Intonation:

Involves the occurrence of recurring pitch patterns each of which is used with a set of relatively
consistent meanings, either on single words or on a group of words of a varying length. (CRUTTENDEN)
Intonation is one of the many kinds of resources that are available in the language for making meaningful
distinctions. (HALLIDAY)
Utterance:
Larger unit that can be defined as a continuous piece of speech beginning and ending with a clear pause.
Unit of information:
Semantic and phonological unit for the development of the discourse which handles not only information
as propositional content, but also marker of style, expressions of attitudes and feelings, politeness
formulae and so on. (TENCH)
Discourse:
Any meaningful stretch of language
Nucleus:
The most prominent syllable within a tone group and it is the chief means of focusing in English
Obligatory element in the information unit.
Tends to falls on the LLI
Focus:
Indicates the highlighting chosen by the speaker for the utterance.
Nucleus placement is the device in language for showing focus on some part of an intonation group and,
hence, of a sentence .
Principal means of focusing in English.
Scope of focus:
The accentual pattern of an utterance (including the nuclear accent) is the physical manifestation of the
focus of the utterance.
Broad focus:
In broad the whole of the information conveyed by the intonation group is completely new (all new) and
therefore in focus.
Narrow focus:
An utterance is in narrow focus when only a portion of it is in focus, for example: when it contains new
and given information. For various reasons some part of the intonation; grammar is considered to be out
of focus. The part of the information group which remains in focus will, like broad focus, most commonly
have the nucleus on the LLI.
Most commonly it is new information which falls within the scope of focus. However, in a certain limited
number of conditions a speaker may fish to highlight old information. As a general rule, accenting has to
do with the newness and deaccenting with giveness.
Nucleus placement alone cannot indicate the scope of focus; this can only be done by taking contextual
and situational considerations into account.
New information:
Part of the information unit which the speaker has decided to present as not being already available to
the hearer (Halliday)
Information which is new and contrastive will automatically fall within the scope of focus.
Old information:
That information which the speaker assumes to be already in some way in the consciousness of the
listener and which is hence not in need of highlighting (Cruttenden)
Given information
Shared knowledge
Common ground
It will generally fall outside the scope of focus but there are some occasions when we may wish to focus
on a particular piece of information even though it is old, given info brought to focus and reaccented
TONALITY
The distribution into tone groups, and the number and location of the tone group boundaries
(Halliday)
Its the system by which a stretch of spoken text is segmented into series of discrete units of
intonation which correspond to the speakers perception of pieces or chunks of information.
TONICITY
Its the system by which as individual discrete unit of intonation is shown to have a prominent
word which indicates the focus of information ( Tench)
The placing of the tonic syllable; the location, in each tone group, of the pre-tonic and tonic
segment : From the phonological point of view : most prominent syllable in an intonation unit
Semantic point of view: focus of information
Distributional point of view: the LLI, the most prominent syllable position in the tone group
Functional point of view: chief means signaling the focus. Nucleus is the principle means of
focusing in English and it is concerned with the function of nucleus.
TONE
Its the system of contrasting pitch movements on the tonic syllable in each unit of intonation (Gallindo)
The pitch movement of an utterance is basically describable in terms of pitch range.
About adverbs
When they occur initially, they gain semantic prominence, when they occur in final position, they are less
prominent. Final time and place adverbials are associated with minor information (rising tone) and they
are used either unaccented or utter with a rising tone: a low rise or less frequently a fall rise.
Time adverbs: can be brought into narrow focus for contrasting of emphasizing
Adv of degree: when occurring in final position, they are not nuclear but they are marked either to
emphasize the courtesy, or to indicate attitudes as insistence.
Sentence adverbs in final position: give them a separate group or a tertiary stress.
Reinforcing adverbs in final position: generally given on a separate group and produced with a
falling tone, they are not attached to the main intonation group.
Most adverbs take a rising tone if in final position because most adverbs are limiting and they take a
group apart.
Limiting:
However
Instead
Unfortunately
Generally
Clearly
Accidentally
Presumably
Probably
Nevertheless
Especially
Separately
Well
Eventually
Actually
Once/finally
Reinforcing
Particularly
Firstly, etc
Anyways
Of course
Besides
Literally
By the way
Obviously
Frequently
Deliberately
Honestly
Definitely
Too
Also
Vocatives
Initial vocatives
FALL RISE: for warnings
A request for attention
For requirement of some service

HIGH FALL: a summon
A serious mood
Speakers feelings or sense of authority dominance, he/she demands a conversation
and sounds impatient
LOW FALL: addressing an audience
LOW RISE: for enquiries
Leads on to a remark
Request for attention
Addressing to an audience (informal speech)
HIGH RISE: enquiries

Medial vocatives: if the words preceding the vocatives are unstressed, its treated in the same way as an
initial vocative but if the words preceding the vocative are stressed, its treated in the same way as a final
vocative.
FINAL VOCATIVES
As an expression of courtesy, affection or criticism ( no group apart, either unstressed or partially
stressed)
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE DIVISION INTO TONE GROUPS
Speakers perception of the organization of information: The division into tone groups may vary
according to the meanings the speaker wants to convey
Upward length constraint: a tone group may content up to 7 stresses
Probabilistic correlation with syntactic structures: in English there is a tendency for tone groups
to coincide with clauses
Speed of delivery: the slower the pace, the shorter the tone group; and the faster the pace, the
longer the tone group.
Phonetic cues to recognize tone group boundaries
1. Semantic criterion
2. Grammatical criterion
3. Pause
4. Change of pitch
5. Change of pace
Nucleus placement
Is the device in the language for showing focus on some part of an intonation unit and hence a sentence.
PHONETIC POINT OF VIEW: the syllable at which significant pitch movement begins. The syllable
carrying maximum prominence and it is concerned with the type of prominence of the nucleus.
DISTRIBUTIONAL POINT OF VIEW: the LLI we are concerned with the most prominent syllables
position in the tone group.
FUNCTIONAL POINT OF VIEW: the chief means signaling focus. The nucleus is the principal means
of focusing in English. Concerned with the function of the nucleus.
Tonicity and focus
Neutral may indicate broad or narrow focus, but it is broad focus which usually shows neutral tonicity.
Narrow tonicity may conform to patterns of neutral tonicity when the focused section is at the end.
Narrow focus may conform to patterns of marked tonicity when the focused section is not at the end.
Nucleus placement and giveness
A. To make it clear to the speaker that he agrees with him or that he has understood the message.
B. As a means to reiterate information for clarification purposes
C. To mark the beginning of a new aspect of the same topic
D. When there are no new items in the discourse context. To begin a new aspect
E. When the same form conveys different meanings
F. Intonation idiomacy (fixed pattern)
G. Contrasts
H. Echoes
I. Insistence
Exceptions to the LLI rule
a. Event sentences: Generally involve an intransitive verb which denotes appearance or misfortune
b. Adverbials in final position: Final adverbs are usually unstressed. Adverbs of courtesy, when final
in a group, are not nuclear. Adv of manner attract the accent and if the adverb is important, place it
at the beginning and give them a separate group.
c. Vocatives in final position: Do not take the nuclear accent
d. Final reporting clauses: The nuclear accent falls on the main clause
e. Adjectival WH-objects: Nuclear accent falls on the noun reporting the object of the verb.
f. Noun+ infinitive: The tonic accent is on the noun and the noun is the object of the verb
g. Noun+ adjective/participle: The nuclear accent falls on the noun.
h. Final relative clauses: Defining relative clauses, the nuclear accent falls on the noun
i. Transitive verbs + objects + verb participle: The nuclear accent falls on the DO
j. Indirect questions:
k. Subject + passive verb: the nuclear accent falls on the subject. The verb is transitive
l. Objects of general tendency: Generally go unaccented
m. Fossilized expressions: Fixed pattern
n. Indefinites: unaccented
EXPLANATIONS TO THE LLI (CRUTTENDEN)
1. Syntactic explanation: One type of syntactic explanation is in terms of transformation, and
suggests that the exceptions to the LLI are the results of movements, transformations between
deep and surface structure.
2. Semantic explanation: Opponents to the syntactic explanation emphasize the semantic aspect of
accenting.
3. Grammatical explanation: A more promising grammatical approach looks or a hierarchy of
accentability within syntactic classes. Lexical items are more likely to be accented than
grammatical items; nouns can certainly more accentable than the other classes. This shows up in
EVENT sentences: Where the subject (a noun) is more accentable than the verb. In those event
sentences where the predicate contains a noun but still does not take the nucleus, such noun is
either part of an adverbial or else very closely semantically unified with the verb. FINAL
adverbials, in the case of many final adverbials are commonly the grammatical object before the
adverb which receives the accent.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INTONATIONS
Significant: meaningful utterances which are only different in respect of intonation and may differ
from each other in meaning because they convey meaning
Systematic: Enables us to teach intonation. It is an organization into a system of subsystems,
possible for us to analyze it, teach it and learn it. We dont use tones at random. There is a limited
number of pitch patterns in any language which we use to produce definite meaningful effects.
Characteristic: Each language has its own intonation pattern. The pitch patterns of English are not
the same as in other languages, limited not of pitch patterns in any language which we use to
produce meaningful effects.
Inevitable: Present in every piece of speech. Its a part of the structure of any particular language.
No language is spoken in a monotone
Integral: To every piece of language, ties up every grammatical / phonological aspect. It links up
not only with meaning but also with grammar, pronunciation and spoken discourse at large.
The structure of a tone group
The purpose of this elaborate division of the intonation unit into different parts is to indicate points or
areas where intonation can vary and produce differences in meanings. Meaning can be affected by
variations in an intonation pattern at different points or areas that coincide with different partas of the
structure of the intonation unit.
PRE-HEAD: unaccented syllables preceding the 1 nuclear accent
HEAD: all syllables accentable or weak from the 1 pre nuclear accent up to the primary (tonic syllable)
and constitutes the pre-tonic segment
NUCLEUS: Tonic syllable. Only syllable bearing pitch movement. Tonic segment
TAIL: Strong or weak syllables following the tonic
FUNCTIONS OF INTONATION
Information function: What is being said? Presents the management of the information as the speaker
perceives it. (Preparation and presentation of the message)
The speaker signals prominence for what he uses the system of pitch, loudness and length. The
organization involves:
Decisions about the division of intonation into manageable pieces of information and their staging
division into tone groups (tonality)
Decisions as to what should be made prominent in any piece of information structure of new and
given information within a unit (tonicity)
Grading the pieces of info and tying them up into coherent sequences (tone)
Grammatical function: Which is being said? Syntactic structure, this function relates intonation within the
syntax of clauses it signals to the listener the syntactic structure of the structure.
It is conveyed through the system of tonality and some components of the syntactic structure are
more likely to be made into separate tone groups. Intonation has a grammatical role in
disambiguation parallel wordings of different syntactic structure accomplished by tonality,
tonicity and tone. It is the general tendency of tone groups to coincide with clauses.
Communicative function: What is being said? It presents the speakers purpose in transmitting something
The function refers to the intended effect that the speaker wishes to produce on those who are
being addressed to the listener
Basically associated with the choice of tone. This function is a basic one because whenever we say
something we have a purpose in doing so. Intonation makes the same word or statement acquire a
different meaning.
Attitudinal function: How is being said? It shows the speakers mood. Intonation alone without words can
show attitude. Its not what is being said, but the way we say it. It refers to the mood of the speaker or
attitude towards the addressee or the message. The effect or attitude is mainly to be found in the extent
of a fall or rise and the variations of pitch in the head or pre head.
FEATURES FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE TONIC SYLLABLE
Pitch peak: refers to the highest pitched syllable within a given intonation unit.
Kinetic tone: involves pitch movement
Loudness peak: refers to the loudest syllable within an intonation unit
Tempo marking: refers to the speed of deliver in the syllable concerned. It is marked by a relative length
compared to a surrounding syllable.
Tone and grammatical structures
Parentheses: Additional information, the speaker adds in the middle. Comment made by the speaker, but
not related to the content of the message. Commonly inserted between two sense groups without
affecting its intonation= Low rise with low head, low key
Afterthoughts: Additional information, judgment made by the speaker, muttered comment added to a
statement, low rise but with low heads, low key, added to the end, ideas that occurred to the speaker as
he finishes his remarks, may take a group apart or may be seen as the tail of the previous group
Apposition: The relationship between two or more items which are identical in reference or else the
reference must be included in the reference of the other
Relative clauses: Non-defining generally take two groups. Intonation helps disambiguate defining and
non-defining relative clauses
Reporting clauses:
a) Initial reporting clauses: When the reporting clause is grammatically complete in itself, a falling
tone can be used and a fall rise divided is used when the reporting clause needs a falling tone in
order to express a contrast.
b) Medial reporting clauses: Inversion of subject and verb, the subject takes the stress.
c) Final reporting clauses: Usually non tonic in final position, tertiaries usually from the tail
Tonal sequences:
Rising tone on a non-final group followed by a FALLING TONE on a final group (the most common tonal
sequence) it typically occurs on adverbials, noun phrase, subjects, or on subordinate or coordinate
clauses.
Falling tone on the first group followed by a rising (low rise) on the second group. It typically occurs on
adverbials or on tag questions or the reversed polarity kind where the listener is given considerable
latitude to disagree.
Falling tone on the first group and a falling tone on the second group, this is frequent on structures
involving reversed polarity tags, where the speaker is demanding agreement, or on structures involving
adverbials on the reinforcing type.
Definite falls:
Simple independent statements
Declarative questions
Answers to yes/no questions
Straightforward agreement
To contradict
Wh- questions
Yes/no questions
Repeated questions
Tag questions
Exclamations
Warnings
Commands
Interjections
Calling someone by name
Greetings
Farewells