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Table of Contents
Introduction to System Analysis and Design ........................................................................................................................... 3
System Analysis and Design ................................................................................................................................................ 3
Information Technology (IT) ............................................................................................................................................... 3
Information System (IS) ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Classifications of Information System Business Functions .............................................................................................. 3
Federation of Information Systems .................................................................................................................................... 4
Classes of Information Systems .......................................................................................................................................... 4
PLAYERS IN THE SYSTEMS GAME ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Types of Workers ................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Stakeholder ......................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Perspectives or Stakeholders .............................................................................................................................................. 7
Computer Ethics .................................................................................................................................................................. 7
INFORMATION SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS ............................................................................................................................ 8
Focuses for Information Systems ........................................................................................................................................ 8
INFORMATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................................................................. 9
Process of System Development / Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) ...................................................................... 9
Principles of System Development ................................................................................................................................... 10
System Development Tools and Techniques .................................................................................................................... 10
System Development Method .......................................................................................................................................... 10
Planning and Modeling a Systems Development Projects ............................................................................................... 10
The SDLC Waterfall Model / Phases.................................................................................................................................. 10
Project Identification and Initiation .................................................................................................................................. 10
Alternative Routes through a Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 11
Automated Tools and Technology .................................................................................................................................... 12
PROJECT MANAGEMENT....................................................................................................................................................... 13
Measures of Project Success ............................................................................................................................................. 13
Causes of Project Failure ................................................................................................................................................... 13
Project Manager Competencies ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Project Management Functions ........................................................................................................................................ 14
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................................... 14
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Model-Driven Analysis Methods ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Accelerated Analysis Methods .......................................................................................................................................... 15
Requirements Discovery Methods .................................................................................................................................... 15
Systems Analysis Phases ................................................................................................................................................... 15
Cause-and-Effect Analysis ................................................................................................................................................. 15
System Improvement Objectives ...................................................................................................................................... 15
Business Requirements ..................................................................................................................................................... 16
Logical System Models ...................................................................................................................................................... 16
Feasibility Analyses ........................................................................................................................................................... 16
REQUIREMENTSDISCOVERY .................................................................................................................................................. 16
Introduction to Requirements Discovery .......................................................................................................................... 16
Types of Requirements ..................................................................................................................................................... 16
Types of Nonfunctional Requirements ............................................................................................................................. 17



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Introduction to System Analysis and Design
System Analysis and Design
- A step-by-step process for developing high quality information systems.
Information Technology (IT)
- Refers to the combination of hardware and software products and services that people use to manage, access,
communicates and share information.
1

- A contemporary term that describes the combination of computer technology (hardware and software) with
telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice networks).
Information System (IS)
- Combines information technology, people and data to support business requirements
- An arrangement of people, data, processes, communications, and information technology that interact to
support and improve day-to-day operations in a business as well as support the problem-solving and decision
making needs of management and users.
2

Classifications of Information System Business Functions
1. Front-Office Information Systems support business functions that reach out to customers (or constituents).
a. Marketing
b. Sales
c. Customer management
2. Back-Office Information Systems support internal business operations and interact with suppliers (of materials,
equipment, supplies, and services).
a. Human resources
b. Financial management
c. Manufacturing
d. Inventory control


1
(Shelly, Cashman, & Rosenblatt, 2007)
2
(Dittman, 2000)
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Federation of Information Systems

- The above illustration highlights the following:
o Many organizations purchase their back-office systems in the form of enterprise resource planning (ERP)
products such as SAP, PeopleSoft, and Oracle.
o The ERP industry is trying to expand into the front-office applications.
o It might be noted that electronic commerce and business extensions are being added to both front- and
back-office applications in order to streamline interfaces to both customers and suppliers.
E-commerce is being driven by the Internet (and private extranets).
E-business is being enabled by intranets.

Classes of Information Systems
- Transaction Processing Systems
o Systems are information system applications that capture and process data about business transactions
o Includes data maintenance, which provides for custodial updates to stored data
o Business Process Redesign (BPR) is the study, analysis, and redesign of fundamental business
(transaction) processes to reduce costs and/or improve value added to the business.
- Management Information Systems (MIS)
o An information system application that provides for management-oriented reporting. These reports are
usually generated on a predetermined schedule and appear in a prearranged format
o Provides job-related information to support users at all levels of a company. This system can analyze
transactional data, generate information needed to manage and control business processes, and
provide information that leads to a better decision-making
o Also referred to as Management Reporting and Business Support Systems (BSS)
- Decision Support Systems (DSS)
o An information system application that provides its users with decision-oriented information whenever
a decision-making situation arises. When applied to executive managers, these systems are sometimes
called executive information systems (EIS)
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A data warehouse is a read-only, informational database that is populated with detailed,
summary, and exception data and information generated by other transaction and management
information systems. The data warehouse can then be accessed by end-users and managers
with DSS tools that generate a virtually limitless variety of information in support of
unstructured decisions
- Expert Systems (ES)
o A programmed decision-making information system that captures and reproduces the knowledge and
expertise of an expert problem solver or decision maker and then simulates the thinking or actions
of that expert.
o Expert systems are implemented with artificial intelligence technology that captures, stores, and
provides access to the reasoning of the experts
- Office Automation Systems (OAS)
o Also known as User Productivity Software
o Support the wide range of business office activities that provide for improved work flow and
communications between workers, regardless of whether or not those workers are located in the same
office.
o Types of OAS
Personal Information Systems (PIS) are those designed to meet the needs of a single user. They
are designed to boost an individuals productivity.
Work Group Information Systems (WGIS) are those designed to meet the needs of a work
group. They are designed to boost the groups productivity.
Groupware programs run on a company intranet and enables users to share data,
collaborate on projects, and work in teams.
Information Systems Architecture (ISA) provides a unifying framework into which various people with different
perspectives can organize and view the fundamental building blocks of information systems.
PLAYERS IN THE SYSTEMS GAME
Types of Workers
- Information workers are those workers whose jobs involve the creation, collection, processing, distribution, and
use of information. Also known as white-collar workers.
- Knowledge workers are a subset of information workers whose responsibilities are based on a specialized body
of knowledge.
o Typically a knowledge worker has a degree or credential in some subject area (hence, they are often
called subject area experts). Examples include engineers, scientists, accountants, lawyers, etc.
Stakeholder
- A stakeholder is any person who has an interest in an existing or new information system. Stakeholders can be
technical or nontechnical workers.
- For information systems, the stakeholders can be classified as:
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o System owners are the information systems sponsors and chief advocates. They are usually responsible
for funding the project to develop, operate, and maintain the information system.
o System users are the people who use or are affected by the information system on a regular basis
capturing, validating, entering, responding to, storing, and exchanging data and information. A common
synonym is client.
Types of System Users
Internal users
o Clerical and service workers
o Technical and professional staff
o Supervisors, middle managers, and executive managers
o Remote and mobile users (internal but disconnected)
External users
o Systems Analysts study the problems and needs of an organization to determine how people, data,
processes, communications, and information technology can best accomplish improvements for the
business.
When information technology is used, the analyst is responsible for:
The efficient capture of data from its business source,
The flow of that data to the computer,
The processing and storage of that data by the computer, and
The flow of useful and timely information back to the business and its people.
Variation of System Analysts Title
A Business Analyst is a systems analyst that specializes in business problem analysis and
technology-independent requirements analysis.
A Programmer/Analyst (or analyst/programmer) includes the responsibilities of both
the computer programmer and the systems analyst.
Other synonyms for systems analyst include:
o Systems consultant
o Systems architect
o Systems engineer
o Information engineer
o Systems integrator
Skills Required by Systems Analysts
Working knowledge of information technology
Computer programming experience and expertise
General business knowledge
Problem-solving skills
Interpersonal communication skills
Interpersonal relations skills
Flexibility and adaptability
Character and ethics
Systems analysis and design skills
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o System Designers translate system users business requirements and constraints into technical
solutions. They design the computer files, databases, inputs, outputs, screens, networks, and programs
that will meet the system users requirements.
o System Builders construct the information system components based on the design specifications from
the system designers. In many cases, the system designer and builder for a component are one and the
same.
o IT vendors and consultants
Perspectives or Stakeholders
- System owners pay for the system to be built and maintained.
- System users use the system to perform or support the work to be completed.
- System designers design the system to meet the users requirements.
- System builders construct, test, and deliver the system into operation.
- Systems analysts facilitate the development of information systems and computer applications by bridging the
communications gap that exists between nontechnical system owners and users and technical system designers
and builders.
- IT vendors and consultants sell hardware, software, and services to businesses for incorporation into their
information systems.
Computer Ethics
- The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics
1. Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people.
2. Thou shalt not interfere with other people's computer work.
3. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people's computer files.
4. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal.
5. Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness.
6. Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
7. Thou shalt not use other people's computer resources without authorization or proper compensation.
8. Thou shalt not appropriate other people's intellectual output.
9. Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are
designing.
10. Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that insure consideration and respect for your fellow human

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INFORMATION SYSTEM BUILDING BLOCKS
Focuses for Information Systems
1. Datathe raw material used to create useful information.
2. Processesthe activities (including management) that carry out the mission of the business.
3. Interfaceshow the system interfaces with its users and other information systems.
Focus on Data
- System owners perspective
o Business knowledge is the insight that is gained from timely, accurate, and relevant information. (Recall
that information is a product of raw data.)
- System users perspective
o Data requirements are a representation of users data in terms of entities, attributes, relationships, and
rules. Data requirements should be expressed in a format that is independent of the technology that can
or will be used to store the data.
- System designers perspective
o Database schema
- System builders perspective
o Database management system
Focus on Process
- System owners perspective
o Business functions are ongoing activities that support the business. Functions can be decomposed into
other sub functions and eventually into processes that do specific tasks.
o A cross-functional information system supports relevant business processes from several business
functions without regard to traditional organizational boundaries such as divisions, departments,
centers, and offices.
- System users perspectives
o Business processes are activities that respond to business events. Business processes are the work
performed by the system.
o Process requirements are a representation of the users business processes in terms of activities, data
flows, or work flow.
o A policy is a set of rules that govern a business process.
o A procedure is a step-by-step set of instructions and logic for accomplishing a business process.
- System designers perspectives
o An application schema is a model that communicates how selected business processes are, or will be,
implemented using the software and hardware.
o Software specifications represent the technical design of business processes to be automated or
supported by computer programs to be written by system builders.
- System builders perspectives
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o Application programs are language-based, machine-readable representations of what a software
process is supposed to do, or how a software process is supposed to accomplish its task.
o Prototyping is a technique for quickly building a functioning, but incomplete model of the information
system using rapid application development tools.
Focus on Interface
- System users perspectives
o Interface requirements are a representation of the users inputs and outputs.
- System designers perspective
o User dialogues describe how the user moves from window-to-window, interacting with the application
programs to perform useful work.
- System builders perspective
o Middleware is a layer of utility software that sits in between application software and systems software
to transparently integrate differing technologies so that they can interoperate.
INFORMATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
Process of System Development / Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
- A system development process is a set of activities, methods, best practices, deliverables, and automated tools
that stakeholders use to develop and maintain information systems and software.
- A system life cycle divides the life of an information system into two stages, systems development and systems
operation and support.
- A System Development Methodology is a very formal and precise system development process that a set of
activities, methods, best practices, deliverables, and automated tools that system developers and project
managers are to use to develop and maintain information systems and software.

-
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Principles of System Development
- Planning, stick to an overall development plan
- Get the owners and users involved.
- Listening is very important
- Use a problem-solving approach.
- Establish phases and activities.
- Establish standards.
- Justify systems as capital investments.
- Dont be afraid to cancel or revise scope.
- Divide and conquer.
- Design systems for growth and change.
System Development Tools and Techniques
- Modeling
- Prototyping
- Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) Tools
System Development Method
- Structured Analysis
- Object-Oriented Analysis
Planning and Modeling a Systems Development Projects
Predictive Model
Adaptive Model
The SDLC Waterfall Model / Phases
- Systems Planning
o Preliminary Investigation
Feasibility Study
- Systems Analysis
o Purpose of this phase is to build the logical model of the new system
o Requirement Modeling
o System Requirements Document
- Systems Design
o System Design Specification Document
- Systems Implementation
- Systems Operation, Support and Security
Project Identification and Initiation
- Problems are undesirable situations that prevent the organization from fully achieving its purpose, goals, and/or
objectives.
- Opportunities are chances to improve the organization even in the absence of specific problems.
- Directives are new requirements that are imposed by management, government, or some external influence.
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The PIECES Problem-Solving Framework
P the need to improve performance
I the need to improve information (and data)
E the need to improve economics, control costs, or increase profits
C the need to improve control or security
E the need to improve efficiency of people and processes
S the need to improve service to customers, suppliers, partners, employees, etc.

Cross life cycle activities are activities that overlap many or all phases of the methodology.
- Fact-finding
- Documentation and presentation
- Feasibility analysis
- Process and project management
Alternative Routes through a Methodology
- Model-Driven Development (MDD)
- Rapid Application Development (RAD)
- Commercial Off-the-Shelf Software (COTS)
- Maintenance and Reengineering
- Hybrids of the above
Model Driven Development (MDD)
- Modeling is the act of drawing one or more graphical representations (or pictures) of a system. Modeling is a
communication technique based upon the old saying, a picture is worth a thousand words.
- Model-Driven Development techniques emphasize the drawing of models to help visualize and analyze
problems, define business requirements, and design information systems.
Rapid Application Development (RAD)
- Emphasize extensive user involvement in the rapid and evolutionary construction of working prototypes of a
system to accelerate the system development process.
- The rapid application development route is most typically associated with prototyping, JAD, and incremental
or iterative approaches to system development
- RAD is based on building prototypes that evolve into finished systems (often using time boxing)
o A prototype is a smaller-scale, representative or working model of the users requirements or a
proposed design for an information system.
o A time box is a nonextendable period of time, usually 60-120 days, by which a candidate system must be
placed into operation.
- The rapid application development approach is most commonly associated with an incremental or iterative
approach to system development. It is very popular for smaller and relatively structured projects in which
requirements are fairly well understood from the beginning of the project.
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Commercial Off-the-Shelf Software Route
- Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) software is a software package or solution that is purchased to support one or
more business functions and information systems.
- COTS has become extraordinarily important to aspiring systems analysts because an ever-increasing percentage
of all information systems are purchased, not built in-house.
Automated Tools and Technology
- Computer-Aided Systems Engineering (CASE) tools
o Software programs that automate or support the drawing and analysis of system models and provide for
the translation of system models into application programs.
A CASE repository is a system developers database. It is a place where developers can store
system models, detailed descriptions and specifications, and other products of system
development. Synonyms include dictionary and encyclopedia.
Forward engineering requires the systems analyst to draw system models, either from scratch
or from templates. The resulting models are subsequently transformed into program code.
Reverse engineering allows a CASE tool to read existing program code and transform that code
into a representative system model that can be edited and refined by the systems analyst
- Application Development Environments (ADEs)
o Integrated software development tools that provide all the facilities necessary to develop new
application software with maximum speed and quality. A common synonym is integrated development
environment (IDE)
o ADE facilities may include:
Programming languages or interpreters
Interface construction tools
Middleware
Testing tools
Version control tools
Help authoring tools
Repository links
- Process and Project Managers
o A process manager is an automated tool that helps to document and manage a methodology and
routes, its deliverables, and quality management standards.
o A project manager is an automated tool to help plan system development activities (preferably using
the approved methodology), estimate and assign resources (including people and costs), schedule
activities and resources, monitor progress against schedule and budget, control and modify schedule
and resources, and report project progress

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PROJECT MANAGEMENT
A Project is a [temporary] sequence of unique, complex, and connected activities having one goal or purpose and that
must be completed by specific time, within budget, and according to specification.
Project Management is the process of scoping, planning, staffing, organizing, directing, and controlling the development
of an acceptable system at a minimum cost within a specified time frame.
Process management is an ongoing activity that documents, manages the use of, and improves an organizations chosen
methodology (the process) for system development. Process management is concerned with the activities,
deliverables, and quality standards to be applied to all projects.
Measures of Project Success
- The resulting information system is acceptable to the customer.
- The system was delivered on time.
- The system was delivered within budget.
- The system development process had a minimal impact on ongoing business operations.
Causes of Project Failure
- Failure to establish upper-management commitment to the project
- Lack of organizations commitment to the system development methodology
- Taking shortcuts through or around the system development methodology
- Poor expectations management
- Premature commitment to a fixed budget and schedule
- Poor estimating techniques
- Over optimism
- The mythical man-month (Brooks, 1975)
- Inadequate people management skills
- Failure to adapt to business change
- Insufficient resources
- Failure to manage to the plan
Project Manager Competencies
- Business awareness
- Business partner orientation
- Commitment to quality
- Initiative
- Information gathering
- Analytical thinking
- Conceptual thinking
- Interpersonal awareness
- Organizational awareness
- Anticipation of impact
- Resourceful use of influence
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- Motivating others
- Communication skills
- Developing others
- Monitoring and controlling
- Self-confidence
- Stress management
- Concern for credibility
- Flexibility
Project Management Functions
- Scoping
- Planning
- Estimating
- Scheduling
- Organizing
- Directing
- Controlling
- Closing
Joint Project Planning (JPP) is a strategy wherein all stakeholders in a project (meaning system owners, users, analysts,
designers, and builders) participate in a one-to-three day project management workshop, the result of which is
consensus agreement on project scope, schedule, resources, and budget. (Of course, subsequent workshops or
meetings may be required to adjust scope, budget, and schedule.)
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems Analysis is a problem-solving technique that decomposes a system into its component pieces for the purpose of
studying how well those component parts work and interact to accomplish their purpose.
Systems Design (also called systems synthesis) is a complementary problem-solving technique (to systems analysis) that
reassembles a systems component pieces back into a complete systemhopefully, an improved system. This may
involves adding, deleting, and changing pieces relative to the original system.
Information Systems Analysis is defined as those development phases in a project that primarily focus on the business
problem, independent of any technology that can or will be used to implement a solution to that problem.
Model-Driven Analysis Methods
Model-Driven Analysis emphasizes the drawing of pictorial system models to document and validate both existing
and/or proposed systems. Ultimately, the system model becomes the blueprint for designing and constructing an
improved system.
A Model is a representation of either reality or vision. Just as a picture is worth a thousand words, most models use
pictures to represent the reality or vision.
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Accelerated Analysis Methods
Accelerated Analysis approaches emphasize the construction of prototypes to more rapidly identify business and user
requirements for a new system.
A Prototype is a small-scale, incomplete, but working sample of a desired system. Prototypes cater to the Ill know
what I want when I see it way of thinking that is characteristic of many users and managers.
Discovery prototyping (sometimes called requirements prototyping) is used to identify the users business requirements
by having them react to a quick-and-dirty implementation of those requirements.
Rapid Architecture Analysis is an approach that attempts to derive system models from existing systems or discovery
prototypes.
Reverse Engineering Technology reads the program code for a database, application program, and/or user interface and
automatically generates the equivalent system model.
Requirements Discovery Methods
- Requirements discovery includes those techniques to be used by systems analysts to identify or extract system
problems and solution requirements from the user community.
o Fact-finding (or information gathering) is a classical set of techniques used to collect information about
system problems, opportunities, solution requirements, and priorities.
Sampling
Research
Observation
Questionnaires and surveys
Interviews
o Joint requirements planning (JRP) techniques use facilitated workshops to bring together all of the
system owners, system users, systems analysts, and some systems designer and builders to jointly
perform systems analysis.
Systems Analysis Phases
- Preliminary Investigation Phase
- Problem Analysis Phase
- Requirements Analysis Phase
- Decision Analysis Phase
Cause-and-Effect Analysis
- A technique in which problems are studied to determine their causes and effects.
- In practice, effects can be symptomatic of more deeply rooted or basic problems which, in turn, must be
analyzed for causes and effects until such a time as the causes and effects do not yield symptoms of other
problems.
System Improvement Objectives
- An objective is a measure of success. It is something that you expect to achieve, if given sufficient resources.
o Reduce the number of uncollectible customer accounts by 50 percent within the next year.
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o Increase by 25 percent the number of loan applications that can be processed during an eight-hour shift.
o Decrease by 50 percent the time required to reschedule a production lot when a workstation
malfunctions.
- A constraint is something that will limit your flexibility in defining a solution to your objectives. Essentially,
constraints cannot be changed.
Business Requirements
- A functional requirement is a description of activities and services a system must provide.
- A nonfunctional requirement is a description of other features, characteristics, and constraints that define a
satisfactory system.
Logical System Models
- Depict what a system is or what a system must donot how the system will be implemented. Because logical
models depict the essential requirements of a system, they are sometimes called essential system models.
o Process models (e.g., data flow diagrams)
o Data models (e.g., entity relationship diagrams)
o Interface models (e.g., context diagrams)
o Object models (e.g., Uniform Modeling Language diagrams)
Feasibility Analyses
- Technical feasibility. Is the solution technically practical? Does our staff have the technical expertise to design
and build this solution?
- Operational feasibility. Will the solution fulfill the users requirements? To what degree? How will the solution
change the users work environment? How do users feel about such a solution?
- Economic feasibility. Is the solution cost-effective?
- Schedule feasibility. Can the solution be designed and implemented within an acceptable time period?
REQUIREMENTSDISCOVERY
Introduction to Requirements Discovery
Requirements discovery includes those techniques to be used by systems analysts to identify or extract system
problems and solution requirements from the user community.
Problem analysis is the activity of identifying the problem, understanding the problem (including causes and effects),
and understanding any constraints that may limit the solution.
A system requirement (also called a business requirement) is a description of the needs and desires for an information
system. A requirement may describe functions, features (attributes), and constraints.
Types of Requirements
- Functional Requirement
o A function or feature that must be included in an information system in order to satisfy the business
need and be acceptable to the users.
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o A functional requirement is an action of the system and usually is written using an action verb phrase.
For example:
The system should process a checking account deposit
The system should calculate the GPA for a student
The system should capture the account holder identification information
- Nonfunctional requirement
o A description of the features, characteristics, and attributes of the system as well as any constraints that
may limit the boundaries of the proposed solution.
o Examples of nonfunctional requirements.
Be user friendly
Be able to accommodate users at different physical locations
Types of Nonfunctional Requirements
- Performance
o Performance requirements represent the performance the system is required to exhibit to meet the
needs of users.
What is the acceptable throughput rate?
What is the acceptable response time?
- Information
o Information requirements represent the information that is pertinent to the users in terms of content,
timeliness, accuracy, and format.
What are the necessary inputs and outputs? When must they happen?
What is the required data to be stored?
How current must the information be?
What are the interfaces to external systems?
- Economics
o Economy requirements represent the need for the system to reduce costs or increase profits.
What are the areas of the system where costs must be reduced?
How much should costs be reduced or profits be increased?
What are the budgetary limits?
What is the timetable for development?
- Control
o Control requirements represent the environment in which the system must
- Efficiency
- Service