CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING THEORY

Introduction
The latest catchword in educational circles is "constructivism, " applied both to learning theory
and its essence to Guidance profession---both to how people learn, and to the nature of
knowledge. We don't need to succumb to each new fad, but we do need to think about our work in
relation to theories of learning and knowledge. So we need to ask: what is constructivism, what does
it have to tell us that is new and relevant, and how do we apply it to our work as Guidance
Counselors? I would like to give a brief exposition of ideas central to constructivism and widely
accepted today by educators and psychologists.

Constructivism
What is meant by constructivism? The term refers to the idea that learners construct
knowledge for themselves---each learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning---as he or she
learns. Constructing meaning is learning; there is no other kind.

CONSTRUCTIVISM
- is a theory of knowledge (epistemology) that argues that humans generate knowledge and
meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas. During infancy, it was
an interaction between human experiences and their reflexes or behavior-patterns. Jean
Piaget called these systems of knowledge schemata. Piaget's theory of constructivist learning
has had wide ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods in education and is an
underlying theme of many education reform movements. Research support for constructivist
teaching techniques has been mixed, with some research supporting these techniques and
other research contradicting those results.

Formalization of the theory of constructivism is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, who articulated
mechanisms by which knowledge is internalized by learners. He suggested that through processes
of accommodation and assimilation, individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.
When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new experience into an already existing framework
without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals' experiences are aligned with their
internal representations of the world, but may also occur as a failure to change a faulty
understanding; for example, they may not notice events, may misunderstand input from others, or
may decide that an event is a fluke and is therefore unimportant as information about the world. In
contrast, when individuals' experiences contradict their internal representations, they may change
their perceptions of the experiences to fit their internal representations.
According to the theory, accommodation is the process of reframing one's mental representation of
the external world to fit new experiences. Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by
which failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way
and it violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and
reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others'
failure.
It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy. In fact, constructivism is a
theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether learners are using their experiences
to understand a lecture or following the instructions for building a model airplane. In both cases, the
theory of constructivism suggests that learners construct knowledge out of their experiences.
However, constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote active learning,
or learning by doing. There are many critics of "learning by doing" (a.k.a. "discovery learning") as an
instructional strategy (e.g. see the criticisms below). While there is much enthusiasm for
constructivism as a design strategy, according to Tobias and Duffy "... to us it would appear that
constructivism remains more of a philosophical framework than a theory that either allows us to
precisely describe instruction or prescribe design strategies.(p.4)". This is unfortunate because there
is quite a bit of promise to the educational philosophy behind constructivism, but constructivists seem
to be having difficulties defining testable learning theories.





Constructivist learning intervention

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

What are some guiding principles of constructivist thinking that we must keep in mind when we
consider our role as educators and guidance counselors? I will outline a few ideas, all predicated on
the belief that learning consists of individuals' constructed meanings and then indicate how they
influence . . . . .

1. Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out
of it. The more traditional formulation of this idea involves the terminology of the active learner
stressing that the learner needs to do something; that learning is not the passive acceptance of
knowledge which exists "out there" but that learning involves the learner s engaging with the
world. Meaning. . . . . . . .this involves activities that would make the client explore the world to
learn new things that might help him overcome his miseries, like for example going outside,
trying new things, meeting other people, be busy, etc. by these active activities the client will
be able to have a positive outlook in life.

The responsibility for learning
Furthermore, it is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the learner
(Glasersfeld, 1989). Social constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the learner being
actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the
responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played apassive, receptive
role. Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasized that learners construct their own understanding and that
they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find
regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information.

2. People learn to learn as they learn: learning consists both of constructing meaning and
constructing systems of meaning. For example, if we learn how to process ourselves and the group
during a series of dynamic activities, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of group process.
Each meaning we construct makes us better able to give meaning to other sensations which can fit a
similar pattern. Meaning. . . . . . . . networking. Comes from the belief that ides are interrelated to
each other. , from general input of ideas to the client she will be able to learn as well the
specific areas of this input. From an idea learned, the client will be able to accumulate other
ideas related to what he had gained.

3. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental: it happens in the mind. Physical actions,
hands-on experience may be necessary for learning, especially for children, but it is not sufficient; we
need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands
.
(Dewey called this reflective
activity.) Meaning. . . . . . . . both includes the passive and active type of learning techniques.
Wherein, people learn something when he tends to apply the ideas learned. And this
perspective, will provide the client a more effective type of coping up with the situation he was
in.
4. Learning involves language: the language we use influences learning. On the empirical level.
researchers have noted that people talk to themselves as they learn. On a more general level. there
is a collection of arguments, presented most forcefully by Vigotsky, that language and learning are
inextricably intertwined. This point should be emphasized during the counseling process.
Knowing what the client is opt to, for rapport purposes to make him comfortable with you.
This would lead to better and easier accumulation of information regarding the nature of the
clients problem.

5. Learning is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated with our connection with other
human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family as well as casual acquaintances, including the
people before us or next to us at the exhibit. We are more likely to be successful in our efforts to
educate and help the client in distress if we recognize this principle rather than try to avoid it. Much of
traditional education, is directed towards isolating the learner from all social interaction, and towards
seeing education as a one-on-one relationship between the learner and the objective material to be
learned. In contrast, progressive education recognizes the social aspect of learning and uses
conversation, interaction with others, and the application of knowledge as an integral aspect of
learning.

The nature of the learner
Social constructivism not only acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but
actually encourages, utilizes and rewards it as an integral part of the learning process (Wertsch
1997).

The importance of the background and culture of the learner

Social constructivism or socioculturalism encourages the learner to arrive at his or her version of the
truth, influenced by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview. Historical developments
and symbol systems, such as language, logic, and mathematical systems, are inherited by the learner
as a member of a particular culture and these are learned throughout the learner's life. Without the
social interaction, it is impossible to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and
learn how to utilize them. Young children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with
other children, adults and the physical world. From the social constructivist viewpoint, it is
thus important to take into account the background and culture of the learner throughout the
learning process, as this background also helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the
learner creates, discovers and attains in the learning process (Wertsch 1997).

6. Learning is contextual: we do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract ethereal land of
the mind separate from the rest of our lives: we learn in relationship to what else we know, what we
believe, our prejudices and our fears. On reflection, it becomes clear that this point is actually a
corollary of the idea that learning is active and social. We cannot divorce our learning from our lives.

7. One needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge without having some
structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more we can learn.
Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the learner, must provide a path into
the subject for the learner based on that learner's previous knowledge. From this perspective,
educators and guidance practitioners should know first the background of the learner or client
and every possible necessary information about him that we can use to relate the present
status of the person in order to have a clear understanding of the person and the problem at
stake. From this, the learner or the client will be able to understand as well what his nature
with regards to his present state.

8. It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For significant learning we need to revisit
ideas, ponder them try them out, play with them and use them. If you reflect on anything you have
learned, you soon realize that it is the product of repeated exposure and thought. Even, or especially,
moments of profound insight, can be traced back to longer periods of preparation. This is why
guidance is a continuous and lifelong process. It follows Thorndikes Law of Learning. . .
Because, the danger of what the past may give us in the near future (though treated) is always
there to bring the old times or to feel the exact feeling of that particular event happened in the
past.

9. Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the case that motivation helps learning, it is
essential for learning. This ideas of motivation as described here is broadly conceived to include an
understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used. Unless we know "the reasons why", we
may not be very involved in using the knowledge that may be instilled in us. The driving force, if
clients or learners have a very strong driving force in the situations they are in, they will be
able to cope up everything depending of the willingness and intensity of the motivation. If
guidance practitioners will be able to provide some sort of motivation to the client then it
follows that the client will be able to come with good outlook in life.

According to Von Glasersfeld (1989) sustaining motivation to learn is strongly dependent on
the learners confidence in his or her potential for learning. These feelings of competence and belief
in potential to solve new problems, are derived from first-hand experience of mastery of problems in
the past and are much more powerful than any external acknowledgment and motivation (Prawat and
Floden 1994). This links up with Vygotskys "zone of proximal development" (Vygotsky 1978) where
learners are challenged within close proximity. By experiencing the successful completion of
challenging tasks, learners gain confidence and motivation to embark on more complex challenges.
As guidance practitioners, we should be able to provide confidence for the client to continue
life despite and in spite of the current circumstances he is facing. From this view, the client
will be able to have a motivation in facing his problems rather than running.

The role of the instructor

Instructors as facilitators

According to the social constructivist approach, instructors have to adapt to the role of
facilitators and not teachers (Bauersfeld, 1995). Whereas a teacher gives a didactic lecture that
covers the subject matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his or her own understanding of the
content. In the former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter scenario the learner
plays an active role in the learning process. The emphasis thus turns away from the instructor and the
content, and towards the learner (Gamoran, Secada, & Marrett, 1998). This dramatic change of role
implies that a facilitator needs to display a totally different set of skills than a teacher (Brownstein
2001). A teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures from the front, a facilitator supports from
the back; a teacher gives answers according to a set curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and
creates the environment for the learner to arrive at his or her own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives
a monologue, a facilitator is in continuous dialogue with the learners (Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999). A
facilitator should also be able to adapt the learning experience in mid-air by taking the initiative to
steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value.
The learning environment should also be designed to support and challenge the learner's thinking (Di
Vesta, 1987). While it is advocated to give the learner ownership of the problem and solution process,
it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical goal is to support the learner
in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by assuming multiple roles, such as consultant
and coach.
A few strategies for cooperative learning include
Reciprocal Questioning: students work together to ask and answer questions
Jigsaw Classroom: students become "experts" on one part of a group project and teach it to the
others in their group
Structured Controversies: Students work together to research a particular controversy (Woolfolk
2010).

The Harkness Discussion Method

It is called the "Harkness" discussion method because it was developed at Phillips Exeter
Academy with funds donated in the 1930s by Edward Harkness. This is also named after the
Harkness table and involves students seated in a circle, motivating and controlling their own
discussion. The teacher acts as little as possible. Perhaps the teacher's only function is to observe,
although he/she might begin or shift or even direct a discussion. The students get it rolling, direct it,
and focus it. They act as a team, cooperatively, to make it work. They all participate, but not in a
competitive way. Rather, they all share in the responsibility and the goals, much as any members
share in any team sport. Although the goals of any discussion will change depending upon what's
under discussion, some goals will always be the same: to illuminate the subject, to unravel its
mysteries, to interpret and share and learn from other points of view, to piece together the puzzle
using everyone's contribution. Discussion skills are important. Everyone must be aware of how to get
this discussion rolling and keep it rolling and interesting. Just as in any sport, a number of skills are
necessary to work on and use at appropriate times. Everyone is expected to contribute by using
these skills.

The nature of the learning process

Learning is an active, social process

Social constructivism, strongly influenced by Vygotsky's (1978) work, suggests that knowledge
is first constructed in a social context and is then appropriated by individuals (Bruning et al., 1999; M.
Cole, 1991; Eggan & Kauchak, 2004). According to social constructivists, the process of sharing
individual perspectives-called collaborative elaboration (Meter & Stevens, 2000)-results in learners
constructing understanding together that wouldn't be possible alone (Greeno et al., 1996)
Social constructivist scholars view learning as an active process where learners should learn to
discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves, hence the importance of encouraging
guesswork and intuitive thinking in learners (Brown et al.1989; Ackerman 1996). In fact, for the social
constructivist, reality is not something that we can discover because it does not pre-exist prior to our
social invention of it. Kukla (2000) argues that reality is constructed by our own activities and that
people, together as members of a society, invent the properties of the world.
Other constructivist scholars agree with this and emphasize that individuals make meanings through
the interactions with each other and with the environment they live in. Knowledge is thus a product of
humans and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest 1991; Prawat and Floden 1994). McMahon
(1997) agrees that learning is a social process. He further states that learning is not a process that
only takes place inside our minds, nor is it a passive development of our behaviors that is shaped by
external forces and that meaningful learning occurs when individuals are engaged in social activities.
Vygotsky (1978) also highlighted the convergence of the social and practical elements in learning by
saying that the most significant moment in the course of intellectual development occurs when
speech and practical activity, two previously completely independent lines of development, converge.
Through practical activity a child constructs meaning on an intra-personal level, while speech
connects this meaning with the interpersonal world shared by the child and her/his culture.

Dynamic interaction between task, instructor and learner

A further characteristic of the role of the facilitator in the social constructivist viewpoint, is that
the instructor and the learners are equally involved in learning from each other as well (Holt and
Willard-Holt 2000). This means that the learning experience is both subjective and objective and
requires that the instructors culture, values and background become an essential part of the interplay
between learners and tasks in the shaping of meaning. Learners compare their version of the truth
with that of the instructor and fellow learners to get to a new, socially tested version of truth (Kukla
2000). The task or problem is thus the interface between the instructor and the learner (McMahon
1997). This creates a dynamic interaction between task, instructor and learner. This entails that
learners and instructors should develop an awareness of each other's viewpoints and then look to
their own beliefs, standards and values, thus being both subjective and objective at the same time
(Savery 1994).

Some studies argue for the importance of mentoring in the process of learning (Archee and
Duin 1995; Brown et al. 1989). The social constructivist model thus emphasizes the importance of the
relationship between the student and the instructor in the learning process.
Some learning approaches that could harbour this interactive learning include reciprocal teaching,
peer collaboration,cognitive apprenticeship, problem-based instruction, web quests, anchored
instruction and other approaches that involve learning with others.

Collaboration among learners

Learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and discussions to
arrive at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific field (Duffy and Jonassen 1992).
Most social constructivist models, such as that proposed by Duffy and Jonassen (1992), also stress
the need for collaboration among learners, in direct contradiction to traditional competitive
approaches. One Vygotskian notion that has significant implications for peer collaboration, is that of
the zone of proximal development. Defined as the distance between the actual developmental
level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers, it differs from the fixed biological nature of Piaget's stages of development. Through a process
of 'scaffolding' a learner can be extended beyond the limitations of physical maturation to the extent
that the development process lags behind the learning process (Vygotsky 1978).







Learning by teaching (LdL) as constructivist method

Main article: Learning by teaching

If students have to present and train new contents with their classmates, a non-linear process
of collective knowledge-construction will be set up.

The importance of context

The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to
the learning itself (McMahon 1997).

Underlying the notion of the learner as an active processor is "the assumption that there is no
one set of generalised learning laws with each law applying to all domains" (Di Vesta
1987:208). Decontextualised knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our understandings to
authentic tasks because, as Duffy and Jonassen (1992) indicated, we are not working with the
concept in the complex environment and experiencing the complex interrelationships in that
environment that determine how and when the concept is used. One social constructivist notion is
that of authentic or situated learning, where the student takes part in activities directly relevant to the
application of learning and that take place within a culture similar to the applied setting (Brown et al.
1989). Cognitive apprenticeship has been proposed as an effective constructivist model of learning
that attempts to "enculturate students into authentic practices through activity and social interaction in
a way similar to that evident, and evidently successful, in craft apprenticeship" (Ackerman 1996:25).
Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) emphasize the concept of dynamic assessment, which is a way of
assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional tests. Here the
essentially interactive nature of learning is extended to the process of assessment. Rather than
viewing assessment as a process carried out by one person, such as an instructor, it is seen as a
two-way process involving interaction between both instructor and learner. The role of the assessor
becomes one of entering into dialogue with the persons being assessed to find out their current level
of performance on any task and sharing with them possible ways in which that performance might be
improved on a subsequent occasion. Thus, assessment and learning are seen as inextricably linked
and not separate processes (Holt and Willard-Holt 2000).
According to this viewpoint instructors should see assessment as a continuous and interactive
process that measures the achievement of the learner, the quality of the learning experience and
courseware. The feedback created by the assessment process serves as a direct foundation for
further development.

The selection, scope, and sequencing of the subject matter

Knowledge should be discovered as an integrated whole
Knowledge should not be divided into different subjects or compartments, but should be
discovered as an integrated whole(McMahon 1997; Di Vesta 1987).
This also again underlines the importance of the context in which learning is presented (Brown et al.
1989). The world, in which the learner needs to operate, does not approach one in the form of
different subjects, but as a complex myriad of facts, problems, dimensions, and perceptions
(Ackerman 1996).

Engaging and challenging the learner
Learners should constantly be challenged with tasks that refer to skills and knowledge just
beyond their current level of mastery. This captures their motivation and builds on previous
successes to enhance learner confidence (Brownstein 2001). This is in line with Vygotskys zone of
proximal development, which can be described as the distance between the actual developmental
level (as determined by independent problem-solving) and the level of potential development (as
determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers) (Vygotsky 1978).
Vygotsky (1978) further claimed that instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of development.
Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions in the stage of maturing, which lie
in the zone of proximal development. It is in this way that instruction plays an extremely important role
in development.
To fully engage and challenge the learner, the task and learning environment should reflect the
complexity of the environment that the learner should be able to function in at the end of learning.
Learners must not only have ownership of the learning or problem-solving process, but of the problem
itself (Derry 1999).
Where the sequencing of subject matter is concerned, it is the constructivist viewpoint that the
foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some form (Duffy and Jonassen
1992). This means that instructors should first introduce the basic ideas that give life and form to any
topic or subject area, and then revisit and build upon these repeatedly. This notion has been
extensively used in curricula.
It is also important for instructors to realize that although a curriculum may be set down for them, it
inevitably becomes shaped by them into something personal that reflects their own belief systems,
their thoughts and feelings about both the content of their instruction and their learners (Rhodes and
Bellamy 1999). Thus, the learning experience becomes a shared enterprise.
The emotions and life contexts of those involved in the learning process must therefore be considered
as an integral part of learning. The goal of the learner is central in considering what is learned (Brown
et al. 1989; Ackerman 1996).

The structuredness of the learning process

It is important to achieve the right balance between the degree of structure and flexibility that is
built into the learning process. Savery (1994) contends that the more structured the learning
environment, the harder it is for the learners to construct meaning based on their conceptual
understandings. A facilitator should structure the learning experience just enough to make sure that
the students get clear guidance and parameters within which to achieve the learning objectives, yet
the learning experience should be open and free enough to allow for the learners to discover, enjoy,
interact and arrive at their own, socially verified version of truth.

In adult learning

Constructivist ideas have been used to inform adult education. Where pedagogy applies to the
education of children, adults educators often speak instead of andragogy. Methods must take account
of differences in learning, due to the fact that adults have many more experiences and previously
existing neurological structures.
Approaches based on constructivism stress the importance of mechanisms for mutual planning,
diagnosis of learner needs and interests, cooperative learning climate, sequential activities for
achieving the objectives, formulation of learning objectives based on the diagnosed needs and
interests.
Personal relevance of the content, involvement of the learner in the process, and deeper
understanding of underlying concepts are some of the intersections between emphases in
constructivism and adult learning principles.

Criticism of educational constructivism

Several cognitive psychologists and educators have questioned the central claims of
constructivism. It is argued that constructivist theories are misleading or contradict known
findings. Matthews (1993) attempts to sketch the influence of constructivism in current mathematics
and science education, aiming to indicate how pervasive Aristotle's empiricist epistemology is within it
and what problems constructivism faces on that account.

In the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development it is maintained that learning at any age
depends upon the processing and representational resources available at this particular age. That is,
it is maintained that if the requirements of the concept to be understood exceeds the available
processing efficiency and working memory resources then the concept is by definition not learnable.
This attitude toward learning impedes the learning from understanding essential theoretical concepts
or, in other words, reasoning. Therefore, no matter how active a child is during learning, to learn the
child must operate in a learning environment that meets the developmental and individual learning
constraints that are characteristic for the child's age and this child's possible deviations from her age's
norm. If this condition is not met, construction goes astray.

Several educators have also questioned the effectiveness of this approach toward instructional
design, especially as it applies to the development of instruction for novices
]
(Mayer, 2004; Kirschner,
Sweller, and Clark, 2006). While some constructivists argue that "learning by doing" enhances
learning, critics of this instructional strategy argue that little empirical evidence exists to support this
statement given novice learners (Mayer, 2004; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark, 2006). Sweller and his
colleagues argue that novices do not possess the underlying mental models, or "schemas" necessary
for "learning by doing" (e.g. Sweller, 1988). Indeed, Mayer (2004) reviewed the literature and found
that fifty years of empirical data do not support using the constructivist teaching technique of pure
discovery; in those situations requiring discovery, he argues for the use of guided discovery instead.
Mayer (2004) argues that not all teaching techniques based on constructivism are efficient or effective
for all learners, suggesting many educators misapply constructivism to use teaching techniques that
require learners to be behaviorally active. He describes this inappropriate use of constructivism as the
"constructivist teaching fallacy". "I refer to this interpretation as the constructivist teaching fallacy
because it equates active learning with active teaching." (Mayer, 2004, p. 15). Instead Mayer
proposes learners should be "cognitively active" during learning and that instructors use "guided
practice."
In contrast, Kirschner et al. (2006) describe constructivist teaching methods as "unguided
methods of instruction." They suggest more structured learning activities for learners with little to no
prior knowledge. Slezak states that constructivism "is an example of fashionable but thoroughly
problematic doctrines that can have little benefit for practical pedagogy or teacher education."
Constructivist Foundations 6(1): 102111 and similar views have been stated by Meyer, Boden,
Quale and others.

Kirschner et al. group a number of learning theories together (Discovery, Problem-Based,
Experiential, and Inquiry-Based learning)and stated that highly scaffolded constructivist methods like
problem-based learning and inquiry learning are ineffective. Kirschner et al. described several
research studies that were favorable to problem-based learning given learners were provided some
level of guidance and support.

Constructivist learning environments? ...for which learners?

During the 1990s, several theorists began to study the cognitive load of novices (those with
little or no prior knowledge of the subject matter) during problem solving. Cognitive load theory was
applied in several contexts (Paas, 1992; Moreno & Mayer, 1999; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995;
Chandler and Sweller, 1992; Sweller & Cooper, 1985; Cooper & Sweller, 1987). Based on the results
of their research, these authors do not support the idea of allowing novices to interact with ill-
structured learning environments. Ill-structured learning environments rely on the learner to discover
problem solutions (Jonassen, 1997). Jonassen (1997) also suggested that novices be taught with
"well-structured" learning environments.
Jonassen (1997) also proposed well-designed, well-structured learning environments provide
scaffolding for problem-solving. Finally both Sweller and Jonassen support problem-solving scenarios
for more advanced learners (Jonassen, 1997; luga, Ayres, Chandler, and Sweller, 2003).
Sweller and his associates even suggest well-structured learning environments, like those provided
by worked examples, are not effective for those with more experiencethis was later described as
the "expertise reversal effect" (Kalyuga et al., 2003). Cognitive load theorists suggest worked
examples initially, with a gradual introduction of problem solving scenarios; this is described as the
"guidance fading effect" (Renkl, Atkinson, Maier, and Staley, 2002; Sweller, 2003). Each of these
ideas provides more evidence for Anderson's ACT-R framework (Clark & Elen, 2006). This ACT-
R framework suggests learning can begin with studying examples.
Finally Mayer states: "Thus, the contribution of psychology is to help move educational reform efforts
from the fuzzy and unproductive world of educational ideologywhich sometimes hides under the
banner of various versions of constructivismto the sharp and productive world of theory-based
research on how people learn." (Mayer, 2004, p. 18).

Social constructivism
In recent decades, constructivist theorists have extended the traditional focus on individual learning to
address collaborative and social dimensions of learning. It is possible to see social constructivism as
a bringing together of aspects of the work ofPiaget with that of Bruner and Vygotsky (Wood 1998: 39).
The term Communal constructivism was developed by Leask and Younie (2001) through their
research on the European School Net project which demonstrated the value of peer to peer learning
i.e. communal construction of new knowledge rather than social construction of knowledge as
described by Vygotsky where there is a learner to teacher scaffolding relationship. Bryn Holmes in
2001 applied this to student learning as described in an early paper, "in this model, students will not
simply pass through a course like water through a sieve but instead leave their own imprint in the
learning process."

Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget (French:

pja; 9 August 1896 16 September 1980) was aSwiss developmental

psychologist and philosopher known for hisepistemological studies with children. His theory of
cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology".
Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As the Director of the International
Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that "only education is capable of saving our societies from
possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual."
Jean Piaget

Piaget at the University of Michigan, c. 1968
Born Jean William Fritz Piaget
9 August 1896
Neuchtel, Switzerland
Died 16 September 1980 (aged 84)
Geneva, Switzerland
Fields
Developmental Psychology,Epistemology
Known for
Constructivism, Genetic epistemology, Theory of
cognitive development, Object
permanence,Egocentrism
Influences
Immanuel Kant, Henri Bergson,Pierre Janet, James
Mark Baldwin
Influenced
Brbel Inhelder, Jerome Bruner, Kenneth
Kaye, Lawrence Kohlberg, Robert Kegan, Howard
Gardner Thomas Kuhn,

Seymour Papert, Umberto
Eco, Lev Vygotsky
Piaget created the International Center for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva in 1955 and directed it
until his death in 1980. The number of collaborations that its founding made possible, and their
impact, ultimately led to the Center being referred to in the scholarly literature as "Piaget's factory."
According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget was "the great pioneer of theconstructivist theory of
knowing." However, his ideas did not become widely popularized until the 1960s. This then led to the
emergence of the study of development as a major sub-discipline in psychology.


Criticism of Piaget's research methods

"The developmental theory of Jean Piaget has been criticized on the grounds that it is
conceptually limited, empirically false, or philosophically and epistemologically untenable." (Loureno
& Machado, 1996, p. 143) Piaget responded to criticism by acknowledging that the vast majority of
critics did not understand the outcomes he wished to obtain from his research (Loureno & Machado,
1996).
As Piaget believed development was a universal process, his initial sample sizes were inadequate,
particularly in the formulation of his theory of infant development.
[42]
Piagets theories of infant
development were based on his observations of his own three children. While this clearly presents
problems with the sample size, Piaget also probably introduced confounding variables and social
desirability into his observations and his conclusions based on his observations. It is entirely possible
Piaget conditioned his children to respond in a desirable manner, so, rather than having an
understanding of object permanence, his children might have learned to behave in a manner that
indicated they understood object permanence. The sample was also very homogenous, as all three
children had a similar genetic heritage and environment. Piaget did, however, have larger sample
sizes during his later years.

Education: Teaching and Learning

During the 1970s and 1980s, Piaget's works also inspired the transformation of European and
American education, including both theory and practice, leading to a more child-centered approach.
In Conversations with Jean Piaget, he says: "Education, for most people, means trying to lead the
child to resemble the typical adult of his society ... but for me and no one else, education means
making creators... You have to make inventors, innovatorsnot conformists" (Bringuier, 1980,
p. 132).
His theory of cognitive development can be used as a tool in the early childhood classroom.
According to Piaget, children developed best in a classroom with interaction.
Piaget defined knowledge as the ability to modify, transform, and "operate on" an object or idea,
such that it is understood by the operator through the process of transformation. Learning, then,
occurs as a result of experience, both physical and logical, with the objects themselves and how they
are acted upon. Thus, knowledge must be assimilated in an active process by a learner with matured
mental capacity, so that knowledge can build in complexity by scaffolded understanding.
Understanding is scaffolded by the learner through the process of equilibration, whereby the learner
balances new knowledge with previous understanding, thereby compensating for "transformation" of
knowledge.

Learning, then, can also be supported by instructors in an educational setting. Piaget specified
that knowledge cannot truly be formed until the learner has matured the mental structures to which
that learning is specific, and thereby development constrains learning. Nevertheless, knowledge can
also be "built" by building on simpler operations and structures that have already been formed.
Basing operations of an advanced structure on those of simpler structures thus scaffolds learning to
build on operational abilities as they develop. Good teaching, then, is built around the operational
abilities of the students such that they can excel in their operational stage and build on preexisting
structures and abilities and thereby "build" learning.
Evidence of the effectiveness of a contemporary curricular design building on Piaget's theories of
developmental progression and the support of maturing mental structures can be seen in Griffin and
Case's "Number Worlds" curriculum. The curriculum works toward building a "central conceptual
structure" of number sense in young children by building on five instructional processes, including
aligning curriculum to the developmental sequencing of acquisition of specific skills. By outlining the
developmental sequence of number sense, a conceptual structure is built and aligned to individual
children as they develop.
Philosophy

Some have taken into account of Piaget's work. For example, the philosopher and social
theorist Jrgen Habermas has incorporated Piaget into his work, most notably in The Theory of
Communicative Action. The philosopher Thomas Kuhncredited Piaget's work with helping him to
understand the transition between modes of thought which characterized his theory of paradigm
shifts. Yet, that said, it is also noted that the implications of his later work do indeed remain largely
unexamined. Shortly before his death (September 1980), Piaget was involved in a debate about the
relationships between innate and acquired features of language, at the Centre Royaumont pour une
Science de l'Homme, where he discussed his point of view with the linguist Noam Chomsky as well
as Hilary Putnam and Stephen Toulmin.

Significant works
The child's conception of physical causality (London: Kegan Paul, 1930) [La causalite physique chez
l'enfant (1927)]
Child's Conception of Geometry (New York, Basic Books, 1960) [La Gomtrie spontane de
l'enfant (1948)].
The Principles of Genetic Epistemology (New York: Basic Books, 1972, ISBN 978-0-393-00596-7)
[L'pistmologie gntique (1950)].
To understand is to invent: The future of education (New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973) [tr.
of Ou va l'education(1971) and Le droit a l'education dans le monde actuel (1948)].
Six psychological studies (New York: Random House, 1967) [Six tudes de psychologie (1964)].
Biology and Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) [Biologie et connaissance;
essai sur les relations entre les rgulations organiques et les processus cognitifs (1967)]
Science of education and the psychology of the child (New York: Orion Press, 1970) [Psychologie et
pdagogie (1969)].
Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977)
[L'evolution intellectuelle entre l'adolescence et l'age adulte (1970)].
The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures: The Central Problem of Intellectual Development (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1985) [L'equilibration des structures cognitives (1975), previously
translated as The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures (1977)].
Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini (ed.), Language and learning: the debate between Jean Piaget and
Noam Chomsky(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980) [Theories du language,
theories de l'apprentissage (1979)].
Development and learning.
The Practice Implications of Constructivism
by Wesley A. Hoover

Published in SEDL Letter Volume IX, Number 3, August 1996, Constructivism
Constructivism has roots in philosophy, psychology, sociology, and education. But
while it is important for educators to understand constructivism, it is equally
important to understand the implications this view of learning has for teaching
and teacher professional development.
Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that
learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This view
of learning sharply contrasts with one in which learning is the passive
transmission of information from one individual to another, a view in which
reception, not construction, is key.
Two important notions orbit around the simple idea of constructed knowledge. The
first is that learners construct new understandings using what they already know.
There is no tabula rasa on which new knowledge is etched. Rather, learners come
to learning situations with knowledge gained from previous experience, and that
prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge they will construct
from new learning experiences.
The second notion is that learning is active rather than passive. Learners
confront their understanding in light of what they encounter in the new learning
situation. If what learners encounter is inconsistent with their current
understanding, their understanding can change to accommodate new experience.
Learners remain active throughout this process: they apply current
understandings, note relevant elements in new learning experiences, judge the
consistency of prior and emerging knowledge, and based on that judgment, they can
modify knowledge.
Constructivism has important implications for teaching. First, teaching cannot be
viewed as the transmission of knowledge from enlightened to unenlightened;
constructivist teachers do not take the role of the "sage on the stage." Rather,
teachers act as "guides on the side" who provide students with opportunities to
test the adequacy of their current understandings.
Second, if learning is based on prior knowledge, then teachers must note that
knowledge and provide learning environments that exploit inconsistencies between
learners' current understandings and the new experiences before them. This
challenges teachers, for they cannot assume that all children understand
something in the same way. Further, children may need different experiences to
advance to different levels of understanding.
Third, if students must apply their current understandings in new situations in
order to build new knowledge, then teachers must engage students in learning,
bringing students' current understandings to the forefront. Teachers can ensure
that learning experiences incorporate problems that are important to students,
not those that are primarily important to teachers and the educational system.
Teachers can also encourage group interaction, where the interplay among
participants helps individual students become explicit about their own
understanding by comparing it to that of their peers.
Fourth, if new knowledge is actively built, then time is needed to build it.
Ample time facilitates student reflection about new experiences, how those
experiences line up against current understandings, and how a different
understanding might provide students with an improved (not "correct") view of the
world.
If learning is a constructive process, and instruction must be designed to
provide opportunities for such construction, then what professional development
practices can bring teachers to teach in student-centered ways?
First recognize that construction in learning is not just the domain of children
but of learners, all learners. Constructivist professional development give
teachers time to make explicit their understandings of learning (e.g., is it a
constructive process?), of teaching (e.g., is a teacher an orator or a
facilitator, and what is the teacher's understanding of content?), and of
professional development (e.g., is a teacher's own learning best approached
through a constructivist orientation?). Furthermore, such professional
development provides opportunities for teachers to test their understandings and
build new ones. Training that affects student-centered teaching cannot come in
one-day workshops. Systematic, long-term development that allows practice - and
reflection on that practice - is required.
It is also useful to remember the educator's maxim, Teachers teach as they are
taught, not as they are told to teach. Thus, trainers in constructivist
professional development sessions model learning activities that teachers can
apply in their own classrooms. It is not enough for trainers to describe new ways
of teaching and expect teachers to translate from talk to action; it is more
effective to engage teachers in activities that will lead to new actions in
classrooms.
Constructivism represents one of the big ideas in education. Its implications for
how teachers teach and learn to teach are enormous. If our efforts in reforming
education for all students are to succeed, then we must focus on students. To
date, a focus on student-centered learning may well be the most important
contribution of constructivism.
Wes Hoover is SEDL president and CEO.
He holds a doctorate from The University
of Texas at Austin in human experimental psychology, with a
specialization in reading and psycholinguistics.



What is constructivism?
Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about how people
learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through
experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we
have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or
maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own
knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.

In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching
practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active techniques
(experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk
about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she
understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then
build on them.
Contrary to criticisms by some (conservative/traditional) educators, constructivism does not dismiss
the active role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge. Constructivism modifies that role, so
that teachers help students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. The
constructivist teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities
with which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and
convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment. Constructivism transforms the
student from a passive recipient of information to an active participant in the learning process. Always
guided by the teacher, students construct their knowledge actively rather than just mechanically
ingesting knowledge from the teacher or the textbook.

Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning theory that compels students to "reinvent the
wheel." In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers the student's innate curiosity about the world and
how things work. Students do not reinvent the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns,
how it functions. They become engaged by applying their existing knowledge and real-world
experience, learning to hypothesize, testing their theories, and ultimately drawing conclusions from
their findings.

The best way for you to really understand what constructivism is and what it means in your classroom
is by seeing examples of it at work, speaking with others about it, and trying it yourself. As you
progress through each segment of this workshop, keep in mind questions or ideas to share with your
colleagues.