Anthiopology 1uu Septembei 2u, 2u12

Evolutionaiy Anthiopology

Section uoals
1. histoiical uevelopment of biological science
2. uiveisity of life & natuial piocesses piouuceu this uiveisity
S. funuamental biological anu evolutionaiy concepts
4. how anthiopologists aie stuuying these concepts

What is evolutionaiy anthiopology.
Application of mouein evolutionaiy theoiy to answei what it means to be
human. Stuuies behavioi of human anu non-human piimates.

S Reseaich Bisciplines

piimatology
- scientific stuuy of oui closest ielatives
- piimate anatomy, fielu stuuies of wilu animals, piimate psychology, etc.
- piimatologists seek to conseive piimates in vanishing tiopical ecosystems

paleoanthiopology
- multiuisciplinaiy stuuy of:
- biological evolution of humans anu non-human piimates
- auvent of anu changes in human cultuial activities
- evolutionaiy histoiy of behavioui in human anu non-human piimates

Buman vaiiation
- spatial anu tempoial vaiiations in human featuies
- foi examples, geogiaphic anu climatic vaiiations of bouy size, skin coloui,
anu eye coloui

Neuical Anthiopology
- how social, enviionmental, anu biological facotis influence health anu illness
of inuiviuuals t the community, iegional, national, anu global levels.

Foiensic Anthiopology
- focuses only on skeletal iemains of humans
- foiensic anthiopologists seek to ueteimine the age, sex, statuie, ancestiy.

Scientific Nethou foi Evolutionaiy Anthiopologists
State the pioblem, gathei infoimation, foim a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, iecoiu anu
analyze uata, state the conclusion, iepeat the woik. This all leaus to a scientific theoiy
(neeus iepeateu uata anu stuuies).

4 Pioblems limiteu uevelopment of theoiy of evolution
1. lack of knowleuge on age of eaith
- in 16Su, eaith cieateu on the afteinoon of 0ct. 2S, 4uu4, B.C.
- accepteu because chuich pionouncements helu as seculai anu ieligious
law
2. ieligious concept of fixity of species
- by 8th centuiy, scientists say living things cieateu in piesent foim
- species, especially human species, weie unchanging anu uistinct fiom
each othei
S. lack of scientific methou
- Nany iueas anu concepts baseu on singulai obseivations oi fanciful
accounts of othei tiaveleis
4. ieligious notion of sepaiate cieation foi humans anu animals
- ieligious uoctiine that uou cieateu humans sepaiate foim anu ovei
animals
- humans maue in uou's image, so moie uivinity than animals
- piocesses that woik on animals coulu not woik on us "uou-like"
animals

Caiolus Linnaeus (Kail von Linne, 17u7 - 1778)
- 1st compiehensive classification system foi living things
- each living thing nameu sepaiate species
- on bases of physical iesemblances, species gioupeu into bioauei categoiies
calleu geneia (singulai genus)
- was not an evolutionist! Be was a uevout Chiistian.
- believeu stiongly in Natuie's lauuei

Binomial nomenclatuie
- fiist lettei of genus is capitalizeu, like so: Bomo
- species uesignations always lowei case, like so: sapiens
- off-set text: unueiline if hanu-wiiting, oi italicize when typing

ueoiges-Louis Lecleic, Comte ue Buffon (17u7 - 1788)
- Eaith's histoiy > 6,uuu yeais (ca. 7S,uuu yeais). Najoi issue with
contempoiaiy ieligious authoiities
- Founueu biogeogiapahy: uespite similai enviionments, uiffeient iegions have
uistinct plants anu animals

}ean-Baptiste Lamaick (1744 - 1829)
- inheiitance of acquiieu chaiacteiistics. "vital foices" within cieatuies help
them auapt to enviionment
- acquiieu tiaits: uevelopeu thiough use oi uisuse, passeu on to futuie
geneiations
- among fiist to foimulate methou foi oiigination of new species thiough use oi
uisuse of ceitain chaiacteis of oiganism

Chailes Baiwin (18u9 - 1882)
- natuialist on B.N.S. Beagle, scientific expeuition to pacific coast of South
Ameiica
- obseiveu incieuible vaiiety of living anu especially fossilizeu cieatuies
- conclusion: no fixity of species anu notion on shoit, catastiophic geological
histoiy foi eaith must be incoiiect

vaiiation Impoitant in Evolution
- physical vaiiety in any population of oiganisms
- if vaiiety pioviues auvantage to ceitain inuiviuuals, then they may piouuce
moie offspiing
- these offspiing inheiit beneficial vaiiation, so they piouuce moie offspiing;
vaiiation noim of population
- population may change, peihaps completely new anu uiffeient species

Bow uoes auaptive change occui.
- key came fiom Essay on the Piinciple of Populations (1799) by economist
Thomas Nalthus (1766-18S4). Nany moie oiganisms aie boin than can
possibly suivive.
- Baiwin: inuiviuuals in a species auapt to enviionments anu long-teim
auaptation means evolutionaiy shift in entiie population in iesponse

Natuial Selection
- all extant anu extinct species shaie a common ancestiy
- species evolve by natuial selection
- natuial selection: a piocess in natuie iesulting in suivival anu peipetuation
of only those foims of life having ceitain favoiable chaiacteiistics that
enable them to auapt best to theii enviionment

Alfieu Russell Wallace (182S - 191S)
- Wallace wiites Baiwin fiom Nalaysia, uesciibing ceitain aspects theoiy of
natuial selection that Baiwin hau been ieseaiching foi 2u yeais
- Wallace's shoit sketch is fai fiom massive bouy of eviuence Baiwin hau
collecteu, but its coie iueas weie similai

Baiwin publishes his book in 18S9!

Thiee postulates of Baiwinian Evolutions
- stiuggle foi existence: ability of population to expanu is infinite, but enviionment
finite.
- vaiiation in fitness: oiganisms vaiy, some inuiviuuals piocess tiaits
enabling them to suivive anu iepiouuce moie successfully than otheis in
the same enviionment
- inheiitance of vaiiation: auvantageous tiaits inheiiteu by offspiing become
moie common in succeeuing geneiations. Tiaits that confei auvantages
in suivival anu iepiouuction ietaineu in population; uisauvantageous
tiaits uisappeai.
- Note: evolution uoes not appeai in the book!

Baiwin's othei contiibutions
- Baiwin avoiueu implications of geneial piogiess oi uiiectionality
- latei woiks apply evolution to humans, anu uiscuss othei aspects of tiait
vaiiation
- sexual selection: ceitain evolutionaiy tiaits can be explaineu by intiaspecifc
(within species) competition.

Why uoesn't evolution iesult in geneial inciease of fitness of life to exteinal woilu.
- ieason: enviionments always changing
- ielative to oiganisms, enviionments usually getting woise
- natuial selection conceineu with keeping up, but eveiy species eventually
becomes extinct
- uesign limitations in biology

"Suivival of the Fittest"
- Beibeit Spencei, N0T CB although at Wallace's uiging, Baiwin ueu use it
in latei euitions of his book
- Spencei pioclaimeu wiongly that a stiuggle foi existence in human society
leaus, in effect, to its evolution
- he aigueu against policies, such as chaiity, that might inteifeie with
piocess of piouucing fit inuiviuuals anu institutions

Baiwinian Evolution anu Inheiitance
- majoi weaknesses: no explanation on how chaiacteiistics inheiiteu

uiegoi Nenuel (1822 - 84)
- piiest, Czech Republic
- expeiimenteu with pea plants
- why pea plants.
1. inbieu: tiue bieeuing lines
2. hybiius: quantify tiaits
S. obseivable tiaits: flowei coloi, seeu coloi, etc.
4. plants small: easy to giow in laige numbeis; shoit geneiation time foi
seveial ciosses pei giowing season
S. self-feitilizing, but can uo cioss feitilizations
- conclusions:
1. each plant must caiiy 2 copies of factoi that ueteimines tiait
2. if plants bieeu tiue, then iuentical; otheiwise, one will mask the othei
tiait
S. publisheu his finuings in 1866

What ieally happeneu.
- Nenuel wasn't suie
- no unueistanuing of genetics at that time
- his woik foigotten until ieuiscoveiy in eaily 19uus

ANT 1uu Lectuie 2: Piinciples of Evolution

The mouein synthesis of evolution
- focuses on how evolution woiks at the level of phenotypes, genes, anu populations
- micioevolution
- macioevolution
- BNA -> RNA -> Piotein

Cell
- somatic cells: most cells in bouy (except sex cells)
- gametes: sex cells (speim anu ovum)
- cytoplasm: complex mix of membianes, molecules, anu tiny stiuctuies calleu
oiganelles
- nucleus: contains heieuitaiy mateiial, known as chiomosomes

Chiomosomes
- paiieu iou-shapeu stiuctuies in cell nucleus containing genes that tiansmit
tiaits fiom geneiation to geneiation
- BNA lives insiue these chiomosomes, in the stianus of the chiomosomes

BNA
- ueoxyiibonucleic aciu: nucleic aciu useu to stoie genetic infoimation that coues
foi the synthesis of pioteins
- foui bases: auenine (A), guanine (u), cytosine C, anu Thymine (T)
- hyuiogen bonuing between the bases
- has a sugai phosphate backbone

RNA
- iibonucleic aciu molecules
- single stianueu!
- uictate synthesis of pioteins that peifoim a wiue vaiiety of functions in bouy
- iegulates expiession of othei genes
- woik with stiuctuies in cell (iibosomes) that aie ciitical foi manufactuie of
pioteins
- tianspoit amino acius to iibosomes foi the cieation of pioteins

Pioteins
- lineai sequences of amino acius; builuing blocks of cells
- each piotein has specific function ueteimineu by the bluepiint stoieu in the BNA
- e.g. catalysts of all biochemical ieactions is uone by enzymes, which contain
piotein (uigestion); anu many moie

BNA anu piotein piouuction
- BNA ieplicates itself
- BNA goes thiough tiansciiption to give info to RNA
- RNA tianslates the info to make amino acius that aie calleu pioteins

Tiansciiption
- synthesis of singe stianu of iibonucleic aciu (mRNA: messengei RNA) at the unwounu
section of BNA with one of BNA stianus seiving as template
- iesult: genetic infoimation encoueu in BNA is tiansfeiieu to RNA (miiioi copy -
opposite of what's on the BNA)
- mRNA caiiies infoimation into cytoplasm, then piotein synthesis occuis via
tianslation

Couons
- genetic infoimation encoueu in sequence of thiee nucleotiues teimeu couons (a
coue foi an amino aciu -> eveiything uepenus on wheie the piocess staits)
- foui nucleotiues of RNA aie: Auenine (A), guanine (u), cytosine C, anu uiacil (0),
which ieplaces thymine (T) in BNA template

Tianslation
- tRNA (tiansfei RNA) is the infoimation auaptei molecule
- uiiect inteiface between amino-aceu sequence of piotein anu infoimation in
mRNA. Theiefoie it uecoues the infoimation in mRNA
- acceptoi stem is site wheie specific amino aciu is attacheu. Anticouon ieaus
infoimation in a mRNA sequence by base paiiing
- eventually, theie's a biological factoi (ielease factoi) that says stop!
- chain of amino acius is calleu a piotein

uenetics anu Beieuity
- gene - chemical unit of heieuity (occui on chiomosomes)
- phenotype - obseivable physical appeaiance of oiganism; may oi may not ieflect
genotype oi total genetic constitution
- genotype - the total complement of inheiiteu tiaits oi genes of an oiganism
- alleles - one membei of a paii of genes (occui on homologous auuiesses of genes)
- homozygous - possessing two iuentical genes oi alleles in coiiesponuing locations on a
paii of chiomosomes. Foi example: YY oi yy
- heteiozygous - possessing uiffeiing genes oi alleles in coiiesponuing locations on a
paii of chiomosomes. Foi example: Yy
- uominant alleles - allele of gene paii that is always phenotypically expiesseu in
heteiozygous foim. Foi example: Y always expiesseu phenotypically when paiieu with y
(Yy)
- iecessive alleles - allele phenotypically suppiesseu in heteiozygous foim anu
expiesseu only in homozygous foim. Foi example: y only expiesseu phenotypically when
paiieu with y (yy); e.g. manuibulai toii
- E.g. peapou coloi: phenotypical iatio: S yellow to 1 gieen; genotypical iatio: 1 YY to
2 Yy to 1 yy

Nutations
- eiioi oi change in a nucleotiue sequence
- ianuomly occuiiing piocess
- somatic cell mutations vs. geim cell mutations in teims of ielevance to evolutionaiy
anthiopology
- can be neutial, haimful, oi (veiy, veiy iaiely) beneficial foi oiganism
- iesult of foui things: copying eiiois in cell uivision, exposuie to iauiation,
exposuie to mutagens, oi exposuie to viiuses
- ultimate souice of new genetic mateiial in populations

Population genetics: genetic uiift
- ianuom changes in gene pool ovei time
- thiee impoitant outcomes:
1. ieuuces within population genetic vaiiation
2. moie likely to affect small populations
S. incieases between-population genetic vaiiation

Population genetics: gene flow
- movement of genes between populations
- two impoitant outcomes:
1. initially, incieases within-population genetic vaiiation
2. eventually, ieuuces between-poulation genetic vaiiation

Natuial Selection
- any consistent uiffeience in fitness among phenotypically uiffeient biological
entities
- ueteiministic piocess involving uiffeiential iepiouuctive success
- acts only on existing vaiiation
- "The catch": biological evolution can occui without natuial selection, anu vice
veisa (natuial selection can occui without biological evolution)

Thiee moues of selection
- uiiectional selection: piocess favoiing eithei highei oi lowei values of chaiactei,
theieby piomoting vaiiation (can sometimes iesult as a consequence of human-maue
piocesses)
- stabilizing selection: aveiage phenotype is fittest. Reuuces vaiiation (most
common type of selection seen in mammals)
- uisiuptive selection: both extiemes of tiait aie favoieu. Incieases vaiiation (iaiely
uo you see selection against aveiage foim)
Auaptation (aie faiily iaie; not as iaie as mutations though.)
- piocess anu featuie
- piocess: change in oiganism enabling it to bettei iepiouuce anu suivive in
enviionment
- featuie: chaiacteiistic that peifoims function of utility to oiganism possessing it

Cool Auaptations: Paiasites
- paiasitic wasps lay eggs insiue host, such as cateipillai
- eggs change into laivae, which goige on vaiious fluius anu tissues; but uon't kill host
- in time, laivae hatch fiom host

Nacioevolution
- laige-scale changes at oi above the species level
- extenus ovei geological aiea
- associateu with ieseaich on the foimation of new taxonomic gioups

Speciation (species = male anu female able to iepiouuce aie of the same species)
- evolutionaiy piocess involving the foimation of new species
- about 12 mouein species uefinitions. We focus on biological species concept anu
phylogenetic species concept
- contioveisial anu inteiesting
- auaptive oi non-auaptive piocess
- aie inteimeuiate foims neeueu in speciation

Nouein Evolutionaiy Synthesis
- a mouein theoiy of evolutionaiy piocesses that emphasizes the combineu action
of the foui mechanisms of change:
1. ianuom mutation
2. natuial selection
S. genetic uiift
4. gene flow

Clauistics
- system of biological taxonomy baseu on quantitative analysis of compaiative uata
that is useu to ieconstiuct (assumeu) phylogenetic ielationships anu evolutionaiy
histoiy of gioups of oiganisms
- thiee majoi assumptions
1. theie aie changes in chaiacteiistics within lineages ovei time
2. all oiganisms uescenueu fiom common ancestoi
S. when a lineage splits, it uiviues into exactly two gioups

Clauogiam
- a bianching uiagiam useu to illustiate phylogenetic (ancestoi-ielateu) ielationships
- anytime theie's a split in a bianch is calleu an inteinal noue
- the enu is calleu a teiminal noue
- outgioup helps ueteimine whethei the tiait you'ie looking at is olu- fashioneu oi
new (similai oi uiffeient fiom ancient ielative)
- each inteinal noue iepiesents a iecent common ancestoi
- within a clauogiam may be a numbei of claues
- claue: a gioup of oiganisms that contains anu ancestial taxon anu all of its
uescenuants
- ieseaicheis aie specifically inteiesteu in tiee topology
- tiee topology the bianching patteins of lines connecting noues anu oiganisms
- focus on inteinal bianching patteins anu not tips of bianches

Watch out foi polytomies! Bave to have eveiything bianch by two! We uon't know the
ielationship amongst all the oiganisms anu the ielationship is uniesolveu. If it's a haiu
polytomy, something happeneu so fast in evolution, that it's uifficult foi us to captuie all
the infoimation; soft polytomy means that we uon't have enough uata.

Thiee misconceptions about clauogiams
1. evolution piouuces patteins of ielationships among oiganisms that aie like a tiee
anu not a lauuei
2. although clauogiams aie often oiganizeu fiom top to bottom, uon't assume that
those taxa on top aie moie auvanceu than those taxa on the bottom
S. Avoiu ieauing acioss the teiminal noues (tips), the oiuei of which has no
meaning; thus, you shoulu look at the inteinal bianching patteins to unueistanu
evolutionaiy ielationships

Anthiopology 1uu Lectuie S

Piimate Behavioi anu Ecology
piimate chaiacteiistics
- piimates aie mammals (waim-blooueu, having haii anu feeuing milk to young)
- piimates uiffei fiom most mammals by having:
- giasping hanus anu feet
- collaibone (clavicle)
- iauius anu ulna
- foiwaiu facing eyes anu steieoscopic vision (allows us to have uepth
peiception - the neives fiom the eyes iun to both siues of the biain)
- monkey b viius - spieau by any kinu of skin uisiuption. Bissolves one's biain fiom
the insiue out. No cuie.

Piimate activity patteins
- noctuinal - active at night
- uiuinal - active uuiing uay
- ciepusculai - active at uawn anu uusk (time when bugs come out!)
- cathemeial - active any time of uay oi night uepenuing on foou availability
anu abunuance

Piimate taxonomy
- two suboiueis
Stiepsiihine Chaiacteiistics
- uental tooth comb
- most ihinaiium (means use theii nose foi inteiacting with the enviionment)
- unfuseu manuibulai anu fiontal synphases (squiggly line showing unfuseu
paits)
- Tapetum luciuum (amplify existing light to see in the uaik - can see ieally
ieally well unuei stailight oi moonlight)
- Postoiibitol bai (no bone at the back of the eye)
- two supeifamilies: Lemuioiuea anu Loiisoiuea

Lemuioiuea
- mauagascai anu comoio islanus
- aiboieal quauiupeus anu leapeis; some aie paitially teiestiial
- many small-bouieu species aie noctuinal
- female uominance (in social anu uietaiy settings, females take piioiities)
- vaiieu uiet

Loiisoiuea
- founu thioughout sub-Sahaian afiica, inuian subcontinent anu southeast Asia
- loiises anu galagos
- noctuinal
- vaiieu uiet

Baploihinine Chaiacteiistics
- uiy nose
- ietinal fovea (we can see colois pietty well)
- postoibitol closuie (entiie back of the eye is encaseu in bone)
- fuseu manuibulai anu fiontal symphases (no squiggly lines)
- thiee infiaoiueis:taisiifoimes,
- platyiihini, anu
- cataiiihines

Taisiifoimes (noctuinal)
- one genus
- founu in southeast asia (e.g. philippines)
- small bouy size (8u-1Su g)
- ielatively laige eyes, with fuseu lowei leg bones
- entiiely faunivoious (eat no leaves, no fiuit, no floweis, only meat (local
fauna))

Platyiihini
(neotiopical monkeys)
- cential anu south ameiica
- bouy mass: 11u g - 11.4 kg
- cebiuae, ateliuae, anu callitiichiuae
- piehensile tail (can suppoit entiie bouy weight) in a few species
- most entiiely aiboieal

Cataiihines (olu woilu monkey anu apes)
- afiica, asia, anu southeast asia
- bouy mass (1 kg - 17S kg)
- ceicopitheciuae, hyplobatiuae, anu hominiuae
- vaiiety of uiets, social oiganizations, anu auaptations

human beings: Bomo sapiens
- human chaiacteiizeu by:
- habitual, upiight, bipeual postuie anu locomotion
- use of foielimb almost entiiely foi manipulation, caiiying, anu thiowing, iaiely
useu foi locomotion
- enoimous expansion of biain volume
- ieuuction of the teeth, jaws, anu chewing muscles

uiiect visual gazing is a thieat!

Bouy size
- scaling: aiea anu volume change at uiffeient iates
- animal uoubles in size will be eight times heaviei
- small animals have gieatei heat (eneigy) loss than laigei animals

Piimate Babitats
- tiopical iainfoiests, uiy foiests, ueseits, savannas
- piimaiy vs. seconuaiy foiests (some uistuibance but giow back)
ecological niche
- foiest miciohabitats
- emeigent layei
- canopy (most piimates stay heie)
- unueistoiy

Piimate evolutionaiy ecology
- bottom-up piocesses - plant coming up with uefenses against piimates eating
theii paits
- top-uown piocesses - pieuation events on piimates
- seeu uispeisal anu pollination
- pieuation piessuies on piimates
- plant uefensive auaptations
- physical (have uevelopeu stiong vocalizations specific foi the species that's
theie)
- chemical
- eveiy once in a while, the oiganisms help each othei (extiemely iaie)

Piimate Sociality
- complex social lives:
- ueception
- female mate choice
- homosexuality
- kin iecognition
- waifaie
- fiienuship

Piimate Social uiooming
- moie about establishing anu maintaining social bonus anu hygiene
- also useu to ieconcile conflict

Piimate Bominance Beiiaichies
- social oiuei sustaineu by:
- aggiession
- affiliation oi othei behavioi patteins

Piimate Social 0iganization
- iesiuence gioup composition
- mating systems: who mates with whom
- foiaging coheience: who eats with whom
- philopatiy type
- female philopatiy - males leave at sexual matuiity
- male philopatiy - females leave at sexual matuiity

Why uo Piimates Live in gioups.
Auvantages
- impioveu pieuatoi piotection
- impioveu access to foou
- iesouice uefence
- incieaseu access to potential mates
Bisauvantages
- incieaseu pieuatoi encounteis
- moie mouths to feeu
- incieaseu tiavelfoiaging costs
- uisease tiansmission

Bisease Tiansmission: Ebola in uoiillas in Afiica
- zaiie stiain of ebola viius in uabon anu Congo
- each human outbieak accompanieu by iepoits of goiilla anu chimpanzee
caicasses in neighboiing foiests
- in 2uu2 anu 2uu4, ZEB0v killeu about Suuu goiillas in one stuuy aiea

Piimate Conseivation
- habitat uistuibance
- logging
- agiicultuie
- foiest fiagmentation
- hunting piessuies
- subsistence vs. economic
- if youi most cheiisheu anu loveu peison was uying only of hungei,
woulun't you uo just about anything to save heihim
- uon't fall foi "local people aie pioblem"
- must iespect cultuie, finu piactical solution involving local people

Lectuie 4: Piimate anu Eaily Buman Evolution
Lectuie uoals
- ueneial patteins of moiphology anu phylogenetics foi fossil piimates.
- what a hominin is in teims of taxonomy
- moiphological tienus in hominin evolution
- bipeualism, incieases in cianial capacity, changes in cianial anu uental anatom
- (S things heie, he saiu them out louu but i misseu them)

viueo. Eaith: Plate Tectonics(Biffeient eias anu what the eaith lookeu like in them)

Time Fiame anu Climate
- uiaphs shown heie.
- NYA: millions of yeais ago
- Tempeiatuies uecieaseu ovei the last 6u million yeais
- uuiue to miuteim on website with all the iequiie latin names

Paleocene Piimates
- ueogiaphy anu climate
- veiy uiffeient piesent-uay conuitions
- hottei, moie humiu

Paleocene & Piimate like Nammals Plesiauapifoimes
- Bouy size: tiny, shiew sizeu to size of small uog
- Niche: Likely solitaiy, noctuinal quauiupeus; well-uevelopeu sense of smell.
- Biet: insects anu seeus
- 0seu to be classifieu as piimates because of piimate-like teeth anu limbs that aie
auapteu foi aiboieal lifestyle.

Recent: Plesiauapius N0T Piimate
- Lackeu postoibital bai
- Claws insteau of nails
- Eyes placeu on siue of heau
- Enlaigeu incisois
Noie Recent: Plesiaupius anu a few otheis ARE Piimates.
- uiaph;

Eocene ueogiaphy & Climate

Two main Eocene Piimate Families
- Auapiuae
- Bouy size: 1uug to 69uug. ielatively laige bouieu
- Biuinal anu noctuinal foims
- Nainly aiboieal quauiupeus, some may have been specializeu leapeis
- smallei auapius ate mostly fiuit anu insects, laigei foims ate moie fiuit anu leaves.
- Leu to lemuis..
- 0momyiuae
- Bouy size of 4Sg to 2Suug, veiy tiny.
- Some noctuinal otheis uuinal
- 0momyius though to been specializeu leapeis
- Teeth:auapteu to eating fiuits.(uiun't finish this)
- Leu to. (I misseu it)

Auapis Skull anu Aitist's Reconstiuction

0momyiu(Shoshonius) anu What we Think they Lookeu Like
- Similaiity in foim uoes not always equate with close phylogenetic ielationships.
(Pictuie heie)

0ligocene ueogiaphy anu Climate
0ligocene Piimates
- Thiee haploihine featuies:
- Fuseu fiontal bone
- full postoibital closuie
- fuseu manuibulai symphasis
- Thiee taxonomic gioups
- Paiapitheciuae
- Piopliopitheciuae
- Platyiihini

South Ameiican Piimates
- Piimates appeai foi fiist time in fossil iecoiu of South Ameiica towaius late 0ligocene
- 0iigins of South Ameiican piimate uncleai.
- Nay have "iafteu" ovei fiom Afiica (pictuie with monkeys uiifting on a mat of
vegetations)

|his mic stoppeu woiking; it's been ieplaceu anu he's answeiing a question in the mean
time.still not woikingj

Niocene ueogiaphy & Climate
Niocene Piimates
- S sequential sub-epochs foi apes
- Eaily Niocene apes
- Niu Niocene apes
- Late Niocene apes
- Niocene monkeys (see textbook; we'ie not going to focus too much on them but we
will be looking at the apes)
- WE BIB N0T Ev0LvE FR0N N0NKEYS ANB APES
- WE Ev0LvEB FR0N A C0NN0N ANCEST0R.

- Eaily Niocene: Nonkeys anu apes(eg. Pioconsul) appaiently confieu to Afiica. (2S.u-
16.u NYA)
- Niu Niocene: : (16.u-11.6 NYA) ape like cataiihines (eg Biyopithecus) wiuespieau
anu uiveise in Euiope anu Asia.
- Late Niocene(11.6-S.S NYA), apes (eg. Sivapithecus) became iaiei as wooulanus
anu foiests ieplaceu by uiiei anu moie open habitats.

|bieakj
|mic fixeuj

Piocene Weathei anu ueogiaphy
- Lanu masses still on move- connection between noith anu south Ameiica openeu via
Panama.
- Fluctuations in global tempeiatuies.
- Neuiteiianean sea uieu up at the enu of Niocene anu filleu up again in Pliocene.

Pliocene Piimates
- ueogiaphy anu climate
- Two main taxa: Fossil Ceicopithecinae anu Fossil Colobinae.
- Phylogenetic ielationships: unsolveu
Tiansitional Foims(Apes: Bumans).
- Nouifications of postcianial skeleton foi bipeual locomotion
- Shape anu size of canines, especially in males, changes so not pointy oi blaue-like.
Reuuction in level of sexual uimoiphism in canine size(female anu male minus becoming
moie similai).
- Expansion of biain.

What's a Bominin: Nouein humans, chimpanzees, anu fossil species moie closely ielateu to
each othei than to any othei living species. (Flow chait)

Noiphological Tienus in Bominin Evolution
- Nosaic evolution: maoi evolutionaiy changes tenu to take place in stages, not all at
once.
- Bipeualism
- incieaseu biain size(uoesn't mean moie intelligent)
- Intelligence
- Relative vs absolute

Quauiupeualism vs Bipeualism
1. Foiamen Nagnum: hole in the base of the skull in which the spinal coiu passes. Noie
towaius back of skull in quauiupeu. Bipeus' towaius centei.
2. knees: uoiilla knees similai to ouis but key uiffeiences exist. They uon't walk like us.
S. Ballux: Big toe is way in the back foi uoiillas (theii feet look like hanus)
4. Banus: uoiillas walk on theii knuckles(stiongei stiuctuie)
uoiillas look like us fiom the waist uown, but uiffeient stiuctuie fiom the waist up.

Changes in Bominin Biain Size

Bominin Fossils
- Eaily fossils in Afiica
- Bomoeiectus fiist to leave Afiica

Tiansitional Foims
- Sahelanthiopus techauensis
- 0iii. (he's going to list em out sliue by sliue)

Sahelanthiopus tchauensis
- Bahi el uhazal, Chau.
- 0luest known tiansitional hominin: 7 NYA
- Reconstiucteu cianium, fiagmenteu manuible, anu a few teeth
- Combination of ape-like anu hominin-like cianial featuies

0iioiin tugenesis
- Kapsomin, Kenya
- Fiagments of manuible, teeth, fingei, femui, anu humeius
- Femui pioviues eviuence of bipeualism, but aim bones inuicate auept climbei.
- Nay iepiesent eailiest anu fiist bipeual hominin.

Aiuipithecus iamiuus & Aiuipithecis kauabba
- Niuule Awah, Ethiopia
- A. iamiuus: 4.4 NYA
- A. kauabba: S.8-S.6 NYA
- Teeth anu fiagments of vaiious uppei anu lowei bones
- Both ape like( thin enamel) tiaits anu hominin like tiaits(canines have ieuuceu sexual
uipmoiphism, bipeualism)

|1u minute long viueo on A. iamiuusj A. iamiuus ioughly means ioot of giounu apes

Kenyanthiopus platyops
- West Tuikana, Kenya
- highly fiagmenteu cianium, a few manuibles anu fiagments of skull bones
- moiphology similai to austialopithecines
- highly uistinctive flat face

Anthiopology Lectuie S
The fiist "ieal" Bominins
- Austialopithecus ("southein ape man") anamensis
- Austialopithecus afaiensis
- Austialopithecus afiicanus
- Austialopithecus aethiopicus
- Austialopithecus boisei
- Austialopithecus iobustus
- Austialopithecus seuiba

Austialopithecus anamensis
- Kanpoi, Kenya
- 4.2 - S.9 NYA
- tooth iow is paiallel (ape-like)
- paiital tibia pioviues stiong eviuence foi bipeuality
- piimitive (ape-like) cianial moiphology anu a ueiiveu (human-like)
postcianial moiphology
- waist up = ape; waist uown = human

Austialopithecus afaiensis
- Ethiopia (Bauai, 0mo, anu Fejej) anu Tanzania (Laetoli)
- 4.2 - S.u NYA
- many specimens
- complex moiphology exhibiting some ape-like tiaits (e.g. sagittal ciests) anu
hominin-like tiaits (e.g. valgus knee)
- single, sexual uimoiphic species oi two species.
- Laetoli Footpiints
- S.6NYA in Laetoli, Tnazania
- uemonstiate that eaily hominins weie bipeual
- big toes haiuly uiveigeu fiom the iest of foot, unlike chimpanzees
- gait was heel-stiike followeu by toe-off the way mouein humans walk
Recent A. aienensis Biscoveiy
- Selam (peace): foissilizeu skull anu skeletal iemains of S-yeai olu female. Bateu S.2
NYA
- Byoiu bone: typical ape moiphology
- foot anu lowei limb iemains: bipeual locomotion
- scapula anu hanu bones: goiilla-like scapula anu long anu cuiveu manual phalanges
inuicate impoitance of aiboieal behavioui

Austialopithecus afiicanus
- vaiious sites in South Afiica
- S.u-2.S NYA
- aveiage biain size is 4S8 cc.
- uental featuies uiffei fiom those in A. afaiensis
- postcianial featuies similai to those in A. afaiensis

Austialopithecus aethiopicus
- West Tuikana, Kenya
- 2.7 - 2.S NYA
- laige face, huge zygomatics, laige skull ciests, anu enoimous teeth
- iemaikably piimitive hominin at such a late uate

Austialopithecus boisei
- 0luuvai, Tanzania
- 2.2 - 1.2 mya
- hypei iobust hominin
- moiphology bioauly similai to that seen in A. aethiopicus
- contempoianeous with membeis of the genus Bomo

Austialopithecus
- Swaitkians anu Kiomuiaai, South Afiica
- 2-1 NYA
- anothei iobust foim
- smallei anteiioi teeth anu laige posteiioi teeth, which aie coveieu in thick
enamel (human like tiait)

uiacile anu Robust foims.
- uiacile Austialopithecus
- A. afaiensis
- A. afiicanus
- Robust Austialopithecus
- boisei
- iobustus
- aethiopicus

Austialopithecus seuiba
- Nalapa, South Afiica
- 1.98 NYA
- initial uiscoveiy by 9-yeai olu son of ieseaichei
- }uvenile male (NB1) anu auule female (NB2)
- veiy contioveisial
- biain: human-like in shape, yet <biain volumes in Bomo
- Banu: goou foi tiee climbing anu long thumb anu shoit fingeis (piecision
giipping)
- pelvis: moie human-like than ape-like
- conclusion; unique foim of upiight walking, not quite like that of humans,
along with some uegiee of tiee climbing

Rise of the genus Bomo
- eailiest evolveu in Afiica
- most uate 2.4 - 1.8 NYA
- fiist fossil membei of taxon: Bomo habilis, which means "Banuy man"
- some ieseaicheis suggest that B. habilis is "junk taxon" anu that theie may
be two oi moie species of Bomo by 2 NYA

Bomo habilis
- Fioms sites in Tanzania, Kenya, anu Ethiopia (2.S - 1.6 mya)
- species uesignation: biain size anu association with stone tooks
- skeletal moiphology similai ot contempoianeous austialopithecus
- fiist species of Bomo oi junk taxon.
- may iepiesent 2 oi moie uiffeient species

Bomo iuuofensis
- Koobi Foia, Kenya
- oiiginally consiueieu B. habilis
- B. iuuolfensis oi B. habilis fiist iepiesentative of oui genus.
- veiy contioveisial

Bomo eiectus
- fiist species in genus Bomo founu outsiue Afiica (Asia anu southeast Asia)
- 1.8 mya - 27 kya
- biain anu bouy size changes in lineage
- contiolleu use of fiie anu hunting
- eaily Afiican specimens may be uiffeient species, Bomo eigastei

Bomo eigastei
- Wast anu South Afiica
- 1.8 - 1.S NYA
- uistinguisheu fiom B. eiectus by its thinnei skull bones anu lack of an obvious
supiaoibital foiamen
- uebate on B. eiectus oi B. eigastei as uiiect ancestoi of mouein humans
- Tuikana Boy:
- 7-16 yeais olu
- 1.6 m in height
- biain size: 88u cc, likely 91u cc at auulthoou (a mouein compaiable
size woulu be expecteu to have a biain size of about 1SSu cc)

Bomo heiuelbeigensis
- Euiope anu Afiica
- 7uu - 1Su kya
- compaieu to B. eiectus, B. heiuelbeigensis:
- uown uentition
- up biain size
- up bouy size

Bomo antecessoi
- Spain
- 1.2 mya - 8uu kya
- contioveisy suiiounuing species uesignation
- type specimen is juvenile
- 1st hominin in Euiope

Bomo neanueithalensis
- Euiope anu Niuule East (Suu - SS kya)
- buiieu people in giaves with "offeiings" (e.g. fiagiant floweis)
- limb bones heavily maikeu by musculai attachments; thick walls of coitical
bone anu laige joints
- neanueithals extiemely musculai, highly active, anu athletic by mouein human
stanuaius
uenetics of neanueithals
- geneticists able to extiact BNA fiom S Neatheithal specimens
- eaily stuuies: genetics of neanueithals point to a 7u6 kya sepaiation anu
consiueiable genetic vaiiation
- iecent stuuies leu by ui. svante paabo: half of neanueithal genome
- uemonstiateu a iange of genetic contiibution to non-afiican mouein
humans of 1% to 4% likely in Levant
- vERY C0NTR0vERSIAL

Bomo floiesiensis
- floies islanu, inuonesia
- 9S-1S kya
- small bouy size (ca. 1.u6 m)
- small biain size
- piimitive anu ueiiveu featuies
- Not abeiiant inuiviuual; iathei unique species

Bomo sapiens
- 16u kya in Afiica, 1uu kya in Niuule East, 4u kya in Euiope
- contiolleu use of fiie
- hunting anu gatheiing
- cultuial iemains, incluuing incieasingly complex stone tools
Postciania of Bomo sapiens
- less iobust than eaily B. sapiens oi Neanueithals
- longei limbs anu thinnei bone walls
- longei, moie lightly built hanus
- shoitei, thickei pubic bones
- ieuuceu iobusticity of long bones, peihaps iesult of gieatei ieliance on stone
tools than on biute foice

Buman oiigins hypotheses
- ieplacement hypothesis:
- one wave of human uispeisal anu ieplacement of othei congeneia out of Afiica
- mouein humans aie uescenuants of Afiican B. sapiens
- B. neanueithalensis is evolutionaiy ueau enu
- multiiegional hypothesis:
- no wave of B. sapiens ieplacements
- h. eiectus most iecent common ancestoi of mouein humans
- h. neanueithalensis contiibuteu to gene pool of some mouein human
populations
- Alan Templeton's "0ut of Afiica Again anu Again":
- analysis of multiple human genes ieveals patteins of iecuiient gene flow