17

3. Laplace (s-) transforms

Further reading: Modeling, Analysis, and Control of Dynamic Systems, pages 46-50

Lets first look at a few characteristics of s before examining the actual definition of s .

The Laplace-s does not necessarily have to be a real number, it can also be a complex number, like

, with

s can therefore be represented as a 2-dimensional vector:

ss can be added, for example

Also note the simple fact that in this case, where

can be drawn as the vector from

the endpoint of

to the endpoint of

if both

and

are drawn as starting at (0,0) of the

plane.
Therefore, for example () can be drawn as:



The angle of s is

)

Therefore, in the example above

The size of s is

||

ss can be multiplied, for example

)(

)


18

Is in this case |

| |

||

| ?

|

||

| (

| |

||

| if

Is

)
(

)
(

if

To picture it :



Defining the s-transform:

In this section Im going to refer to the Laplace transform of a signal as F(s), but keep in mind that
F(s) can in general also refer to the Laplace transform of a transfer function, as referred to before.
The context will make it clear what is meant.

() [()] ()

The convention is to write the Laplace transform in the corresponding capital letter where the time
function was written in the small letter, in other words () () .


19

The Laplace transform of a transfer function can be defined as follows.


()

()

()


So the transfer function as a function of s, is the ratio of the output (function of s) divided by the
input (function of s).
Therefore the output can be written as the input x the transfer function.

An important formula for deriving s-transforms:

Remember that

[() ()]

() () () () .

() () () ()

() ()

In this formula:
One component is integrated once but the integral () is used twice; and
The other component is differentiated once and the derivative

() is used once.


Examples and useful derivations:


Unitary step u(t):

() [()]

Step f(t):



()

20

Decay ()

:

()

()
)

Sine () :

() []

[ (

{[ (

() (

[]

Likewise it can be shown that:
[ ]

( )

Own work:

Derive the following equation:

[

]

( )

21












Consider a function (

) that is delayed by

with respect to () .
[f(t - t
0
) = f(0) only at t = t
0
]



[(

)] (

Let

[(

)] ()
(

, because

since

is a constant

[()]

[(

()

In other words, the Laplace of a function delayed by

, equals

times the Laplace of the non-

delayed function.


22

Integration:

[() ] [()]

{[()] [

() (

()

()

For the purpose of this course, the last term can be ignored.

represents integration

Differentiation:

[

()]

()

[()

() ()

() ()

For the purpose of this course, the last term can be ignored.
represents differentiation

Connecting s to frequency response and the steady state gain of a transfer:
The transfer function G(s) of a network, dynamic model, or whatever that can be represented by a s-
transform, can be transformed to a frequency transfer by substituting , with in rad/s.

Remember that , with f in Hz.

Because of this, the DC (frequency = 0) or steady state gain of a transfer is given by:

()

Example:

()

()

|()|
()

()

()

[ ] |()|
23

Own work: Calculate the gain, phase and Steady state gain of the transfer function:

()(

)
(

)(

)




















24

Impedances (Z) and dynamics in terms of s :

Further reading: Modeling, Analysis, and Control of Dynamic Systems, pages 173-176


Impedance is the ratio of voltage applied over current flowing in a component or system of
components.

Resistor:

() () , v(t) = voltage, i(t) = current, R = resistance, in (ohm)
() ()

Inductor:

()
()

L = inductance, in H (henry)
() () ()

Capacitor:

()
()

C = capacitance, in F (farad)

() () ()
()

()

Dynamics:

The following equations can be found in dynamics, but they can also be more complicated.
It is important to see how differential equations are converted to Laplace transforms and then to
parts of block diagrams.

()
()

, F(t) = force, in N (newton), m = mass, in kg, v(t) = velocity or speed, in m/s

() ()
()

()


()
()

, T(t) = torque, in Nm (newton-meter), J = inertia, in kg.m

2
,
(t) = angular speed, in rad/s

() ()
25

()

()

() () ()

()
() () ()

()

From the previous equations, the following block diagrams follow straightforward:





Consider the following dynamics system:

The following equations are applicable for it [x(t) = position, v(t) = speed, a(t) = acceleration]:

()

()

() ()
() ()
() ()

Written in Laplace:

()

()

() ()
() ()
() ()

From these last equations follows the block diagram:



26

Series and parallel:

Remember that the resistance (or impedance) of two resistors in series is:

And the resistance (or impedance) of them in parallel is:

What is the impedance of a resistor and inductor in series?

Answer: R + sL

What is the impedance of a resistor and capacitor in series?

Answer:

Own work:

What is the impedance of a resistor and capacitor in parallel?





Answer:

Own work:

What is the impedance of an inductor and capacitor in series?





Answer:

27

Own work:

What is the impedance of an inductor and capacitor in parallel?





Answer:

Own work:

Write down the Laplace equations and draw a block diagram for a system described by the following
equations:
()

()

()
()

()
()

()

()

()

()