprocessor, but it presently only
recycles 28% (by mass) of the yearly fuel use, 7% within France and another
21% in Russia.
Proponents of nuclear energy contend that nuclear power is a sustainable
energy source that reduces carbon emissions and increases energy security
by decreasing dependence on foreign oil. Proponents also emphasize that the
risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest
technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the
Western World is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power
plants. Critics believe that nuclear power is a potentially dangerous energy
source, with decreasing proportion of nuclear energy in power production, and
dispute whether the risks can be reduced through new technology.
Proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air
pollution, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Proponents
also point out that nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve energy
independence for most Western countries. Critics point to the issue of storing
radioactive waste, the history of and continuing potential for radioactive
contamination by accident or sabotage, the history of and continuing
possibility of nuclear proliferation and the disadvantages of centralized
electricity production.
This article is licensed under the GFDL because it contains quotations from
Wikipedia.
JAMIE FRATER
Jamie is the founder of Listverse. He spends his time working on the site, doing research for new
lists, and cooking. He is fascinated with all things morbid and bizarre.
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Natural gas it is a fossil fuel but does not generate carbon dioxide, which happens to be the chief
greenhouse gas. Thus natural gas is a better option. It can be created by various organisms, and is also
found in areas which have fossil fuels.
Nuclear energy this is created though atoms. Either by merging or splitting atoms, energy is created.
Though it produces a large amount of power, it has certain hazards.
These are amongst the best natural energy resources, which helps to reduce electricity bills, and at the
same time, protects the environment.