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Science > Materials > Residual Stress > Contour Technique
1.12D RESIDUAL STRESS MAPPING USING TE
C!NT!UR MET!D" A TECNI#UE RE$IE%
P V Grant
This techniue revie! is available in a printer"#riendly pd# #ormat on
our $ublications pa%e&
Introduction
Mechanical stress rela'ation methods( !hich include hole drillin%(
de#lection and sectionin% techniues( determine the ori%inal stresses
#rom de#ormations measured a#ter material removal& They can
%enerally be used to evaluate )st order residual stresses but cannot
be used #or non"destructive measurements& *nly by removin%
material incrementally and ma+in% simpli#yin% assumptions can the
spatial stress distribution be determined&
The contour method is a ne! rela'ation method o# determinin%
residual stresses and !as ori%inally developed by Michael ,& $rime
-)(./& A part is cut in t!o( and the contour( or pro#ile( o# the resultin%
ne! sur#ace measured to determine the displacements caused by
release o# the residual stresses& The contour is uniuely related to
the ori%inal residual stresses( !hich can be calculated directly #rom a
#inite element model& The opposite o# the measured contour is
applied to the sur#ace as a displacement boundary condition& This
%ives the ori%inal residual stresses normal to the plane o# the cut&
The techniue does not reuire layer"by"layer material removal0 the
specimen is simply cut across the plane o# interest& 1n addition( the ."
2 variations in residual stress can be determined directly #rom the
measured de#ormation& The direct solution is possible because
de#ormation is measured on the sur#ace created by a cut( the location
o# stress relie#( rather than a pre"e'istin% #ree sur#ace&

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*ther methods that can measure similar ."2 maps have si%ni#icant
limitations -9(:/4 Sectionin% methods are e'perimentally a!+!ard(
analytically comple'( error prone and have limited spatial resolution
o# about )cm& Neutron di##raction is a non"destructive techniue
reuirin% a costly source o# neutrons& 1t is also sensitive to
microstructural chan%es( is time consumin%( is limited in ma'imum
specimen si;e to about <=mm and limited in minimum spatial
resolution to about )mm&
Theor&
The theory o# the contour method is based on a variation o#
,uec+ner's elastic superposition principle -</( !hich states that>
"If a cracked body subject to external loading or prescribed
displacements at the boundary has forces applied to the crack
surfaces to close the crack together, these forces must be equivalent
to the stress distribution in an uncracked body of the same geometry
subject to the same external loading."
This is illustrated in 8i%ure ) #or simplicity&
Figure 1 - Illustration of Bueckner's superposition principle as applied to the
contour method [7]
1n step A( the undisturbed part is made up o# t!o halves containin%
the ori%inal residual stresses& 1n step ,( the part has been cut in t!o
resultin% in a de#ormation o# both sur#aces as the residual stresses
are released( resultin% in ;ero normal stresses& 1n step C( the
material is '#orced' bac+ to its ori%inal position& This involves applyin%
the de#ormation measured in step , to an 86 model to calculate the
correspondin% stresses& This superposition principle assumes that
the material behaves elastically durin% the rela'ation o# residual
stress and that the material removal process does not introduce
stresses o# su##icient ma%nitude to a##ect the measured
displacements&
E'(eri)ent*+
Cutting
8or the contour method( accurate machinin% and measurement o#
the de#ormed sur#ace are critical to the accuracy o# the techniue&
The ideal machinin% process #or separatin% the part should -)(?(@/4
ma+e a precisely strai%ht cut0
not remove any #urther material as sur#aces are cut0
not introduce any plastic de#ormation&
Wire electric dischar%e machinin% A62MB is %enerally used -C/& A !ire
is electrically char%ed !ith respect to the !or+piece and spar+
erosion causes material removal& There is no physical contact
bet!een the !ire and the part bein% machined and so there is no
cuttin% #orce present& This non"contact approach does not induce
localised plastic de#ormation compared !ith the lar%e contact #orces
that can be %enerated !ith conventional machinin%& The part is
submer%ed in temperature"controlled deionised !ater durin% cuttin%(
!hich minimises thermal de#ormations& The !ire"control mechanisms
can achieve positional precision o# a #raction o# a micrometer(
especially #or a strai%ht cut&
To prevent the cut #rom deviatin% #rom the ori%inal cut plane( the part
must be constrained #rom movin% as stresses are rela'ed durin%
cuttin% -)/& Usually( only one side o# the !or+piece is clamped !ith
!ire 62M& 8i%ure . sho!s t!o such clampin% arran%ements&
AaB
AbB
Figure 2 - (a Clamping a sample in preparation for !"# [$]% and (& Cutting a
'eld plate in t'o (ia !"# [)]
#easuring the contour
Measurements o# the contour can be made usin% a coordinate
measurin% machine ACMMB( !hich re%isters mechanical contact !ith
a touch tri%%er probe Asee 8i%ure 9B& A typical sur#ace contour plot
obtained usin% a CMM is sho!n in 8i%ure :&
Figure $ - * t+pical C## 'ith a touch trigger pro&e 'ith 1,-mm repeata&ilit+
(#anufactured &+ #ituto+o% picture courtes+ of
http.//''',cmmtechnolog+,com
Figure 0 - * t+pical surface contour plot o&tained using a C##
Calculating residual stress
The residual stresses are calculated #rom the measured sur#ace
contours usin% a #inite element A86B model& 1t is o#ten necessary to
initially smooth out the noise in the measured sur#ace data0 this is
usually achieved via either a bivariate 8ourier series -)(.(?(D/ or .2
polynomial re%ression -@/& 8i%ure < sho!s a sur#ace contour plot #rom
a !eld plate measured via a CMM -?/& ,oth halves have been
measured usin% a =&:mm %rid( %ivin% appro'imately ).(=== data
points& 1n order to smooth out noise in the measured sur#ace data
and to enable evaluation at arbitrary locations( the data !ere #itted to
bivariate 8ourier series& A 9"2 model o# the !eld plate a#ter cuttin% is
then constructed( and startin% #rom a #lat sur#ace( the displacement
boundary conditions are used to #orce the cut sur#ace to the opposite
o# the measured sur#ace contour A8i%ure ?B& This is then used to
e'tract the residual stresses normal to the sur#ace&
Figure - - 1hape of cut surface of 'eld
plate% magnified 234
Figure ) - F!# model of 'eld
plate forced to opposite shape of
contour
E'(eri)ent*+ v*+id*tion *nd ,ood )e*-ure)ent (r*ctice
A number o# e'amples are presented to sho! the application and
versatility o# the techniue4
Bent &eam
Most o# the !or+ on the contour method has been carried out by M&
$rime and collea%ues -)(.(?(D()=())/& 1n -)/( the contour method is
veri#ied !ith a numerical simulation and then e'perimentally validated
on a steel beam !ith a +no!n stress pro#ile& 1t is noted that analytical
smoothin% o# any noise in the measured contour is crucial because
calculatin% stress #rom the displacements ampli#ies noise in the data&
6rrors can be %reatly reduced by correctin% clampin% the specimen
durin% cuttin%& The sur#ace contour should be measured on both
halves o# the part a#ter cuttin%( and the results avera%ed to minimise
errors& 1t is also recommended that a test cut should be made in a
stress"#ree re%ion o# the part and the resultin% sur#ace contour
measured to uanti#y or correct #or errors in the assumption o# a #lat
cut&
Figure 7 - 1-" residual stress profiles measured &+ the contour method
compared 'ith the prediction from the &end test [1]
AaB AbB
AcB
Figure 2 - 2-" stress map measured o(er &eam cross-section, (a Bend test
prediction% (& measurement results% and (c scale [1]
5eld plate
1n -?/( the contour method !as used to measure a cross"sectional
map o# residual stresses in a !elded plate& Measurements !ere
veri#ied by comparisons !ith neutron di##raction A#i%ure DB& The
a%reement bet!een the t!o methods is e'cellent and sho!s that( at
least in this case( the contour method can measure very hi%h
residual stresses !ithout any yieldin% problems& The issue o# yieldin%
durin% cuttin% as a result o# hi%her residual stresses is an important
one( because a +ey assumption o# the techniue is that the rela'ation
o# residual stresses occurs elastically& 5o!ever( it has been noted in
recent e'perimental studies that because o# strain hardenin% e##ects(
reverse yieldin% does not necessarily occur in rela'ation
measurements even !hen the residual stresses e'ceed the nominal
yield stren%th o# a material -)./&
Figure 6 - *4ial residual stress maps measured o(er plate cross-section [)],
7he contour and neutron measurements 'ere performed on different
sections of a long plate,
Foreign o&8ect damage (impact
As brie#ly mentioned previously( the contour method has been used
to measure the residual stresses over a cross"section throu%h an
impact crater in steel -D/& 1n this !or+( the results !ere compared !ith
an e'plicit #inite element simulation o# the impact event& The model
!as #ound to have %ood a%reement !ith the measured residual
stresses& The study !as able to %enerate the #irst e'perimentally
measured map o# sub"sur#ace residual stresses #rom #orei%n obEect
dama%e&
Figure 13 - #easured and calculated crater shape from 2,2km/sec impact [6]
Figure 11 - #easured residual stress map after pro8ectile penetration
Cold-e4panded hole
The #irst publication outside o# Los Alamos used the contour method
to ma+e a #ull .2 residual stress map around a cold e'panded hole in
an 6NC Steel plate -@/& 1n this paper( the .2 residual hoop stress map
obtained #rom the contour method !as compared !ith the results
#rom a 92 #inite element simulation& The contour method !as #ound
to be e'perimentally demandin% but !ith care#ul application( %ood
a%reement !as obtained&
Conc+u-ion-
The contour method is a relatively ne! techniue #irst developed by
M& $rime #rom Los Alamos National Laboratory& The #irst mention o#
the techniue appears in the literature in .===& 1n principle( a sample
is cut in t!o( and the contour( or pro#ile( o# the resultin% ne! sur#ace
measured to determine the displacements caused by release o# the
residual stresses& The opposite o# the measured contour is applied to
the sur#ace as a displacement boundary condition( %ivin% the ori%inal
residual stresses normal to the plane o# the cut&
1t has si%ni#icant advanta%es over other residual stress techniues&
.2 stress maps are relatively uic+( easy and cheap to %enerate(
there is no tedious layer removal as !ith other rela'ation techniues
and it is not sensitive to microstructural chan%es&
A number o# e'perimental validations o# the techniue have
appeared in the literature( includin% #avourable comparisons to
neutron di##raction and #inite element modellin%&
A number o# applications have been investi%ated #or measurin% the
residual stress pro#ile in bent beams( !elded plates and around cold"
e'panded holes& *ne particularly promisin% application is #or
measurin% !eldin% residual stresses !here microstructural chan%es
in the !eld material ma+e neutron di##raction measurement di##icult
but have relatively small e##ects in the macroscopic elastic properties
that !ould a##ect contour method measurements& 1n addition( the
techniue appears particularly suited to parts !ith %eometrically
comple' cross"sections( li+e rails( #or%in%s( 1"beams( e'trusions and
castin%s&
Addition*+ In.or)*tion
The most comprehensive resource o# in#ormation on the contour
method can be #ound at http4FF!!!&lanl&%ovFcontourF& This site is
hosted by Los Alamos National Laboratory and edited by Mi+e $rime(
!ho ori%inally developed the contour method& 1t is an e'cellent
resource and provides more in#ormation on the e'perimental aspects
o# the techniue( most o# the publications on the subEect in
do!nloadable #ormat and pertinent applications&
Re.erence-
-)/ $31M6( M&,&( Cross"Sectional Mappin% o# 3esidual Stresses by
Measurin% the Sur#ace Contour A#ter a Cut( Gournal o# 6n%ineerin%
Materials and Technolo%y( Hol ).9( pp& )?.")?C( .==)
-./ $31M6( M&,& and I*NJAL6S( A&3&( The Contour Method4 Simple
."2 Mappin% o# 3esidual Stresses( $roc& ?th 1nt& Con#& on 3esidual
Stresses( *'#ord( U&K&( Guly)=").( .===( Hol )( pp&?)@"?.:
-9/ LU( G& AedB( 5andboo+ o# Measurement o# 3esidual Stresses( The
8airmont $ress 1nc&( Lilburn( Ieor%ia( USA( )DD?
-:/ KAN21L( 8&A&( L*32( G&2&( 83K( A&T& and I3ANT( $&H&( A 3evie!
o# 3esidual Stress Measurement Methods " A Iuide to Techniue
Selection( N$L 3eport MATC AAB=:( National $hysical Laboratory(
UK( .==)
-</ ,U6CKN63( 5&8&( The $ropa%ation o# Crac+s and the 6ner%y o#
6lastic 2e#ormation( Transactions o# the American Society o#
Mechanical 6n%ineers( Hol C=( pp&)..<").9=( )D<C
-?/ $31M6( M&,&( 5UI56S( 2&G& and W6,ST63( $&G&( Weld
Application o# a Ne! Method #or Cross"Sectional 3esidual Stress
Mappin%( $roc& .==) S6M Annual Con#erence on 6'perimental and
Applied Mechanics( Gune :"?( $ortland( *3( pp&?=C"?))( .==)
-@/ J5ANI( K&( 81TJ$AT31CK( M&6& and 62WA32S( L&(
Measurement o# the 3esidual Stresses around a Cold 6'panded
5ole in an 6NC Steel $late Usin% the Contour Method( Materials
Science 8orum( Hols :=:":=@( pp&<.@"<9.( .==.
-C/ S*MM63( C& and S*MM63( S&( Wire 62M 5andboo+( Advance
$ublishin%( 1nc&( 5ouston( Te'as( USA( )DD@
-D/ $31M6( M&,& and MA3T1N6AU( 3&L&( Mappin% 3esidual Stresses
A#ter 8orei%n *bEect 2ama%e Usin% the Contour Method( Materials
Science 8orum( Hols :=:":=@( pp&<.)"<.?( .==.
-)=/ 2eWAL2( A&T& and 51LL( M&3&( 3esidual Stress in a Thic+ Steel
Weld 2etermined usin% the Contour Method( 3eport on LANL
contract 9.9D="==)"=) :D( *ctober .==)
-))/ $31M6( M&,( 51LL( M&3&( 2eWAL2( A&T&( S6,31NI( 3&G&( 2AH6(
H&3& and C*LA( M&G&( 3esidual Stress Mappin% in Welds Usin% the
Contour Method( Trends in Weldin% 3esearch( $roceedin%s o# the
?th 1nternational Con#erence( April )<")D .==.( $ine Mountain(
Ieor%ia( eds4 S&A& 2avid et al&( ASM 1nternational( .==9( pp&CD)"CD?
-)./ N*,36( G&$&( K*3NM6163( M&( 21AS(( A&M& and SC5*LT6S(
,&( Use o# the 5ole"2rillin% Method #or Measurin% 3esidual Stresses
in 5i%hly Stressed Shot"$eened Sur#aces( 6'perimental Mechanics(
Hol :=( pp& .CD".D@( .===
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