Aoptics Instruments

General Remarks
• Analysis generally involves the laws

of reflection and refraction
C apte
Chapter • Analysis uses the procedures of
geometrical optics
Optical Instruments • To explain certain phenomena
phenomena, the
wave nature of light
g must be used
Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University
25 1 The Camera
25.1
• The Camera
• The single-lens
photographic
h t hi camera iis
an optical instrument
• Components
– Light-tight box
– Converging lens
• Produces a real image
– Film behind the lens
• Receives the image
Photography
g p y lenses Photography
lenses
Photography lenses are complex! Especially zoom lenses
lenses.
Modern lenses can
have up
p to 20
elements!
Canon 17-85mm
f/3.5-4.5 zoom
Canon EF 600mm f/4L IS

USM Super Telephoto Lens
Double Gauss Petzval
17 elements in 13 groups
$12,000
These are older designs

designs.
F-
f-number of lens
number
The F-number, “f / #”, of a lens is the ratio of its focal length and its
diameter.
D U'
f
f - number = f f
D
f
The f-number describes the cone angle of the rays that form an image. d1 f f
The f-number off a lens determines
i four
f important
i parameters d2
• The brightness of the image
• The depth of field
• The resolution of the lens Fast
• A lens with a low f-number is a “fast” lens
• Simple cameras usually have a fixed focal length and a fixed aperture size, with an ƒ- f/# =1 f/# =2
number of about 11 (large depth of field)
small f-number lenses collect more light but are harder to engineer.
Numeric Aperture
The numeric aperture (N.A.) is the product of the index of refraction (in Optical devices: Camera
image space) with the sine of the half-angle of the cone of illumination
Multi--element lens
Multi
N.A. = n′ sin U ′
U'
U
D
The f-number of a lens, f/#, is the ratio of the focal length, f, of a lens system to AS=Iris Diaphragm Film: edges
the diameter
diameter, d,
d of its entrance pupil.
pupil F/# is inversely proportional to twice the
Numerical Aperture, NADr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University constitute field stop
Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University
Camera Camera
Most common camera is the so so--called 35 mm
camera ( refers to the film size) Object s = 1 m Image s’ ≈ 5.25 cm
Object s = ∞ Image s’ = 5.0 cm
Thus to focus object
j between s = 1 m and infinity,
y,
27 mm we only have to move the lens about 0.25 cm =
2.5mm
For most cameras, this is about the limit and it is
34 mm difficult to focus on objects with s < 1 m
Multi element lens usually has a focal length of f =50 mm
Camera: Brightness of image f-number
number of a lens
Brightness of image is determined by the amount of
light falling on the film.
film
Each point on the film subtends a solid angle f
A= = F#
Define f-
f-number,, D
This is a measure of the speed of the lens

D 1
dA π D 2 π D 2
dΩ = 2 =
4 s '2
=
4f2 D’ Small f# (big aperture) I large , t short
Ip 2
r
Large f# (small aperture) I small, t long
f A
IIrradiance
di att any point
i t
on film is proportional
to (D/f)2
f
D
=A f-number d2 f
s’ ≈ f
1 F# =1
1 F# =1.2
12
I p Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University
A2
Standard settings on camera lenses Aperture - F #

f# = f/D (f#)2
12
1.2 15
1.5 • F# = f/d
1.8 3.2 • Amount of light proportional to 1/(F#)2
28
2.8 78
7.8
• Usual Description
4.0 16
– , , 1.2, 1.8, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, ,
56
5.6 31 5
31.5
• Fractional F Stop
8 64
11 121
16 256
22 484
Good lenses, f# = 1.2 or 1.8 (very fast) Difficult to get f/

f/11
Photo imaging with a camera lens
Total exposure on Film
In ordinary 35 mm camera, the image is very small
light
(i.e. reduced many times compared with the object
Also, the lens is limited in the distance it can move relative to the film
⎛ watts ⎞
E = I ⎜ 2 ⎟ • t (exp osuretime) film Telephoto and wide angle lens are used in camera
⎝ m ⎠ γ2 large,
g , h2 small
J exposure
= 2
m Wide-angle
n1h1γ1= n2h2γ2 system
Exposure time is varied by the shutter which has settings, γ2 small, h2 large
1/1000 1/500,
1/1000, 1/500 1/250,
1/250 1/100,
1/100 1/50
Again in steps of factor of 2 Telephoto
system
Telephoto lens
Wide angle and Telephoto images
L1 L2
d 50 mm
A larger image can be achieved with a telephoto lens
Choose back focal length (bfl ≈ 50 mm)
Th lenses
Then l can be
b interchanged
i h d (easier
( i to design)
d i )
The idea is to increase the effective focal length (and
hence imageg distance)) of the camera lens.
Example (telephoto) Solution
• Assume that
A h the h ffront llens h
has +50
50 mm focal
f l llength
h and
d the
h second
d for this telephoto lens the focal length is:
lens -25 mm focal length. The distance between both is 30mm
determine. f f (+50)(−25)
F= 1
= 2
= +250mm
• (a) the focal length. f + f − d + 50 − 25 − 30
1 2
• (b) the actual physical length of the system.
f1=+50mm f2=-25mm
film
H2
250 mm
The focal
Th f l length
l th off the
th system
t is
i the
th di
distance
t from
f the
th
second principal plane, H2 of the system to the filme in the
film
30mm camera.
Depth of Field
Solution
Only one plane is imaged (i.e., is in focus) at a time. But we’d like
objects
j near this p
plane to at least be almost in focus. The range
g of
• Physical length of the system distances in acceptable focus is called the depth of field.
P It depends
p on how much of the lens is used, that is, the aperture.
p
P= 1
+P P1=1/(+50)x10 -2)=+20
2
d 2
1 − P( )
1
P2=1/(-25X10 -2) =- 40
+ 20 n Object Out of focus

Out-of-focus
Size of blur in
P= + ( −40) = 10 plane
1 − (+20)(0.03) out-of-focus
2
Image
plane
1 1
a = = = 0.1m = 100mm
f
2
P 102
The physical length is:
30+100 = 130 mm = 13 cm Focal
Aperture
plane
It is acceptable.
The smaller the aperture, the more the depth of field.
Depth
p of field example
p
Depth of field A large depth of field
isn’t always desirable.
The range of distances in acceptable focus is called the depth of field .

f/32 (very small aperture;
large depth of field)
D b D
=
f + ∆f ∆f ∆f
f
∆f 〈〈 f
D b f/5 (relatively large aperture;
= b small depth of field)
f ∆f D
A small depth of field is also
fb
∆f = f ∆f desirable for p
portraits.
D
Depth of Field
If d is small enough (e.g. less than grain size of film emulsion ~ 1 µm)
then the image of these points willill be acceptable
Depth of Field (DOF)
s2 s2’
S`1=S`0+X
s1 s1’ dso ' A f/D

A=f/D
x=
D
s o f ( f + Ad )
s1 =
d f 2 + Ads o α α d
s o f ( f − Ad ) D
s2 =
x x f 2 − Ads o x x
so so’ so’
Depth of field Depth of field
Strongly
g y dependent on the f# of the lens
Suppose, so = 4m, f = 5 cm, d = 40 µm
2 Adso ( so − f ) f 2
DOF = s2 − s1 = 1200
f 4 − A 2 d 2 so
2 s f ( f + Ad ) 10,000
s1 = o 2 ≈
f + Adso 25 + 1.6 A 1000
800 s2
s1,s2 ((cm)
e.g. d = 1 µm, f# = A = 4, f = 5 cm, so = 6 m DOF = s2 – s1 600
D th off field
Depth fi ld (focus)
(f )
400
DOF = 0.114 m
so f ( f − Ad ) 10,000 200
s1
i.e. so = 6 ± 0. 06 m s2 = ≈
f − Adso
2
25 − 1.6 A
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
f#
Aperture Aperture have an image in the optical system
• E
Example
l
i=14
• Other effects and usage of F=9cm Exit pupil
apertures Entrance
E t
pupil
• A stop 8 mm in diameter is placed halfway between

image and lens. What is the diameter and where is
the place of the exit pupil?.
Do the exit pupil and entrance pupil lie on
Solution the same side?
o =
if
=
(14 )( 9 )
= − 25 . 2 cm Yes!
f − i 9 − 14 f
If the stop is moved even closer
To the lens (with in the focal length)
− 25 . 2
o′ = = − 12 . 6 cm Place of entrance pupil
The exit p
pupil
p is virtual
2
and lie on the entrance side
o ′f ( − 12 . 6 )( 9 ) Entrance pupil
i′ = = = 31 . 6 cm Place of Exit pupil
o′ + f ( − 12 . 6 ) + 9
Exit pupil
DXP i′
=
DEP o′
D i′ (0.8)(31.5)
D = EP
= = 2cm Diameter of Exit pupil
o′ − 12.6
XP
Solution
Aperture of combination of lenses
P=?
• The focal length of the first lens is:
The entrance
Th t pupilil is
i th
the p=+8
p +8
.
image of the aperture
• (1/8)(100)=12.5cm
• The second lens must have:
formed by the first lens
f -(12.5-8)=-
(12 5 8)= 4.5
4 5 cm
The exit pupil is the image The entrance pupil is the image of the aperture formed by first lens;
of the aperture formed by
the second lens 8cm of (4)(−12.5)
i= 2
= = +5.88cm To the right of the first lens
o + f (4) + (12.5)
2
Example: The exit pupil is the image of the aperture formed by second lens
in the Fig. the power of the minus lens is unknown. The system is afocal, The (−4)(−4.5)
apertue diameter is 15 mm and is placed half way between the lenses. i′ = = −2.12cm To the left of second lens
(−4) + (−4.5)
(a)- where is the entrance pupil?
(b) -where is the exit pupil ?
(c) -What are their diameters?
Summery
Solution (cont
(cont,)) The effects of aperture (stop
(stop, Diaphragm) in
the optical system
Th are a the
They h same place.
l Whi
Which
h iis typical
i l off an afocal
f l system
The intrance pupil size: • 1- control of the entrance and the exit
pupils
i′
D =
D
aperture
=
(15)(58.8)
= 22mm • 2
2- effect on the depth of field
o′
EP
40
• 3-reduces the aberrations
The exit puple size
(15)(21.2)
D = xp
= 8mm
40
The Eye
The Eye
y • The normal eye focuses
light and produces a sharp
image
• Essential parts of the eye
– Cornea – light passes
through this transparent
structure
– Aqueous Humor – clear
q
liquid behind the cornea
The cornea, iris, and lens Human Eye, Relaxed
20 mm
-The cornea is a thin membrane that has
an index of refraction of around 1.38.
-The cornea the eye and refracts light 15 mm

(more than the lens does!) as it enters
the eye.
eye
-Some light leaks through the
cornea, especially when it’s blue. n’ = 1.33
-The iris controls the size of the pupil, an opening that allows light F
to enter through. H H’ F’
-The lens is jelly-like lens with an index of refraction of about 1.44.
-This
Thi lens
l b d so th
bends thatt th
the vision
i i process can b
be fi
fine ttuned.
d
- 3.6 mm
-The ciliary's muscles bend and adjust the lens.
7.2 mm P = 66.7 D
Accommodation HYPERMETROPIA: TYPES

• Refers to changes undergone by lens to
enable imaging of closer objects • Axial: Eye short relative to its focal power
((ie can have normal length
g or be
• Power of lens must increase
pathologically shortened)
• There is a limit to such accommodation
h
however and d objects
bj iinside
id one’s
’ ““near • Refractive/Index: Inadequate refractive
point” cannot be imaged clearly power -> includes aphakia
• Near point of normal eye = 25 cm • Curvature: Curvature of refracting surface
• Fully accommodated eye P = 70.7 70 7 for s = too flat eg cornea plana
25 cm, s’ = 2 cm
Myopia:
y p Near Sightedness
g Myopia – Near Sightedness
Far point of the eye is much less than ∞, e.g. lf
Eyeball too large ( or power of lens too large) Must
ust move
o e object closer
c ose to eye to obtain
obta a clear
c ea image
age
Normal N.P.
Myopic
y p Myopic
y p
Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University F.P. N.P. Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University
Myopia Laser Eye surgery

e.g.
g lf = 2m
Radial Keratotomy – Introduce radial cuts to the
cornea of the elongated, myopic eyeball
H
How will
ill the
th
1 n' 1
+ = near point be Usually use the 10.
10.6 µm line of a CO2 laser for
affected? almost 100
100%
% absorption
p by
y the corneal tissue Blurred
l f s' f vision
0.5 + 66
66..7 = 67
67..2 D
P=-0 5 D
P=-0.5 i relaxed
is l d power off eye – too
t large!
l !
To move far point to ∞, must decrease power to 66
66..7
Use negative lens with P = -0.5 D
Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University Front view Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University
Laser Eye
y surgery
g y Hyperopia
yp p – Far Sightedness
g
Radial
ad a Keratotomy
e atoto y – Introduce
t oduce radial
ad a cuts to the
t e
Eyeball too small – or lens of eye can’t fully accommodate
cornea of the elongated, myopic eyeball
Usually use the 10
10..6 µm line of a CO2 laser for Image
g of close objects
j formed behind retina
almost 100
100%
% absorption by the corneal tissue
Distinct
Flattening
vision
Front view Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University
Hyperopia – Far Sightedness Correction lenses for myopia and hyperopia

Suppose near point = 1m
1 nn'
+ = 1 + 66.7 = 67.7 D
1 s'
P=+3 D
Recall that for a near point of 25 cm, we need 70.
70.7D
Use a positive lens with 3 D power to correct this person’s
vision (e.g. to enable them to read)
Usually means they can no longer see distant objects - Need bifocals
Astigmatism is a common
Astigmatism
problem in the eye.
Astigmatism due to eye’s lens being elliptical,
which causes the focus in the vertical to differ
from horizontal.
Vertical focus
Astigmatism may be corrected using a

cylindrical lens
lens.
In this example, the lens focuses in
the horizontal only since vertical is
already in focus.
Astigmatism
Slenen
S e e tab
table
e Diff
Different focal
f l length
l h for
f inclined
i li d rays
d
tagθ = d/D =1.5x10-3/5 =1`

(eye resolution)
ASTIGMATISM: TYPES ASTIGMATISM: TYPES (Regular)
• 1
1. Regular:
R l Principal
P i i l meridians
idi att 90 • Regular: Principal meridians at 90
degrees to each other and at/near 90 & g
degrees to each other and at/near 90 &
180 degrees. (WTR & ATR) 180 degrees. (WTR & ATR)
• 2. Oblique:
q Principal
p meridians at 90
degrees to each other but NOT at/near 90
& 180
80 deg
degrees.
ees
• 3. Irregular: Principal meridians NOT at
90 degrees to each other
other. WTR ATR
ASTIGMATISM: TYPES (oblique) ASTIGMATISM: TYPES (irregular)
• Oblique: Principal meridians at 90 • 3. Irregular: Principal meridians NOT at

degrees
g to each other but NOT at/near 90 90 degrees
g to each other.
& 180 degrees.
54
CLASSIFICATION: REGULAR
cylindrical
. 0
ASTIG’M
54
• . • 1. Simple: One o.t. foci falls on the retina. Can
spherical 54 be hypermetropic (other focus behind the retina)
or myopic (other focus in front o.t. retina)
55
• 2. Compound: Neither focus on retina but both
either in front or behind it. Can, again, be
spherical
p 55
hypermetropic or myopic
• 3. Mixed: One focus in front & other focus
52 behind the retina
astigmatism 57
Simple Astigmatism Compound Astigmatism

• . Simple Astigmatism: One of the foci falls on the • 2. Compound: Neither focus on retina but
retina. Can be hypermetropic (other focus behind the both either in front or behind it. Can,, again,
g ,
retina) or myopic (other focus in front of the retina
be hypermetropic or myopic
Retina 54
Retina 57
C
Cornea
Simple myopic
57 Compound myopic 58
astigmatism
g
astigmatism
Retina 51 Retina 51
Simple hypermetropic 54 52
Compound
astigmatism hypermetropic
astigmatism
Mixed astigmatism REGULAR ASTIGMATISM ILLUSTRATED
• 3. Mixed: One focus in front & other focus

behind the retina • Retina a = compound hypermetropic
• Retina b = simple hypermetropic
• Retina c = mixed
• Retina d = simple myopic
57 • Retina e = compound myopic
52
COMPONENTS OF THE
.
OPHTHALMIC
• The ophthalmic prescription can be broken
•The Eye spectacles into three sets of numbers
( y g
(eyeglass)
) – Sphere
– Cylinder
– Axis
Sphere-Cylinder-Axis
+2D, +3D,x650
Sphere Cylinder
• The first set of numbers represents the • The second set of numbers represents the
p
spherical p
portion of the p
prescription
p g
amount of astigmatism correction ((cylinder
y
-3.00
00--2.00
00xx180 +3.00--2.00x180
00
(sphere) (cylinder) (axis) (sphere) (cylinder) (axis)
Cylinder and astigmatism

Axis
system
• Cylindrical lenses have curvature and • The third set of numbers represents the
refracting power in only one meridian. proper
p p lens orientation for correcting
g
• They may be convex or concave. astigmatism (axis)
• Cylinders focus light rays to a focal line
line.
• A spherocylinder is a combination of a +3.00-2.00x180
00 180
( h )
(sphere) ( li d )
(cylinder) ( i )
(axis)
sphere and a cylinder (astigmatism).
Axis Spherical
• In cylindrical lenses, the meridian • If it is a spherical only prescription the
perpendicular
p p to the meridian with p
word sphere or abbreviation sphp should be
900
curvature is the axis. 135 0
450 used to indicate the prescription is
0 Axis=900 1800 1800 complete without cylinder
3
+3 00 sph
+3.00
51
+3 54
3
Axis=180 0 Spectacl
+ = 54
0 e
51 +3
3
Cylinder Astigmatism
• If there is a cylinder component, there • If there is a astigmatism component, there
must also be an axis noted must be an sphere,
p , cylinder
y and axis
noted
0
+3.00 Cyl X900
+3.00 -2
2.00
00 x180
180
(sphere) (cylinder) (axis)
3
Example Prism
• What is the following prescription? which kind of • Prism may be incorporated into eyeglass
astigmatism is the eye?
57
+1 -4 54 54
g contact
lenses and in some cases rigid
0 -4
58
450 lenses to correct diplopia.
= + =
• If prism is prescribed the power of prism
prism,
+1 cyl. - 4 sph x45 axis expressed in diopters as well as the
orientation off the prism’s
’ base must be
+1 Cyl., -4 Sph., x45 included.
Oblique astigmatism
Prism Prism
• ∆ is the symbol for Prism
• BI (BASE IN) (Used to treat Exotropia/phoria)

• +3.00-2.00x180
+3 00-2 00x180 1 ∆ B I
• BO (BASE OUT) (Used to treat Esotropia/phoria) (1 prism diopter base in)
• BU (BASE UP) (Used to treat Hypotropia/phoria)
• BD (BASE DOWN) (Used to treat Hypertropia/phoria)
Add power Add power
• Amount of plus power required for near
use in addition to the p
power required
q for • +3
+3.00-2.00x180
00 2 00x180
distance.
+2.50 add
Transpositions of prescriptions Transpositions of prescriptions
The mathematic manipulation is as follows:

• Prescriptions containing spherocylindrical
l
lenses may b
be written
itt iin minus-cylinder
i li d or • algebraically add the cylindrical power to
plus-cylinder form. the sphere
• Converting from one form to another is • reverse the sign of the cylinder
called transposition
transposition. • add or subtract 90
90˚ to make the new axis
180˚ or less
Other measurements required to
Transpositions of prescriptions
make eyeglasses
Interpupillary distance (pd or ipd)
+3 00 2 00 180 becomes
+3.00-2.00x180 b +1.00+2.00x090
+1 00+2 00 090 • Measurement is very important when
making eyeglasses
• It indicates
i di t where
h tto place
l th
the optical
ti l
centers in the finished lenses.
• The optical center of a lens denotes the
point of optimal vision
vision.
Other measurements required to Other measurements required to

make eyeglasses make eyeglasses
Interpupillary distance (pd or ipd) Vertex distance
• (This measurement may be included with • This measurement is the distance from the
the prescription or the measurement may back surface of an eyeglass lens to the
be taken by the optician making the front surface of the patient’s
patient s cornea.
cornea
glasses.) • This measurement becomes an important
factor in prescriptions greater than +5.00
or -5.00
5.00 diopters.
V.D
eyeglass eye
pd pd
Other measurements required to Other measurements required to
make eyeglasses make eyeglasses
Vertex distance Base curve
• Lens “blanks” supplied by manufacturers have a single
• (This measurement may be included with curve the base curve.
curve, curve Starting with this curve the lab
technician grinds additional curves on the lens surface to
the prescription or the measurement may achieve the final power.
be taken by the optician making the • Patients can become accustomed to wearing a particular
base curve. If a new pair of glasses is made with a
glasses, when applicable. This different base curve the patient may experience
measurement is performed
f using a di
discomfort,
f t ranging
i from
f mild
ild tto severe. Th
The ophthalmic
hth l i
technician may be responsible for measuring the base
distometer.)) curve of eyeglasses. This is done using a Geneva lens
clock
l k.
Other information required to •The doctor “fitting”

fitting the contact
dispense contact lenses lenses is not required to use the
• Th
The specifications
ifi ti ffor a patient’s
ti t’ contact
t t llenses patient’ss existing eyeglass
patient
differs from a prescription for eyeglasses, prescription and may require the
• Depending on the office policy regarding the patient to have a complete exam
exam.
fitting of contact lenses the following information
mayy be provided to patients for a contact lens • The doctor that prescribes the
prescription. contact lenses should see the patient
• If it is the policy of the office NOT to fit contact in follow-up to confirm the fit of the
lenses a patient may take their eyeglass
lenses, contact
t t lenses
l and
d make
k
prescription to an optometrist or ophthalmologist
who fits contact lenses to perform a contact lens modifications as necessary.
fitting.
Other information required to
dispense contact lenses
• spherical equivalent (when applicable)
• keratometry readings
• lens diameter
• b
base curve
• lens thickness
• material of the lens
• water content (if soft)
• specific brand or type
• edge
g blends or peripheral
p p curves ((if any)
y)
• lens tint (if any)
• wearing instructions
to
Spectacle Prescription
Dr. Laser Wong, B.Sc., M.Sc., PhD.
O P T O M E T R I S T S
Laser Centre,, Rm CD623,, The Hongg Kongg Polytechnic
y University,
y,
Hunghom, Kowloon, Hong Kong (852) 2766 5677
SPECTACLE LENS PRESCRIPTION
Name:__________________________ Date:_________________
SPHERE CYLINDER AXIS PRISM BASE ADD

Rx
O.D.
D.V.
O.S.
O.D.
N.V.
OS
O.S.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS_____________________________________
DR_____________________________________
D.V.
This part of the prescription describes the corrections for Distant Vision.
N.V.
"Near vision."
O.D.
O D is an abbreviation for "oculus
O.D. oculus dexter,
dexter " Latin for "right
right eye.
eye "
O.S. • Simple Magnifier
O.S. is an abbreviation for "oculus sinister," Latin for "left eye."
Sphere
A minus sign denotes near-sightedness or myopia while a plus sign denotes far-sightedness or hyperopia.
Cylinder
If there is a value under this heading
heading, then you have astigmatism.
astigmatism
Axis
As mentioned above, a special cylindrical lens is needed in order to correct astigmatism. Not only does the
strength of the cylindrical lens need to be specified, but the lens itself must be rotated into a specific position in
order to provide the proper vision correction. The axis represents the amount of rotation of the cylindrical lens
in degrees ranging from 1 to 180
Prism
This is a box on the prescription form that is rarely filled in. Occasionally, when the two eyes are not
properly aligned and looking directly at the same thing, prism can be ground into the lenses in order to re-
align them.
Add
If there is a value under the 'add' heading, then you have a bifocal prescription.
Simple magnifier
Simple Magnifier In order to see something better,
better we need a larger image of it on the
retina of our eyes. We can see something better--make a larger image
on the retina--by bringing it closer to our eyes.
• A simple magnifier consists of a single

converging
g g lens
• This device is used to increase the
apparent size of an object
• The size of an image formed on the retina N.P
depends on the angle subtended by the

eye
However, . . .
Our eyes are only able to focus a clear, sharp image from an object only so close. That distance is
called the near point of your eye. As you move an object closer than the near point, the image
formed on the retina become blurry and fuzzy.
Simple Magnifier The Size of a Magnified Image
• When an object is placed at the near point, the angle subtended is maximum
• A simple magnifier consists of a single converging lens – The near point is about 25 cm
• When the object is placed just inside the focal point of a converging lens, the lens forms a
• This device is used to increase the apparent size of an virtual, upright, and enlarged image
object
• The size of an image formed on the retina depends on the

angle subtended by the eye
• With a single lens, it is possible to achieve angular

magnification up to about 4 without serious aberrations
• With one or two additional lenses, which correct the

aberrations,
b ti a magnification
ifi ti off up to
t about
b t 20 can beb
achieved
Angular Magnification
• A
Angular
l magnification
ifi ti iis d
defined
fi d as
h • Compound Microscope
θ angle with lens p 25cm
m≡ = = =
θ o angle without lens h p
25cm
• The angular magnification is a maximum when the image formed by
the lens is at the near point of the eye
p ~ f cm
Calculated by
25cm
mmax =
f
i th
i.e. the shorter
h t th the ffocall llength
th th
the b
better
tt
Image Eye- Image
Compound Microscope(refractive ) Micro
Micro- Objective
plane #1 piece plane #2
scopes M1 M2
• A compound Microscopes work on the same principle as telescopes, except that

microscope consists j
the object is really
y close and we wish to magnify
g y it.
of two lenses When two lenses are used, it’s called a compound microscope.
– Gives greater
g Standard distances are s = 250 mm for the eyepiece and s = 160 mm
magnification than a for the objective, where s is the image distance beyond one focal
single lens length. In terms of s, the magnification of each lens is given by:
– The
Th objective
bj ti lens
l |M| = di / do = (f + s) [1/f – 1/(f+s)] = (f + s) / f – 1 = s / f
has a short focal
g , ƒo<1 cm
length,
– The ocular lens
(eyepiece) has a
f
focal th ƒe off a
l llength, Note: q1≈L and p1≈f0
few cm Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University
Microscope Compound Microscope

Microscope, cont
cont.
terminology
• The lenses are separated by a distance L

– L is much greater than either focal length
• The approach to analyze the image formation
is the same as for any two lenses in a row
– The image formed by the first lens becomes the
object for the second lens
• The image seen by the eye, I2, is virtual,
inverted and very much enlarged
Magnifications of the Compound
Overall magnification
Microscope
• The lateral magnification of the objective is • The overall magnification of the
q1 L microscope is the product of the individual
M1 = − ≈− g
magnifications
p1 ƒ0
• The angular magnification of the eyepiece of
L ⎛ 25 cm ⎞
the microscope is m = M 1 me = − ⎜⎜
25 cm ƒo ⎝ ƒe ⎠
me =
ƒe
Other Considerations with a Microscope Reflector microscope

• Th
The ability
bilit off an optical
ti l microscope
i tto view
i an object
bj t Many creative designs exist for microscope
depends on the size of the object relative to the
g of the light
wavelength g used to observe it objectives.
j Example:
p the Burch reflectingg
– For example, you could not observe an atom (d ≈ 0.1 microscope objective:
nm) with visible light (λ ≈ 500 nm)
Object To eyepiece
• SOME CAULCULATION about the • Telescopes
p
microscope+matrix is needed
The History of the Telescope
• HISTORY OF TELESCOPE • It is a common misconception that Galileo

invented the first telescopes
p
• In fact, Hans Lippershey, a Dutch
spectacle make
make, is credited with designing
the first telescope
• Galileo is the first person known to have
turned a telescope to the sky
Telescopes
Galileo’s
Galileo s Telescope (
(cont’d)
t’d)
The Galilean Telescope
• He was astonished by what he saw
– The rings
g of Saturn
– Stars in the Milky Way
– The moons of Jupiter
– Spots on the sun
• He also went blind f1 < 0 f2 > 0
The analysis of this telescope is a homework problem!
Telescopes Today Three Types of Telescopes

• Telescopes have come a long way since • Optical
then – Refracting
g
• The biggest single telescopes have main – Reflecting
mirrors that are over 12 meters in • Radio
R di
diameter! p
• Space
• Some telescopes are actually arrays that
are made of dozens of smaller telescopes
linked together
Refracting and Reflecting
How Telescopes Work
Telescopes
• There are two main types of optical
p
telescopes
– Refracting telescopes use lenses to focus
light to a point
– Reflecting telescopes use mirrors to focus
the light
– Catadioptric telescopes are a combination of
th ttwo
the
Anatomy of a Telescope Focusing Light

• Although there are many types of • The idea of focusing light is important
telescopes,
p , all have some basic keyy p
parts: – Telescopes
p collect light
g from a large
g area
• The aperture is simply the part of the – By focusing the light, we concentrate its
telescope that lets light in power
• The primary bends the light, bringing the • The focal plane is the plane where the
rays to a point li ht rays meett
light
• The secondary aids in this process • The focal length is the distance from the
primary lens (or mirror) to the focal plane
The Focal Plane Anatomy of a Telescope
• If we put our eye at the focal plane, we • The optical tube protects the rest of the
would onlyy see a bright
g p point p and blocks stray
telescope y rays
y of light
g
• The eye piece straightens out the rays of • The finder is a small telescope used for
light so our eye can see the image honing in on objects
• If we move the eyepiece out of the focal • The detector is the thing that actually
plane, the image will be distorted records the light
– Could be your eye
Type of Telescopes : Refractor

Refracting Telescope
• The two lenses are arranged

so that the objective forms a
real, inverted image of a
distance object
• The image is near the focal
Advantage point of the eyepiece
● glass surface inside the tube is sealed from the atmosphere
• The two lenses are separated
Æ rarely needs cleaning → optical alignment is stable by the distance ƒo + ƒe, which
corresponds to the length of
● no air currents and effects of temperature change the tube
Æ images are steadier and sharper • The eyepiece forms an
enlarged, inverted image of the
first image N t θ≈h’/fe and
Note: d θ0 ≈h’/f0
Telescope Terminology Refractor Telescops
Newton
Cassegrain
g Schwarzschid
Gregory

Disadvantage
● chromatic aberration
chromatic aberration
Æ lens focuses differently with wavelength
● Produces a rainbow of colors around the image
image.
(the shorter the wavelength, the greater the amount of refraction)
● Because of the wave nature of light, the longer wavelength light
● li
light
ht is
i absorbed
b b dbby th
the llens (redder colors) is bent less than the shorter wavelength light (bluer
Æ opaque to UV, IR region colors) as it passes through the lens.
●This is used in prisms to produce pretty rainbows, but can it ruin an

● large lens is quite heavy
image!
Æ the lens tends to deform under its own weight
Æ hard to make large lens
Æ the largest refractor : 1.02m of Yerkes Observatory
● difficult to make a glass lens with no imperfections inside the

lens and with a perfect curvature on both sides of the lens
Type of Telescopes : Reflector
Reflecting Telescope
Telescope, Newtonian Focus
• The incoming rays are

reflected from the mirror and
converge toward point A
– At A, a photographic plate
or other detector could be
Advantage placed
l d
● no chromatic aberration
• A small flat mirror, M, reflects
the light toward an opening in
● can be made very BIG!
th side
the id andd passes into
i t an
● cheaper eyepiece
● one side of the telescope's objective needs to be perfect
Type of Telescopes : Reflector Type of Telescopes : Reflector

Disadvantage 10 meter Keck telescope at the W.M Keck Observatory
● Tube is open to the outside and optics need frequent cleaning
Æ disturbing the optical alignment
● Often a secondary mirror is used to redirect the light into a more
convenient viewing spot. The secondary mirror and its supports can
produce diffraction effects: bright objects have spikes (the
“christmas star effect”).
Spherical Aberration Spherical Aberration
●If the mirror is not curved enough paraboloid or if the glass lens is Example: Hubble Space Telescope
not shaped correctly.
● Soon after HST put in orbit (1990), found that could not find good
focus of images (circle of least confusion very ugly).

● Not all of the light is focused to the same point
● Too flat by 2 microns (1/50 the width of a human hair)
Æ 2.5 years after lunch, install corrective optics (COSTAR)
In the case of paraboloid, all parallel rays come to a single focus, which
is not the case for a sphere
sphere.
Spherical Aberration
Before COSTAR After COSTAR

Design of Reflector Telescope Type of Telescopes : Reflector
(1) Prime Focus (3) Cassegrain
● small f ratio ● convenient attaching instruments
● inconvenient to suspend
dbbulky
lk pieces off equipment
(4) Coude
(2) Newtonian ● large heavy instruments (e.g.
(e g spectrograph)
● for small telescope → need separate room
● attaching heavy instruments → unbalance the telescope ● altitude-azimuth mounting
→ Nasmyth platform
Type of Telescopes : Reflector Type of Telescopes : Reflector

● Same telescope (with fixed tube) can be reconfigured to different
● Multiple focus port
focal lengths.
Æ Different
ff focal
f lengths lead to different
ff “plate scales” (image
sizes) and allows different fields of view or resolution for the same
focal plane area.
● Can have different instruments mounted at different “ports”.
● Traditional reflectors (e.g., Palomar 200", Kitt Peak 4-m) were

often designed
g with at least FOUR configurations
g possible:
p
- Prime focus: Usually a wide field of view camera.

- Cassgrain focus: Spectrograph of higher resolution camera.
- Newtonian focus: Spectrograph of higher resolution camera.
- Coude focus: VERY high resolution spectrograph.
spectrograph
Type of Telescopes : Reflector
● Note the problem of the Prime Focus: It is in the beam of the
telescope and so difficult to access.

•The
h 3 Main Functions
off Telescopes
T l
Prime focus of the Palomar 200 inch telescope

Vignetting
The 3 Main Functions of Telescopes
1. GATHER LIGHT – make things appear brighter
2. RESOLVE – allow finer detail to be seen
3. j
MAGNIFY – make objects seem bigger/closer
gg /
Marc Pollefeys
Powers of a Telescope : Light-Gathering Power Powers of a Telescope : Light-Gathering Power
● The ability of a telescope to collect a lot more light than the human ● Light gathering power Æ the area of the objective
eye.
eye ● For the circular objectives
●The telescope acts as a “light bucket‘”, collecting all of the photons. area = π × (diameter of objective)2/4
Æ a bigger objective collects more light in a given time interval.
● Example:
Æ the pupils of your eyes enlarge at night so that more light reaches
a 40 centimeter mirror has four times the light-gathering
40-centimeter light gathering power as
the retinas . a 20-centimeter mirror
● Making
M ki faint
f i t images
i brighter
b i ht isi critical
iti l if the
th light
li ht is
i going
i tot be
b
dispersed to make a spectrum.
Light Gathering Power

Resolution
• The ability of an optical
system to distinguish
between closely y spaced
p
objects is limited due to
the wave nature of light
• Consider two not
coherent light sources
((like stars))
• Because of diffraction,
the images consist of
bright central regions
The light-gathering power of a telescope is directly proportional to the area flanked by weaker bright
of the objective lens, which in turn is proportional to the square of the lens
and dark ringsg
(a) Images are resolved and (b) not
di
diameter resolved (sources too close)
Rayleigh’s
Rayleigh s Criterion Just Resolved
θmin
• If the
th two
t sources are separated
t d so that
th t their
th i
central maxima do not overlap, their images are • If viewed through a slit of width
said to be resolved a, and applying Rayleigh
Rayleigh’ss
criterion, the limiting angle of
• The limiting condition for resolution is Rayleigh’s resolution is
Criterion
λ
– When the central maximum of one image falls on the θ min =
first minimum of another image, they images are said a
to be just resolved
• For the images to be resolved,
– The images are just resolved when their angular
the angle subtended by the two
separation satisfies Rayleigh’s criterion
sources at the slit must greater
than θmin
Barely Resolved (Left) and Not Resolved

Resolution with Circular Apertures
(Right)
• The diffraction pattern of a circular aperture consists of a
central, circular bright region surrounded by
progressively fainter rings
• The limiting angle of resolution depends on the diameter,
D, of the aperture
λ
θ min = 1.22 For circular
pattern
D
Barely Not
resolved resolved
Resolving Power of a Diffraction Grating,
Resolving Power of a Diffraction Grating cont
• If λ1 and λ2 are two nearly equal wavelengths between
which the grating spectrometer can just barely • A grating with a high resolving power can distinguish small
distinguish the resolving power, R, of the grating is
distinguish, differences in wavelength
λ λ • The resolving power increases with order number

R= = – R = Nm
λ2 − λ1 ∆λ • N is the number of lines illuminated
• m is the order number
n mber
– All the wavelengths are nearly the same – All wavelengths are indistinguishable for the zeroth-order
maximum
m=1
m
• m = 0 so R = 0
m
m=0
m
m=2
Powers of a Telescope : Resolving Power Powers of a Telescope : Resolving Power
● Ability to make us see really small details and see sharp images. ● ΘR (arcsec) = 252,000 × (λ/D)
j
Æ Objects that are so close together
g in the sky
y that they
y blur
● Th desire
The d i iis tto make
k as small
ll as possible.
ibl
together into a single blob are easily seen as separate objects
with a good telescope. ● This can be done by making the observation wavelength small
(e.g., use UV instead of visible light) or by making the objective
● The resolving power = absolute smallest angle that can be resolved
diameter large.
ΘR (arcsec) = 252,000 × (λ/D) ●Example: ΘR of the 40-cm telescope is one-half the for the 20-cm
telescope
g
where λ : observation wavelength
D : objective diameter ● Fluctuations in the
atmosphere
Æ seeing
i effect
ff
● Large size of radio telescope ● Example:

Æ Radio wavelengths are LARGE so the radio telescope must be
LARGE to get decent resolving power 1 Å = 0.1 nm = 10-10 m
6000 Å ~ 10-7 m = 10-5 cm for visible wavelength

● Example : Keck 10m telescope vs. 305m Arecibo Radio telescope
21 cm for radio wavelength λ λ
RF
= visible
D Radio − tescop
D optical
Æ wavelength diffrence ~ 106 21 10 −7
=
D radio −telescop
1
Æ 1m optical telescope D = 21 × 10 = 2 × 10 ≈ 10
6 6 6
Radio −telescop
Æ Need 106m (103km) radio telescope with comparable resolving

power of 1m optical telescope !
Powers of a Telescope : Resolving Power

Infrared spectroscopy
● Another way to increase the resolution is to connect telescopes
together
g to make an interferometer.
• . Æ large single telescope !
EXAMPLES of Interferometer EXAMPLES of Interferometer

● Veryy Large
g Arrayy ((VLA)) ● Veryy Long
g Baseline Array
y ((VLBA))
- This telescope is made of 27 radio dishes, each 25 meters in - a huge interferometer that uses ten telescopes placed in sites
diameter, on a Y-shaped track. from Hawaii to the Virgin Islands
- Fully
F ll extended,
t d d th the VVery L Array iis 36 kilometers
Large A kil t across and
d - 8,600
8 600 kilometers
kil t across anddh has a resolution
l ti as good
d as 0.0002
0 0002
has a resolution of around one arc second (depending on the radio arc second!
wavelength). - With a resolution about 50 times better than the Hubble Space
p
Telescope
●The Orbiting Very Long Baseline Interferometer (OVLBI) Another EXAMPLES of interferometer in optical telescope
- Astronomers are constructing g radio telescopes
p out in space
p that
will work in conjunction with ground-based radio telescopes to make ● the Keck Interferometer on Mauna Kea, Hawaii
interferometers much larger than the Earth.
●the Very Large Telescope of Paranal Observatory on Cerro Paranal in
the Atacama Desert, northern Chile.
Powers of a Telescope : Resolving Power Poor and Great Resolution
(i
(improved
d by
b using
i adaptive
d i optics)
i )
All have the same brightness
- The light in the bottom

images from the large
telescopes is just much more
Concentrated than for the
small telescopes.
- Exposure time with large

telescope is short !
Telescope images are degraded by the blurring effects of the atmosphere and
by light pollution
Powers of a Telescope : Magnifying Power light pollution

Telescope images are degraded by the blurring
● The ability of a telescope to enlarge images effects of the atmosphere and by light pollution
The least
Th
● l t iimportant
t t power off a telescope
t l because
b it enlarges
l any
distortions due to the telescope and atmosphere.
Æ A small,
small fuzzy faint blob becomes only a bigbig, fuzzy blob
blob. • Angular Resolution: A telescope
telescope’ss angular resolution, which
Æ the light becomes more spread out under higher magnification so indicates ability to see fine details, is limited by two key factors
the image appears fainter! • Diffraction is an intrinsic property of light waves
• Its effects can be minimized by using a larger objective lens or
● Magnifying power mirror
= ((focal length
g of objective)
j ) / ((focal length
g of eyepiece)
y p ) • The blurring effects of atmospheric turbulence can be minimized by
placing
l i th the ttelescope
l a top
t a tall
t ll mountain
t i with
ith very smooth
th air.
i
• They can be dramatically reduced by the use of adaptive optics and
can be eliminated entirely by placing the telescope in orbit
fT
M=
fE
Electromagnetic Spectrum for Telescope Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum for Telescope
THOUGHT PROBLEM TIME OUT:
1.What parts of the EM spectrum can astronomers explore from sea
level ?
2. What parts of the EM spectrum can astronomers explore from

high mountain tops?
3. What
3 Wh types off astronomy were only l possible
ibl with
i h the
h invention
i i off
high altitude balloons and rockets?
4. Why is there concern about “ozone holes” for people living near
the poles of the Earth? (Note: UV radiation is blocked primarily by
absorption of ozone molecules in the Earth's
Earth s atmosphere.)
atmosphere )
Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum for Telescope

Atmospheric Transparency
The Earth's atmosphere is opaque to most wavelengths in the

electromagnetic spectrum.
● This is good for lifeforms on Earth
Earth's
s surface,
surface because the more energetic
types of EM radiation are harmful.
● But obviously, this is not convenient for astronomers who want to
monitor the universe across the full EM spectrum.
spectrum (This is the main
motivation for space astronomy.)
● The
Th chart
h above
b shows
h the
h ability
bili off diff different wavelengths
l h to penetrate
the atmosphere. Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University
Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum for Telescope
Some places on the surface of the Earth are not high and dry
enough so airborne observatories are often used for infrared
astronomy.
astronomy
NASA's Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) is a 2.5-m telescope in

g 747 and should begin
a modified Boeing g flying
y g in a few years.
y
A radio telescope uses a large concave dish

to reflect radio waves to a focus
• Radio telescopes use
large reflecting
antennas or dishes to
focus radio waves
• Very large dishes
provide reasonably
sharp radio images
Radio Telescopes Hubble Space Telescope
• Large antenna that • Launched from the
receive parts of the Space Shuttle
spectrum other than • Had problems that
visible light. were later fixed while
in space.
• Able to see much
further than earth
bound telescopes
Detectors
• So, we collected all our light…now what?
• It doesn can t see
doesn’tt do us any good if we can’t
the light
• Of course, we always
l have
h our eyes,
but…
Photographic Plates Magnification
• When the photograph was invented, it • Astronomer’s do like magnification, too
revolutionized astronomyy – But note that it does not matter how much you
y
• You could expose of long periods of time magnify something…if you cannot resolve it,
magnification
g does yyou no g
good
and have a permanent record
– Think of a pixelated image
Pixelation Photographic Plates

• But photographic plates have lots of
shortcomings
g
• They over expose easily
• They
Th h have a non-linear
li response
ou cannot
• You ca ot actua
actuallyy cou
countt p
photons
oto s
• They are not very efficient
How CCDs work
CCDs
• CCDs revolutionized astronomy again
• CCD stands for charged coupled device
• This is the same technology at use in
di it l cameras
digital
Most digital cameras interleave different-

color filters CCDs
CCDs CCDs
• CCDs are great because
– Theyy are very
y efficient
– They allow you to take digital data…analyze
on computer
– They have a linear response
– They
Th h have a wide
id d dynamic
i range
CCDs Spectrographs
• CCDs are by far the most common • We don’t always want to make an image
detector in astronomyy • Sometimes,
Sometimes we want to split the light into
• Although some others exist, it is not worth its spectrum
talking about them here • We
W use spectrographs
t h for
f this
thi
Spectrographs Prisms
• There are two basic types of • Prisms work because light of different
p g p
spectrographs g
wavelengths takes a slightly
g y different ppath
– Prisms • Comes out at a different place, and is thus
– Gratings spread out
• Combining the two, we get Grisms
Spectrographs record the spectra of Spectrographs record the spectra of

astronomical objects. astronomical objects.
Observations at other wavelengths are
revealing previously invisible sights. Gratings
• Gratings are made up of hundreds or
UV infrared thousands of tiny yg grooves
• They use a phenomenon of light known as
diffraction to split the light
Mapp of
Ordinary
O di Orion
visible region
Grisms
• Grisms use both
effects
• Gratings and grisms
are the most
commonly used
spectrographs in
astronomy
Telescopes Image
plane #1
Image
plane #2
Keplerian M1 M2
telescope
• Lensometer
A telescope should image an object, but, because the object will
have a veryy small solid angle,
g , it should also increase its solid angle
g
significantly, so it looks bigger. So we’d like D to be large. And use
two lenses to square the effect.
⎡ M 0 ⎤
Oimaging = ⎢ where M = - di / do
⎣ −1/ f 1/ M ⎥⎦
Note that this is
⎡ M2 0 ⎤ ⎡ M1 0 ⎤ easy for the first
Otelescope =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −1/ f 1/ M ⎥ lens, as the object
⎣ − 1/ f 2 1/ M 2⎦⎣ 1 1⎦
is really far away!
⎡ M 1M 2 0 ⎤ So use di << do
=⎢ ⎥
⎣ − M / f − M /
1 Dr.2 G. Mirjalili, f
2 Physics
1 1/ M 1 M
Dept. Yazd ⎦
2University
for both lenses.
Dr. G. Mirjalili, Physics Dept. Yazd University
Lensometry Lensometer
–.
Lensometry measures four
What is Lensometry?
principal properties of lenses:
Lensometry is the procedure used to
measure the prescription of a patient’s
patient s • Spherical
p and cylindrical
y p
power
existing eyeglass lenses or the power of in diopters
contact
t t lenses.
l Although
Alth h some people l • Axis,
A i if cylindrical
li d i l
refer to this as neutralization, this is
technically incorrect. The term
• Prism,
Prism amount and direction
direction, if
pp
neutralization applies to retinoscopy.
py any
• Optical centers
How is Lensometry performed? Types of Lensometers

• Lensometers may be either manual or automated
automated.
Lensometry is performed with a specialized
There are several manufacturers for each.
instrument know as a lensometer.
• To perform manual lensometry,
lensometry the operator should
Manual
Lensometer
have a thorough understanding of lensometry as
well as optical principles
principles.
• Performing automated lensometry requires very
littl skill
little kill or knowledge
k l d off optics.
ti
• Automated lensometry may be quicker to perform
but in most cases the instrument is more expensive
Automated
Lensometer
to purchase than a manual lensometer.
The following principles may be
Performing Manual Lensometry
applied to all manual lensometers:
Although most manual lensometers look The first three steps in performing lensometry on
p a different brand name,, the
similar despite lenses of all types are:
buttons and knobs may be placed 1. Focusing the instrument eyepiece
differently on certain models and the mires 2. Positioning the eyeglass lens to be measured
may have a slightly different appearance. on the specific table (or frame support platform)
of the lensometer
The technique is the same for plus and
minus cylinder. 3. Measuring the sphere power and, if present
cylinder power and axis
axis, either plus or minus
cylinder form.
Eyepiece Focusing the Eyepiece

• Y
You mustt focus
f the
th eyepiece
i prior
i to
t
using the lensometer, failure to do so
could result in erroneous readings
• With no lens in the lensometer,, look
through the eyepiece of the instrument
• Turn the power wheel until the mires
(the perpendicular crossed lines),
viewed through the eyepiece
eyepiece, are totally
out of focus
Focusing the Eyepiece Positioning the eyeglass lens
Power wheel
• Turn the eyepiece toward the plus direction
• Slowly turn the eyepiece in the opposite
direction until the target is clear
• Turn the power wheel to focus the mires
• The mires should focus at a reading of zero
(plano)
Platform / table
• If the mires do not focus at plano, repeat
these
h steps from
f the
h beginning
b i i
Gimbal
Measure the sphere power

Power wheel
Align the lens so that the mires cross in the center

of the target (if unable consider prism)
Axis wheel
Thin “single”
Thin, single lines that represent the sphere Measuring the sphere power
• Turn the power wheel either direction to focus the
mires
if all the mires come into focus at the same time…
Record the number on the

power wheel,
This is a spherical only Rx
Perpindicular, widely spaced thick lines that represent the cylinder
Cylinder Cylinder
if all the mires do not come into focus at the same time • Algebraically add the number shown
now on the power wheel with the
number previously recorded as the
• Si
Simultaneously
lt l rotate
t t the
th axisi wheel
h l tot focus
f andd sphere this is the cylinder amount,
sphere, amount
straighten the thin sphere lines, record the number record the axis
on the power wheel,
wheel this is the sphere power
• Leaving the axis as it is, bring the thick lines into • To transpose the cylinder, rotate the
focus by turning the sphere wheel axis
a s 90
90˚and
a d sta
startt o
over
e
Lensometry technique for The absolute ppower of the bifocal segment
g is always
y
more plus (or less minus) than the sphere power in
multifocal lenses the upper (distance) portion of an eyeglass lens. The
If the glasses are multifocal the first step is to add
dd is
i the
th total
t t l difference
diff in
i dioptric
di t i power.
determine the distance Rx. For a traditional
lined segment add you would then reposition
the glasses so that the center of the bifocal
add is in the lensometer gimbal.
Measuring trifocal power
To measure the trifocal segment directly,

follow the same procedure as for the bifocal
segment, reading the distance segment first,
the intermediate segment second
second, and the
near segment last. It is standard for the
trifocal power to be 50
50%% of the bifocal power;
therefore the usual protocol would be not to
measure the power of the trifocal.
trifocal
Progressive add multifocal lenses Progressive add multifocal lenses
• When p performing g lensometryy on p
progressive-
g
•Progressive add lenses are different from
add eyeglasses try to select the area with the
traditional bifocal or trifocal eyeglasses in that there least distortion in both distance and the reading
are no visible segments dividing the distance and portions
ti off the
th lenses
l b
before
f taking
t ki a reading.
di
reading portions of the lenses.
• Because of the nature of the p progressive
g add,,
• In order to create this “no-line” appearance the the strongest portion of the add is close to the
manufacturing processes often produce unwanted bottom of the lens, so try to read the add as
cylinder power, distortion, or blurred transition close to the bottom of the lens as possible.
zones between the distance and near segments. • Other than these issues lensometry is performed
This can make lensometry a little tricky. the same way as with conventional multifocals.
Placement of optical
p centers Placement of optical
p centers
• Optimal
p vision correction is achieved when
looking through the optical center of the
eyeglass lens. The lensometer may be
usedd tto verify
if the
th position
iti off the
th optical
ti l
center of a lens. the picture on the left is an example
of properly aligned mires and
target, at this point you would dot
the lens
• Position the frame in the lensometer as if
performing
f i bbasici llensometry,
t make k sure
the frame is sitting flat on the platform and
is lined up properly
properly. Focus the mires and
center in the target.
Placement of optical centers Placement of optical centers
• If equipped, use the dotting device on • Once the optical center of both lenses
the lensometer to mark the lens. This has been found, a millimeter ruler is
mark will be the optical center. used to measure the distance between
• If there
th is
i no dotting
d tti d device,
i th
then use a the marks on the lenses
lenses.
nonpermanent marker to mark the • This distance should match the patient’s
approximate center of the lens. interpupillary distance unless there is
prism
p s in the
t e lenses.
e ses
Lensometry technique for prisms Lensometry technique for prisms
•LLensometryt measures nott only l • If prism

i is
i ground d iin th
the llens you
the power of a prism but also the will not be able to align the mires
orientation of the prism base. with the target.
• The prism orientation may be • As mentioned in the previous
base in (toward the nose)
nose), base chapter regarding optical centers
chapter, centers,
out (toward the temple), base up, if the pupil measurement is “off”off
or base down. prism will be induced.
Measuring prism power and orientation To measure the amount of prism
• OK, you can’t line the mires up with the • Count the number of circles from the
g
target…so yyou have pprism,, right?
g Now g to the center
central cross of the target
how do you find out how and what type?... of the mires (each circle represents 1
prism diopter)
the picture on the left is a
• Record the direction of the base
representation of mires that cannot
be aligned with the target due to
according to the displacement off the
prism (not drawn to scale)
mires ((example:
p if mires are displaced
p
down, the prism is base down)
Some lensometers are made to

compensate for prism
prism. If your
lensometer has a feature of this type,
please refer to the instruction manual THE END
for more information
information. Also some
lensometers have auxiliary prisms in Th k You!
Thank Y !
the case that there is more prism than
there are circles on the target.

Aoptics Instruments

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General Remarks

• Analysis generally involves the laws

Canon EF 600mm f/4L IS

These are older designs

This is a measure of the speed of the lens

Standard settings on camera lenses Aperture - F #

Good lenses, f# = 1.2 or 1.8 (very fast) Difficult to get f/

• (b) the actual physical length of the system.

+ 20 n Object Out of focus

The range of distances in acceptable focus is called the depth of field .

s1 s1’ dso ' A f/D

Aperture Aperture have an image in the optical system

• Other effects and usage of F=9cm Exit pupil

• A stop 8 mm in diameter is placed halfway between

-The cornea the eye and refracts light 15 mm

-The lens is jelly-like lens with an index of refraction of about 1.44.

Accommodation HYPERMETROPIA: TYPES

Myopia Laser Eye surgery

Hyperopia – Far Sightedness Correction lenses for myopia and hyperopia

Astigmatism may be corrected using a

tagθ = d/D =1.5x10-3/5 =1`

ASTIGMATISM: TYPES (oblique) ASTIGMATISM: TYPES (irregular)

• Oblique: Principal meridians at 90 • 3. Irregular: Principal meridians NOT at

Simple Astigmatism Compound Astigmatism

• 3. Mixed: One focus in front & other focus

Cylinder and astigmatism

• BI (BASE IN) (Used to treat Exotropia/phoria)

• BD (BASE DOWN) (Used to treat Hypertropia/phoria)

Transpositions of prescriptions Transpositions of prescriptions

The mathematic manipulation is as follows:

Other measurements required to Other measurements required to

Other information required to •The doctor “fitting”

SPHERE CYLINDER AXIS PRISM BASE ADD

• A simple magnifier consists of a single

depends on the angle subtended by the

• The size of an image formed on the retina depends on the

• With a single lens, it is possible to achieve angular

• With one or two additional lenses, which correct the

• A compound Microscopes work on the same principle as telescopes, except that

Microscope Compound Microscope

• The lenses are separated by a distance L

Other Considerations with a Microscope Reflector microscope

The History of the Telescope

• HISTORY OF TELESCOPE • It is a common misconception that Galileo

The analysis of this telescope is a homework problem!

Telescopes Today Three Types of Telescopes

Anatomy of a Telescope Focusing Light

Type of Telescopes : Refractor

• The two lenses are arranged

Type of Telescopes : Refractor

●This is used in prisms to produce pretty rainbows, but can it ruin an

● difficult to make a glass lens with no imperfections inside the

• The incoming rays are

Type of Telescopes : Reflector Type of Telescopes : Reflector

Æ disturbing the optical alignment

● Often a secondary mirror is used to redirect the light into a more

focus of images (circle of least confusion very ugly).

Before COSTAR After COSTAR

Type of Telescopes : Reflector Type of Telescopes : Reflector

● Can have different instruments mounted at different “ports”.

● Traditional reflectors (e.g., Palomar 200", Kitt Peak 4-m) were

- Prime focus: Usually a wide field of view camera.