Global Positioning System (GPS)

Introduction
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is currently the only fully functional Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS). Utilizing a constellation of at least 24 medium Earth orbit satellites
that transmit precise radio signals, the system enables a GPS receiver to determine its location,
speed and direction. Developed by the United States Department of Defense, it is officially
named NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning
System). GPS was originally intended for military applications, but in the 1980s, the government
made the system available for civilian use. GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in
the world, 24 hours a day. The satellite constellation is managed by the United States Air Force
50th Space Wing. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$750 million per year,
including the replacement of aging satellites, and research and development. Despite this fact,
GPS is free for civilian use as a public good.

The 24 satellites that make up the GPS space segment are orbiting the earth about 12,000 miles
above us. They are constantly moving, making two complete orbits in less than 24 hours. These
satellites are travelling at speeds of roughly 7,000 miles an hour.

GPS satellites are powered by solar energy. They have backup batteries onboard to keep them
running in the event of a solar eclipse, when there's no solar power. Small rocket boosters on
each satellite keep them flying in the correct path.

Working Mechanism
GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit signal information
to earth. GPS receivers take this information and use triangulation (a method of determining the
relative position of the objects by using the geometry of triangles) to calculate the user's exact
location. Essentially, the GPS receiver compares the time a signal was transmitted by a satellite
with the time it was received. The time difference tells the GPS receiver how far away the
satellite is. Now, with distance measurements from a few more satellites, the receiver can
determine the user's position and display it on the unit's electronic map.

A GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites to calculate a 2D
position (latitude and longitude) and track movement. With four or more satellites in view, the
receiver can determine the user's 3D position (latitude, longitude and altitude). Once the user's
position has been determined, the GPS unit can calculate other information, such as speed,
bearing, track, trip distance, distance to destination, sunrise and sunset time and more.

Applications

GPS has become a widely used aid to navigation worldwide, and a useful tool for map-making,
land surveying, commerce, and scientific uses. GPS also provides a precise time reference used
in many applications including scientific study of earthquakes, and synchronization of
telecommunications networks.

The uses and implications of the GPS system are yet to be fully realized, and new applications
are being found at an ever-increasing rate. Such diverse areas as natural resource management,
mineral exploration, transportation, fleet management, agriculture, shipping, utilities, disaster
mitigation, and public safety are all areas where GPS is rapidly becoming critically important.
GPS is even being used to test Einstein’s theory of relativity, as well as a tool to measure gravity
to previously unheard of levels of precision and accuracy.

GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS)

Introduction

GLONASS is a radio-based satellite navigation system, developed by the former Soviet Union
and now operated for the Russian government by the Russian Space Forces. It is an alternative
and complementary to the United States Global Positioning System (GPS).

Following are points about the GLONASS space segment:

➢ The geometry repeats about once every 8 days. The orbit period of each satellite is
approximately 8/17 of a sidereal day such that, after eight sidereal days, the GLONASS
satellites have completed exactly 17 orbital revolutions. A sidereal day is the rotation
period of the Earth relative to the equinox and is equal to one calendar day (the mean
solar day) minus approximately four minutes.
➢ Because each orbital plane contains eight equally spaced satellites, one of the satellites
will be at the same spot in the sky at the same sidereal time each day.
➢ The satellites are placed into nominally circular orbits with target inclinations of 64.8
degrees and an orbital height of about 19,140 km, which is about 1,050 km lower than
GPS satellites.
 ➢ Some of the GLONASS transmissions initially caused interference to radio astronomers
and mobile communication service providers. The Russians consequently agreed to
reduce the number of frequencies used by the satellites and to gradually change the L1
frequencies in the future to 1598.0625 – 1605.375 MHz. Eventually the system will only
use 12 primary frequency channels (plus two additional channels for testing purposes).
➢ The GLONASS satellite signal identifies the satellite and provides:
 position, velocity and acceleration vectors at a reference epoch to compute satellite
locations
 synchronization bits, data age and satellite health
 offset of GLONASS time from UTC (SU) (formerly Soviet Union and now Russia)
 almanacs of all other GLONASS satellites

Russia has committed itself to bringing the system up to the required minimum of 18 active
satellites by the end of 2007, and signed an agreement with India that provides for the launches
of GLONASS satellites on Indian launch vehicles. At the time of publication, April 2007, there
are 12 operational GLONASS satellites and one newly launched GLONASS satellite at its
commissioning phase. The Russian Government have set 2009 as the full deployment date of the
24-satellite constellation and ensured financial support to meet that date.

As of October 2009[update], the GLONASS system consists of 19 satellites, of which 16 are

operational, and 3 of which are undergoing maintenance. The system requires 18 satellites for
continuous navigation services covering the entire territory of the Russian Federation, and 24
satellites to provide services worldwide. The GLONASS system currently covers 100% of
Russian territory.

Following the December 2006 meeting in Moscow of the GPS-GLONASS Interoperability and
Compatibility Working Group (WG-1), an announcement appeared on both US and Russian
government websites stating both sides had made significant progress in understanding the
benefit to the user community of changing GLONASS to a signal pattern that is in common with
GPS and Galileo. A change in the GLONASS system from its current FDMA technique to the
GPS and Galileo's CDMA format would enable a simply-designed receiver to use both satellite
systems simultaneously.
GPS World reported that the group had met twice prior to then and that the working group would
likely make an announcement when they meet again in April 2007, during the International
Satellite Forum 2007 in Moscow. However no announcement was made.

The use of GLONASS in addition to GPS provides very significant advantages:

➢ increased satellite signal observations
➢ markedly increased spatial distribution of visible satellites
➢ reduced Horizontal and Vertical Dilution of Precision (DOP) factors
➢ decreased occupation times means faster RTK results

VHF Omni-directional Radio Range (VOR)

Introduction

VOR is a type of radio navigation system for aircraft. It is a short-range air navigation aid, which
provides azimuth aid by visual means of cockpit instruments. A VOR system provides properly
equipped aircraft with bearing information relative to the VOR station and magnetic north. The
VHF Omni directional Range navigation system, VOR, is probably the most significant aviation
invention other than the jet engine. With it, a pilot can simply, accurately, and without ambiguity
navigate from Point A to Point B.

The widespread introduction of VORs began in the early 1950s and 59 years later it remains the
primary navigation system in the overwhelming majority of aircraft. The GPS, Global
Positioning System, is making inroads onto the navigation scene and offers flexibility
unavailable with VOR systems. However, it is supplementing these systems, not replacing them.

The VOR's major advantage is that the radio signals provide hundreds of reliable lines (radials)
from the station which can be selected and followed by the pilot. A worldwide land-based
network of "air highways", known in the US as Victor airways (below 18,000 feet) and "jet
routes" (at and above 18,000 feet), was set up linking VORs. An aircraft could follow a specific
path from station to station by tuning the successive stations on the VOR receiver, and then
either following the desired course on a Radio Magnetic Indicator, or setting it on a Course
Deviation Indicator (CDI, shown below) or a Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI, a more
sophisticated version of the VOR indicator) and keeping a course pointer centered on the display.
Working Principle

VORs are assigned radio channels between 108.0 MHz (megahertz) and 117.95 MHz (with
50 kHz spacing); this is in the VHF (very high frequency) range.

The VOR uses the phase relationship between a reference-phase and a rotating-phase signal to
encode direction. The carrier signal is omni-directional and contains an amplitude modulated
(AM) station Morse code or voice identifier. The reference 30 Hz signal is frequency modulated
(FM) on a 9960 Hz sub-carrier. A second, amplitude modulated (AM) 30 Hz signal is derived
from the rotation of a directional antenna array 30 times per second. Although older antennas
were mechanically rotated, current installations scan electronically to achieve an equivalent
result with no moving parts. When the signal is received in the aircraft, the two 30 Hz signals are
detected and then compared to determine the phase angle between them. The phase angle is
equal to the direction from the station to the aircraft, in degrees from local magnetic north, and is
called the "radial."

This information is then fed to one of three common types of indicators:

1. The typical light-airplane VOR indicator is called an Omni-Bearing Indicator (OBI)[1] and
it is shown in the accompanying illustration. It consists of a knob to rotate an "Omni
Bearing Selector" (OBS), and the OBS scale around the outside of the instrument, used to
set the desired course. A "course deviation indicator" (CDI) is centered when the aircraft
is on the selected course, or gives left/right steering commands to return to the course. An
"ambiguity" (TO-FROM) indicator shows whether following the selected course would
take the aircraft to, or away from the station.

2. A Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) is considerably more expensive and complex than
a standard VOR indicator, but combines heading information with the navigation display
in a much more user-friendly format.

3. A Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) was developed previous to the HSI, and features a
course arrow superimposed on a rotating card which shows the aircraft's current heading
at the top of the dial. The "tail" of the course arrow points at the current radial from the
station, and the "head" of the arrow points at the reciprocal (180 degrees different) course
to the station.
In many cases the VOR stations have co-located DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) or
military TACAN (TACtical Air Navigation—the latter includes both the distance feature, DME,
and a separate TACAN azimuth feature that provides military pilots data similar to the civilian
VOR). A co-located VOR and TACAN beacon is called a VORTAC. A VOR with co-located
DME only is called a VOR-DME. A VOR radial with DME distance allows a one-station
position fix. Both VOR-DMEs and TACANs share the same DME system.

Applications

The VOR system is used for landing, terminal, and en route guidance. It also gives virtually
static-free regular weather broadcasts, special flight instructions, and voice and code station
identification. The VOR service operates in the very high frequency (VHF) band between 108
and 118 MHz, sharing alternate channels with the localizer in the instrument landing system.